Nervous system regulates many aspects of ridges called gyri (which literally

homeostasis: means twisters)

o Sulci or sulcus is the depression
1. Respiratory rate
or groove
2. Blood pressure
o Both gyri and sulci make the
3. Body temperature
surface of cerebrum to appear
4. Sleep-wake cycle
highly folded or convoluted
5. Blood pH
o Other fissures or sulci divide
Central Nervous System each hemisphere into several
lobes named for the cranial bones
1. Brain – bilaterally symmetric, soft gelatinous that lie over them
structure, surrounded by its protective
covering called meninges, enclosed in its
bony cranium which is continuous to spinal
cord at foramen magnum at the base of the
skull
• At birth, brain weighs less with 400 grams
• 2nd year of life – it weighs more than
double at 900 grams
• Adult brain – weighs 1250 to 1450 grams
2. Spinal cord

Three Main Regions of Cerebral

Structural Anatomy of the Brain Hemisphere
Brain Regions 1. Cortex – is superficial gray matter
1. Cerebral hemispheres 2. White matter
3. Basal nuclei – are deep pockets of gray
matter, situated within white matter

o 2 large oval cerebral hemispheres

(Left & Right hemisphere)
o Comprised more than half of the
brain’s mass
o Narrower posteriorly at the
occipital end than anteriorly at the
frontal end
o Large oval structures
o Superficially resembled the surface
of a shelled walnut
o At mid part of cerebrum, there is a
longitudinal cerebral fissure
- Deep fissure
- Incompletely
separates the two
cerebral
hemispheres from
one another
o The entire surface of cerebral
hemisphere exhibits elevated
Functions of Cerebral Cortex
1. Speech
2. Memory
3. Logical & Emotional responses
4. Consciousness
5. Interpretation of sensation
6. Voluntary movement
o Deep to the cortex is a central core of
white matter that forms the bulk of the
cerebrum and represents fiber tracts
supported by neuroglia carrying
information destined for the cortex and
cortical responses to other regions of CNS
o Corpus Callosum - one very large fiber
tract which connects the 2 cerebral
hemispheres

o Most of the gray matter is in the cortex, Functional Anatomy of the Brain
there are several islands of gray matter
called basal nuclei buried deep within
white matter

o Basal nuclei – helps regulate voluntary

motor activities

o Individuals that have problems in basal

nuclei are often unable to walk normally or
carry out other voluntary movements in a
normal way

o Ex: Huntington’s disease,

Contralateral
Parkinson’s disease

Each cerebral hemisphere is divided into 4 Impulses from the special senses are
main lobes interpreted in other cortical areas

Viewed from the side, each cerebral

hemisphere resembles a boxing glove,
where the thumb is the temporal lobe and
separated from the parietal lobe by the
lateral fissure or Lateral Sulcus

Central Sulcus – separates frontal lobe

from the parietal lobe

Parietal occipital sulcus – the division

between parietal and occipital lobe

- Axons of the motor neurons form the

major voluntary motor tract called
pyramidal (corticospinal) tract that
descends to spinal cord
 • Damage to Broca’s area causes inability
to say words properly, you cannot speak
or sound it out properly Ex. Stroke
• Wernicke’s Area - language development
o Located in temporal lobe on left
side of brain
o Responsible for comprehension of
speech – ability to understand
what is spoken
o Damage to this area causes
speech disorder called aphasia
(difficulty in understanding others
speech)

Posterior
association area

Anterior association area (of frontal lobe)

✓ Higher intellectual reasoning and socially
acceptable behavior are believed to be in
here

Posterior association area (of occipital lobe)

✓ Recognizing patterns and facets
✓ Blending of several different inputs into an
understanding of the whole situation
2. Diencephalon

