Lesson 11 – Central Nervous System

1. Describe the structures that protect the brain and spinal cord
Surrounded by bones, membranes and fluid
BONES : skull and vertebrae
MENINGES : group of 3 membranes that cover brain and spinal cord, found between bone and
soft tissue of CNS
i. DURA – outermost layer made of fibrous connective tissue lining skull
 Houses many blood vessels and nerves
 Attached to inside of cranial cavity
 Forms the internal periosteum of the skull
 Is continuous with the vertebral canal as a strong tubular sheath that
surrounds the spinal cord
 Terminates as a blind sac at the end of the cord
 “epidural” space sits between the dura and the epidermis
ii. Arachnoid – thin, netlike and avascular (lacks blood vessels)
 Sits between dura/pia mater
 “subarachnoid space” sits between arachnoid and pia which contains
CSF
iii. PIA – thin, house many nerves and blood vessels that aid in nourishing brain and
spinal cord, closely adhered to organs of CNS

2. Locate and describe the subarachnoid, subdural and epidural spaces

EPIDURAL – above dura but inside bony cranium and contains loose, connective and fat tissue
SUBDURAL – between arachnoid and dura, only around spinal cord, seen usually around brain if
injury
SUBARACHNIOD – between arachnoid and pia master which contains CSF
3. Name and locate the major divisions of the brain
CEREBRUM - largest portion, mass of brain tissue, sensory and motor functions, associated with
higher mental functions (memory and reason)
CEREBELLUM – mass of brain tissue posterior and inferior to cerebrum, assist in balance, co-
coordinated, smooth muscle movements
BRAIN STEM – consist of midbrain, pons, medulla. Relay station connects the nervous system to
higher centers and contain vital centers that control visceral activities
4. Identify the structure and function of the cerebrum
 Two large masses : the cerebral hemispheres
 Lobes : frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital
 Hemispheres are mirror image of each other and connected by corpus callosum (large
nerve bundle arching over brain stem)
 Each is highly convoluted (folded) into gyri (bumps) and fissures and sulci (grooves)
  Cerebral cortex is “veil” of gray matter over the two hemispheres
 Cortex contains 75% of the neuron’s cell bodies in the nervous system
 Near cortex bulk of the hemisphere is white matter (bundles of myelinated nerve fibers
which connect a variety of areas in brain)
 Allows certain nerve fibers to carry sensory or motor info
 Deep within each hemisphere are several masses of gray matter called cerebral nuclei
 Nuclei contain cell bodies of neurons that function to act as relay station for descending
motor tracts going to the periphery
Frontal – higher intellectual processes, complex problem solving
Parietal – assits in understand speech / verbalizing thoughts
Temporal – interpret complex sensory experiences, understanding and reading words,
memory of visual experiences / music
Occipital – analyzes visual patterns, combines visual experiences with sensory
experiences

5. Explain why the cerebral hemispheres control the opposite side of the body

6. Identify the cerebral hemisphere which dominates motor and language function
LEFT
 Cerebral dominance is usually the hemi that is dominant for language
 Most people are left sided dominant with greater control over language, math abilites
and logic
 Left hemi dominance is evident when we compose a sentence, balance our budget or
memorise a list of names

RIGHT
 Involved in visual spatial skills like intuition, emotion, art, music
Usually left hemi dominant are right handed, remaining 10% are right sided or equally
dominant

7. Identify the structure and function of the cerebral tracts

 Beneath cerebral cortex are masses of white matter which make up the bulk of
cerebrutom
 It connects neuron cell bodies of the cortex to other parts of the nervous system
 Classified according to the direction they run
COMMISURAL
- These tracts connect corresponding areas in the right and left hemi
- Ensure both sides then function as a whole co-ordinated unit
- Ex. Corpus callosum
 ASSOCAITION
- These tracts transmit impulses within a single hemi

