IMMUNE SYSTEM

 The immune system is made up of special organs, cells and chemicals that fight infection
(microbes).

 The immune system is the body's defense against infectious organisms and other
invaders. Through a series of steps called the immune response, the immune system
attacks organisms and substances that invade body systems and cause disease.

 The immune system is made up of a network of cells, tissues, and organs that work
together to protect the body. One of the important cells involved are white blood cells, also
called leukocytes, which come in two basic types that combine to seek out and destroy
disease-causing organisms or substances.

FUNCTIONS OF IMMUNE SYSTEM

 to fight disease-causing germs (pathogens) like bacteria, viruses, parasites, or fungi, and
to remove them from the body,
 to recognize and neutralize harmful substances from the environment, and
 to fight disease-causing changes in the body, such as cancer cells.

TWO SUBSYSTEMS OF IMMUNE SYSTEM

1. INNATE IMMUNE SYSTEM

 provides a general defense against harmful germs and substances, so it is also called the
non-specific immune system.
 It mostly fights using immune cells such as natural killer cells and phagocytes (“eating
cells”).
 The main job of the innate immune system is to fight harmful substances and germs that
enter the body, for instance through the skin or digestive system.
2. ADAPTIVE IMMUNE SYSTEM
 makes antibodies and uses them to specifically fight certain germs that the body has
previously encounter.
 This is also known as an “acquired” (learned) or specific immune response.
 Because the adaptive immune system is constantly learning and adapting, the body can
also fight bacteria or viruses that change over time.
 LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
 The lymphatic system is a network of tissues, vessels and organs that work together to
move a colorless, watery fluid called lymph back into your circulatory system (your
bloodstream).

 Some 20 liters of plasma flow through the body’s arteries and smaller arteriole blood
vessels and capillaries every day. After delivering nutrients to the body’s cells and tissues
and receiving their waste products, about 17 liters are returned to the circulation by way of
veins. The remaining three liters seep through the capillaries and into the body’s tissues.

 The lymphatic system collects this excess fluid, now called lymph, from tissues in the body
and moves it along until it ultimately returns it to the bloodstream.

Functions of Lymphatic System

 Maintains fluid levels in your body: As just described, the lymphatic system collects excess
fluid that drains from cells and tissue throughout the body and returns it to the
bloodstream, which is then recirculated through the body.
 Absorbs fats from the digestive tract : Lymph includes fluids from the intestines that contain
fats and proteins and transports it back to the bloodstream.
 Protects your body against foreign invaders : The lymphatic system is part of the immune
system. It produces and releases lymphocytes (white blood cells) and other immune cells
that monitor and then destroy the foreign invaders — such as bacteria, viruses, parasites
and fungi — that enter the body.
 Transports and removes waste products and abnormal cells from the lymph.

Special structural features of lymphatic capillaries

 Parts of Lymphatic System

 Lymph: Lymph, also called lymphatic fluid, is a collection of the extra fluid that drains from
cells and tissues (that is not reabsorbed into the capillaries) plus other substances.

 Lymph nodes: Lymph nodes are bean-shaped glands that monitor and cleanse the lymph
as it filters through them. The nodes filter out the damaged cells and cancer cells.

 Lymphatic vessels: Lymphatic vessels are the network of capillaries (microvessels) and

large network of tubes located throughout the body that transport lymph away from
tissues.

 Collecting ducts: Lymphatic vessels empty the lymph into the right lymphatic duct and
left lymphatic duct (also called the thoracic duct). These ducts connect to the subclavian
vein, which returns lymph to your bloodstream.

 Spleen: The spleen filters and stores blood and produces white blood cells that fight
infection or disease.

 Thymus: This organ is located in the upper chest beneath the breast bone. It matures a
specific type of white blood cell that fights off foreign organisms.

 Tonsils and adenoid: These lymphoid organs trap pathogens from the food you eat and
air you breathe. They are your body’s first line of defense against foreign invaders.

 Bone marrow: This is the soft, spongy tissue in the center of certain bones, such as the
hip bone and breastbone. White blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets are made in the
bone marrow.

 Peyer’s patches: These are small masses of lymphatic tissue in the mucous membrane
that lines your small intestine. These lymphoid cells monitor and destroy bacteria in the
intestines.