- Interpose between cerebrum and main brain

1. Epithalamus
- constitutes the dorsal surface of
diencephalon

Important Parts:
Hypothalamus is an important part of
Penial gland – endocrine gland
limbic system or emotional visceral brain
Choroid plexus – knots of capillaries and
form cerebral spinal fluid
Limbic system
Thalamus – encloses a cavity called the
✓ Regulating hunger & thirst
3rd ventricle (a relay station for sensory
✓ Response to pain,
impulses passing upward to the sensory
✓ Levels of pleasure
cortex as impulses go through the
✓ Sexual satisfaction
thalamus, we have an idea if the sensation
✓ Anger
we are about to have is pleasant or
✓ Aggressive behavior
unpleasant
Regulates the functioning of
Neurons in sensory area of cortex that
autonomic nervous system:
localize and interpret the sensation
✓ Pulse
✓ Blood pressure
✓ Breathing
✓ Arousal in response to emotional
circumstances

Thalamus

Hypothalamus
 o Lower pair – forms inferior
3. Brain stem caliculi (contains reflex center for
hearing)

Pons
-rounded structure that protrudes just
below the midbrain
-it means “bridge”
-this area of brainstem is mostly fiber
tracts (bundles of nerve fibers in CNS),
however it does have an important nuclei
involved in control of breathing

Medulla Oblongata
-most inferior part of brainstem
-merges into the spinal cord below without
any obvious change in the structure
-like pons, it is an important fiber tract area
o Size of thumb in diameter
o Approximately 3 inches or 7.5 cm long
o Brainstem provides a pathway for ascending
and descending tracts
o It also has many small gray matter areas that
produce autonomic behaviors necessary for
survival

Corpora quadrigemina

• Additionally, the medulla of the are

where the important pyramidal tract
which are motor fiber tract crossover
to opposite side
• Medulla contains centers that regulate
vital visceral activities

It controls:
✓ Heart rate
✓ Blood pressure
✓ Breathing
✓ Swallowing
✓ Vomiting
Midbrain – has a cerebral aqueduct (a tiny
canal that connects the 3rd ventricle of the
diencephalon to the 4th ventricle
Extending the entire length of the brainstem is a
o Cerebral peduncle - convey ascending diffused mass of gray matter called Reticular
and descending impulses, it forms the Formation
anterior side
o On posterior, there are 4 rounded o Neurons here are involved in motor
protrusions bulges called Corpora control of visceral organs
quadrigemina Ex. Controlling smooth muscles in
o Upper pair – forms superior digestive tract
caliculi (contains reflex center for
vision)
 A special group of reticular formation
neurons called the reticular activating
system or RAS
✓ Plays a role in awake-sleep cycle
✓ Filters sensory inputs
✓ Steaming up spinal cord and
brainstem
✓ Weak or repetitive signals are
filtered out
✓ Unusual and strong impulses
reach consciousness
Damage to reticular formation can result in
prolonged unconsciousness or coma
4. Cerebellum
- Large cauliflower like
- Projects dorsali from under occipital lobe of
cerebrum
- Like cerebrum, it has 2 hemispheres and a
convoluted surface
- It has an outer cortex made up of gray matter
- It has an inner region which is white matter
Cerebellum
✓ Provides precise timing for skeletal muscle
activity
✓ Controls our balance
✓ Makes our body movement smooth and
coordinated
✓ It plays its role less well when it is sedated
✓ Can be compared to an automatic pilot –
continuously comparing the brain’s
intention with actual body performance by
monitoring body position and amount of
tension in various body parts
✓ When needed, it sends message to initiate
the appropriate corrective measures
If cerebellum is damaged
Ex: Tumor, stroke
-Movements become clumsy and disorganized
Ataxia
-condition where patients cannot balance
- appear drunk because of muscle incoordination
- they cannot touch their finger to their nose with
their eyes closed
Part 2: Central Nervous System
Protection of the Central Nervous System
• Scalp
• Skull & vertebral column
• Meninges
• Cerebrospinal fluid
• Blood-brain barrier