PROTECTION
- Fibers which enter the cerebral hemi from the lower brain or cord
- Fibers leaving the cortex to travel to lower areas
- These fibers tie the cortex to the rest of the nervous system
- Protection fibers run vertically (ascending / descending tracts)
- Commissural and association fibers run horizontal
- Cross over at the level of the medulla oblongata
- “dessucate”
- Therefore the hemi controls the opposite side of the body

8. Identify the structure and function of the basal nuclei

 Gray matter located deep within cerebral white matter
 Under investigation, believed to be involved in regulating voluntary motor activity
 Relay station for motor impulses originating in the cortex sending them to the brain
stem and spinal cord
 Dopamine is thought to be produced in the basal nuclei
 Neurotransmitter that assist in controlling the neural circuits that oversee smooth
initiation and excretion of movement
 Prevents tremors or dyskinesia which is characteristic of Parkinson’s disease
 One clear indication of Parkinson’s is a loss of dopamine producing cells in the basal
ganglia

9. Identify this structure and function of the cerebellum

 Large cauliflower mass of the brain tissue posteriorly and inferiorly to the cerebrum
 Highly convoluted surface
 Cortex is made up of an outer shell of gray matter and inner region of white matter
 Cerebellu communicates with the rest of the CNS via three pair of tracts:
- function to provide precise timing for skeletal muscle activity
- control balance and equilibrium
- its activities cause our body movements to be smooth and co-ordinated
- fibers reach the cerebellum from equilibrium receptors of the inner ear, eye and
proprioceptors of skeletal muscles and tendons

10. Name and locate the three parts of the brainstem

 Approx. 3cm in length, located beneath the cerebrum and anterior to the cerebellum
MIDBRAIN (mesencephalon)
 Directly inferior to the diencephalon and cerebral hemi
 Portion of the CNS associated with vision, hearing, motor control, sleep/wake,
arousal, temperature regulation
 PONS
 Rounded bulge on underside of brain stem which separates the midbrain and
the medulla oblongata
 Means bridge, acts as bridge for info to enter and exit the cerebellum
 Composed of fiber tracts dorsally which relay impulses to an from the medulla
and cerebrum

MEDULLA OBLONGATA
 Enlarged continuation of the cord which extends from the pons to the foramen
magnum of the skull
 Location where many cerebral tracts cross over
 Nuclei function as control center for vital visceral activities
VCR
 Vasomotor = sends stimulation to smooth muscles of some blood vessels
causing vasoconstriction (controlling blood pressure)
 Cardiac – impulses increase or decrease heart rate
 Respiratory – works with the pons in controlling respiration (both rate and
depth)

11. Locate and identify the function of the thalamus, hypothalmus and medulla oblongata
THALAMUS
 Relay station for ascending (sensory) impulses, helps connect other parts of the nervous
system to the cerebral cortex
 Sensory info is re-evaluated and further dispatched to the cerebral cortex for
interpretation
 Cerebral cortex communicates with the thalamus via descending fibers
 Provides sensations : crude touch, general awareness of pain, temperature
HYPOTHALAMUS
 Receives and sends impulses because of interconnections with the cortex, thalamus,
and brainstem
 Plays a key role in homeostasis because it regulates many visceral activities
 Link with nervous and endocrine
FUNCTIONS :
 Heart rate, blood pressure, temperature
 Water and electrolyte balance
 Hunger control
 Regulation of body weight
 Controls movements and glandular secretions of stomach and intestines
 Protection of neurosecretory substances that stimulate the pituitary gland to release
various hormones
 Regulate of sleep and wakefulness
12. Identify the location and function of the reticular activating system
 Complex network of nerve fibers and gray matter scattered throughout the brain
 Extends from upper portion of spinal cord to the diencephalons, interconnecting higher
brain centers with the brainstem
 Sensory impulses reach the reticular formation it activates the cerebral cortex into state
of wakefulness
 Pre warning the cortex remains unaware of stimulation and therefore cannot interpret
sensory information or carry on thought processes
 Decrease in activity of RAS results in sleep
 Without function or damage the person remains unconscious
 System is essential for wakefulness, attention, concentration