 Appendix: Your appendix contains lymphoid tissue that can destroy bacteria before it
breaches the intestine wall during absorption. Scientists also believe the appendix plays a
role in housing “good bacteria” and repopulating our gut with good bacteria after an
infection has cleared.
LYMPHATIC CELLS
Natural killer (NK) cells
• Large lymphocytes that attack and destroy bacteria, transplanted tissue, host cells
infected with viruses or that have turned cancerous.
• Enemy cell is present, a natural killer cell secretes perforins which bore a hole in the
enemy cell membrane.
T lymphocytes (T cells)
 Mature in thymus.
B lymphocytes (B cells)
 Exposed to antigen develop into cells that produce antibodies called “plasma cells.”
o Activation causes proliferation and differentiation into plasma cells that produce
antibodies.
Macrophages
 Large, avidly phagocytic cells of connective tissue
 Develop from monocytes.
 Phagocytize tissue debris, dead neutrophils, bacteria, and other foreign matter.
 Process foreign matter and display antigenic fragments to certain T cells alerting immune
system to the presence of the enemy.
 Antigen-presenting cells (APCs)

FIVE TYPES OF LEUKOCYTES

NEUTROPHILS
• Wander in connective tissue killing bacteria.
• Can kill using phagocytosis and digestion.
EOSINOPHILS
• Found especially in mucous membranes.
• Guard against parasites, allergens (allergy-causing agents), and other pathogens
BASOPHILS
• Secrete chemicals that aid mobility and action of other leukocytes.
o Leukotrienes: activate and attract neutrophils and eosinophils

o Histamine: a vasodilator, which increases blood flow

  Speeds delivery of leukocytes to the area
o Heparin: inhibits clot formation

 Clots would impede leukocyte

mobility.
LYMPHOCYTES
• Three basic categories: T, B, and NK cells
o Circulating blood contains

 80% T cells
 15% B cells
 5% NK cells
• Many diverse functions
• most numerous cells of the immune system
MONOCYTES
• emigrate from the blood into connective tissues and transform into macrophages.
- cells move out of the circulatory system and into the tissues.

Response of Invasion
When the body is invaded or attacked by bacteria, viruses, or other pathogens, it has means of
defense:
1. The phagocytic immune response
2. The humoral or anti-body immune response
3. Cellular immune response

Humoral Immune Response

• It is characterized by the production of anti-bodies by B lymphocytes in response to a
specific antigen.
• Whereas B lymphocytes are responsible for the production of anti-bodies, both the
macrophages of natural immunity and the special T lymphocytes of cellular immunity are
involved in recognition.
Cellular Immune Response
• Involves the T lymphocytes, which can turn into special cytotoxic (or killer) T cells that can
attack the pathogens.
• Cellular reactions are initiated, with or without the assistance of macrophages, by the
binding of an antigen to an antigen receptor located on the surface of a T cell.
 SPECIAL SENSES (EAR)
 These are pair of ear in the human body which has primary function to hear and maintain
body balance. The ear has three sections divided into outer, middle and inner ear. The
outer ear has pinna which collects vibration in the air to produce sound whereas, external
auditory meatus are extended till ear drum. The ear drum is also known as tympanic nerve
is made of connective tissue and mucus membrane.

 The middle ear has three ossicles known as malleus, incus, and stapes. These are
responsible for increasing the transmission of sound waves inside the ear. There is a
Eustachian tube that equalizes the pressure on either side of the ear drum.

 The ear is divided into three major areas.

1. External ear structures are the auricle (pinna), external acoustic meatus, and
tympanic membrane (eardrum). Sound entering the external acoustic meatus
causes the eardrum to vibrate.
2. Middle ear structures are the ossicles and pharyngotympanic tube within the
tympanic cavity. Auditory ossicles transmit the vibratory motion from the
eardrum to the oval window. The pharyngotympanic tube allows pressure to be
equalized on both sides of the eardrum.
3. The internal ear, or bony labyrinth , consists of bony chambers (cochlea,
vestibule, and semicircular canals) in the temporal bone. The bony labyrinth
contains perilymph and membranous sacs filled with endolymph. Within the
membranous sacs of the vestibule and semicircular canals are equilibrium
receptors.

Functions of Ear
 Provides a sense of hearing.
 Has ability to perceive sound by detecting vibrations.