Falx cerebri – found between cerebral

hemispheres through longitudinal fissure

Tentorium cerebelli – separates cerebellum from

cerebrum

Arachnoid layer
o Middle, web-like membrane
Pia mater
MENINGES
o Innermost, tightly clings to the surface
of the brain
Inflammation of meninges results to meningitis
(serious threat to the brain)
- Bacterial/viral meningitis may spread to brain
tissue, it’s called encephalitis
- Usually diagnosed by taking sample of
cerebrospinal fluid from sub arachnoid space
surrounding spinal cord

CEREBROSPINAL FLUID

- Cover and protects the CNS

Dura mater
- Double-layered external covering
o Posterior layer – attached to surface of
the skull
o Meningeal layer – outer covering of
the brain; continuous to spinal cord
- Folds inward in several area - Components similar to blood plasma
- Dura layers are fused together except in the composition; watery broth
areas of venous sinuses where blood is
collected - Formed by the choroid plexus
- The Inner Dural membrane extends inward to
form folds - Forms a watery cushion to protect the brain

- Circulated in arachnoid space, ventricles, and

central canal of the spinal cord
- Contains less proteins; ion composition is
different
- Most of the CSF circulates into the
subarachnoid space through openings
- Volume: 150 ml (1/2 cup)
- If there’s a tumor, CSF begins to exert
pressure on the brain = hydrocephalus (water
in the brain)
- Shunt = plastic tube that drains water in brain
BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER
- Includes the least permeable capillaries of the
body
- Passage or diffusion can’t easily take place
- Only water, glucose and essential amino
acids pass easily through walls of the capillary
- Excludes many potentially harmful substances
- Useless against some substances (diffuse
easily through plasma membranes)
o Fats and fat soluble
o Respiratory gases
o Alcohol
o Nicotine
o Anesthesia
- Metabolic waste is prevented from entering
the brain
o Urea
o Toxins
o Proteins
- Non-essential amino acids are prevented from
entering and also actively pump from the brain
into the blood across the capillary walls
o Potassium ions
TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURIES
- Concussion
- Slight brain injury
- No permanent brain damage
- Contusion
- Nervous tissue destruction occurs
- Nervous tissue does not
regenerate
- Cerebral edema
- Swelling from the inflammatory
response
- May compress and kill brain tissue
- Cerebrovascular accident (CVA)
- One of leading causes of mortality
- Commonly called a stroke
- The result of a ruptured blood
vessel supplying a region of the
brain
- Brain tissue supplied with oxygen
from that blood source dies
- Loss of some functions or death
may result
• Left sided paralysis
- Called hemiplegia
• Aphasia
- Damage to left cerebral
hemisphere (speech area)
Transient Ischemic attack
- Last from 5-50 minutes
- Symptoms: numbness, temporary
paralysis, impaired speech
• Alzheimer’s Disease
- Progressive degenerative brain
disease that results dementia
- Mostly seen in the elderly, but may
begin in middle age
- Structural changes in the brain
include abnormal protein deposits
and twisted fibers within neurons
- Victims experience memory loss,
irritability, confusion, and
ultimately, hallucinations and
death, moody, confused, violent
 SPINAL CORD
- 17 inches / 42 cm long
- Provides a 2-way conduction pathway to
and from brain; major reflex center
- Extends from the medulla oblongata to the
region of L1 OR L2
- Below at it its end is the cauda equina (a
collection of spinal nerves)
- Enlargement occur in the cervical and
lumbar regions
- Cushioned and protected by meninges
- 41 pairs of spinal nerves
- Size of thumb

• Internal gray matter – mostly cell bodies

(looks like butterfly or H)

If this structure damaged – sensation from the

body will be lost
Dorsal root ganglion – sensor root function

Dorsal and ventral roots fuse to form spinal nerve

White matter is divided to 3 regions

• Dorsal column – ascending tracts; carry
sensory input to brain
• Lateral column – ascending and
descending motor tracts
• Ventral column – contains fiber tracts;
ascending and descending motor tracts