13. Identify the location and function of the limbic system

 Complex network of fiber tracts and gray matter found interconnecting parts of the
cerebral cortex such as : frontal and temporal lobes, and also within hypothalamus,
thalamus, and basal neclei
 Emotional brain and functions to monitor emotional experiences and expressions
Example: observation that odours often evoke in terms of emotional reactions and
memories, important role in memory storage with distinct feelings, they are rarely
neutral
 Interacts with higher cerebral cortical areas so we have an intimacy between our
thoughts and feelings
 Communication with cerebral cortex is the reason why our emotions over ride logic
 Explains why reason can stop us from expression our emotions in inappropriate
situations

14. Describe the structure and function of the spinal cord

 Extends from the brain through the foramen magnum into the vertebral canal
 Medulla exits the skull it becomes the spinal cord
 Continues through the vertebrae and tapers down to terminate between the first and
second lumbar
 Looks like a butterfly or letter H of gray matter
 Amount of gray matter present at a level is indicative of the amount of skeletal muscle
innervated at that level
GRAY MATTER = neurons
 Dorsal horns (posterior) – cell bodies of sensory neurons
 Ventral Horns (anterior) – cell bodies of motor neurons
 Lateral Horns (thoracic only) autonomic (sympathetic) cell bodies
White Matter = myelinated nerve tracts
 Dorsal columns (posterior)
 Anterior columns (anterior)
 Latera columns

 Central canal houses CSF

  Large majority of neurons in the gray matter of the cord are interneurons

 Recall tracts – nerve tracts of spinal cord provide two way communication between
brain and outside nervous system

FUNCTIONS
 Conduct nerve impulses, center of spinal reflexes
 Nerve tracts of the cord function to provide to way communication between brain
and outside of nervous system
 Sensory – ascending to CNS
 Motor – descending to effectors

15. Name the main ascending and descending tracts

ASCENDING – carry sensory info from the periphery to the brain
 Spinothalamic: origin – spinal cord / carries information to the thalamus
DESCENDING – tracts carry motor impulses from the brain to the same part of the nervous
system and terminate in another
 Corticospinal: origin – motor cortex / crosses at the level of the medulla / terminates
anterior horn interneurons / carries info to activate skeletal muscles
16. Differentiate between pyramidal and extra-pyramidal descending tracts
PYRAMIDAL
 Decending motor ex. Corticospinal
 Originate in the primary motor area (cortex and fibers come together in the medulla to
form pyramids
 Voluntary – somatic
EXTRAPYRAMIDAL
 All other motor tracts except corticospinal
 Relay to numerous other sites within the brain (thalamus / cerebellum / brain stem)
 Plays an important role in large automatic movements (walking / swimming)
 Plays a role in automatic expressions (smiling / frowning)
17. Discuss the location, formation, circulation and reabsorption of cerebrospinal fluid
 Clear liquid is secrete by the choroids plexus within the roof of the ventricles
 Circulates in the subarachnoid space around the brain and spinal cord
FUNCTION
 Supports and protects
 Absorbs forces which night jar the brain
 Assist in maintaining a stable ionic concentration in the CNS
 assists in carrying wastes
  Amount of CSF remains constant because after it completes its ciruclations it
reabsorbed into the blood
 Hydrocephalus : increase amount of CSF
 Normal Amount : 150mL constant about ½ cup
18. Identify the appearance, amount, pressure and composition of CSF
 CSF found around CNS
 liquid cushion giving buoyancy to the CNS organs
 watery broth composition similar to blood plasma
 Major solutions include: glucose, proteins, NaCl,
 Collectively 800-1200mL produces daily from the choroids plexes from the roof of the
ventricles
 Subarachnoid space CSF bathes the outer surface of the brain and cord then returns to
the blood in the Dural sinuses
 Important role in maintaining normal ionic concentration
 Provides a pathway for waste products
 CSF fluid is used for a diagnostic tool, aids physicians in making a definite diagnosis in
neurological disease
 Contents of CSF is taken via lumbar puncture – a stylet with needle is inserted into the
subarachnoid space at levels of third and forth lumbar vertebrae

Fector