REGULATION OF LIFE PROCESSES:

NERVOUS CONTROL
PREPARED BY IMELDA A. YGAN
 FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS
SYSTEM
 Higher organisms have a nervous
system to perceive stimuli, to transmit
these to various parts of the body, and
to effect responses to maintain
homeostasis.

 This system serves also to coordinate

and integrate the functions of cells,
tissues, and organ systems so that they
act harmoniously as a unit.
 GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

 The sensory function of the nervous system

derives from sensory receptors at the ends of
peripheral neurons. Sensory receptors
convert environmental information into nerve
impulses.
 The motor functions of the nervous system
employ peripheral neurons, which carry
impulses from the CNS to responsive
structures called effectors.
 Mental activity. The brain is the center of
mental activity, including consciousness,
memory and thinking.
 HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Is consists of: the central nervous
system, with large anterior brain
connected to a spinal cord, and
the peripheral nervous system of
12 pairs of cranial nerves from
the brain, 31 pairs of spinal
nerves from the cord exiting
through the intervertebral
foramina.
 HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM
 PNS is further subdivided into
sensory and motor divisions.
 The motor division can be
further divided into somatic
motor nervous system and the
autonomic nervous system,
which can be divided into
sympathetic and
parasympathetic systems.
 COMPONENTS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
 The nervous system is composed of nerve
cells, or neurons, with cell processes
known as dendrites and axons.
 The neuron is the structural and functional
unit of the nervous system which constitute
about 10% of the cells in the human
nervous system.
 The remainder are glial cells (neuroglia)
which are not electrically excitable but
which support the neurons physically and
are believed to participate actively in brain
function.
 THE NERVE CELL
 Each nerve cell is consists of a cell body
and two types of processes: dendrites
and axons.
 Where the axon leaves the cell body is an
area called the axon hillock, which is
devoid of Nissl bodies.
 An axon may remain unbranched or may
branch to form collateral axon.
 Axons are surrounded by neuroglia called
Schwann cells, which form a highly
specialized insulating layer of cells called
the myelin sheath.
 NEUROGLIAL CELLS

 Microglial Cells are scattered throughout the

CNS.

 They support neurons and phagocytize

bacterial cells and cellular debris.
 NEUROGLIAL CELLS
 Oligodendrocytes align along nerve fibers.

 They provide insulating layers of myelin,

called myelin sheath around axons within
brain and spinal cord.
 NEUROGLIAL CELLS

 Schwann cells are glial cells surrounding the

axons of neurons in the PNS.

 Schwann cells are also referred to as

neurolemmocytes or neurolemma cells.
 NEUROGLIAL CELLS
 Astrocytes, commonly found
between neurons and blood vessels,
provide structural support, join parts
by their abundant cellular processes,
and help regulate the concentrations
of nutrients and ions within the
tissue.
 Astrocytes also form scar tissue that
fills spaces following injury to the
CNS.
 NEUROGLIAL CELLS

 Ependymal cells form an epithelia-like

membrane that covers specialized brain
parts (choroid plexuses) and forms the
inner linings that enclose spaces within the
brain (ventricles) and spinal cord (central
canal).
 MYELIN SHEATHS
 Axons are surrounded by the cell processes
of oligodendrocytes in the CNS and
Schwann cells in the PNS.
 Myelinated axons have specialized sheaths
called myelin sheaths, wrapped around
them.
 Myelin is an excellent insulator which
prevents almost all electrical current flow
through the cell membrane.
 Gaps in the myelin sheath, called nodes of
Ranvier, can be seen about every millimeter
between the oligodendrocyte segments or
between individual Schwann cells.
 SYNAPSES
 Between any two related neurons in
function there is a close association, or
synapse which passes nerve impulse in
only one direction, from the axon of one
neuron to the dendrite of the other.

 A nerve consists of one to many neurons

(axons or dendrites) bound together by
connective tissue and including blood
vessels to supply nutrients and oxygen.
 ORGANIZATION OF NERVOUS TISSUE
 Groups of neuron cell bodies and their
dendrites, where there is very little myelin,
form gray matter.
 Gray matter on the surface of the brain is
called, cortex, and clusters of gray matter
located deeper within the brain are called,
nuclei.
 In the PNS, a cluster of neuron cell bodies is
called a ganglion.
 Bundles of parallel axons with myelin
sheaths are whitish in color and are called
white matter.
 THE BRAIN
 There are five divisions of the brain in adult
vertebrates: (1) Telencephalon or cerebrum, the
anterior and largest division. It is the seat of
consciousness, intelligence, sensory perception of
sight, olfactory, and auditory senses, and
coordination of body movements, (2) Diencephalon
or twixt brain, the part posterior to the cerebrum
and connects the cerebrum with the other motor
center for visual sensation, (3) Mesencephalon or
optic lobe, the center for visual sensation, (4)
Metencephalon or cerebellum, the seat of
unconscious motor coordination and maintenance
of muscular equilibrium, and (5) Myelencephalon
or medulla oblongata, the center of various
secretory functions and movement of the digestive
tract, heart, blood vessels, and lungs.
 MENINGES
 Bones, membranes, and fluid
surround the organs of the CNS.
 Layered membranes called
meninges lie between the bony
covering and the soft tissues of
the CNS, protecting the brain and
the spinal cord.
 The meninges have three layers –
dura mater, arachnoid mater, and
pia mater.
 The largest part of the human brain is the cerebrum. THE CEREBRUM
 It is consists of two large masses called the left and
right cerebral hemispheres, which are essentially
mirror images of each other.

 A deep bridge of nerve fibers called corpus

callosum connects the cerebral hemispheres.

 A layer of dura mater (falx cerebri) separates

them.

 It contains about half the nerve cells in the brain.

 The surface is called cerebral cortex and is thrown

into folds, called convolutions (gyri) that greatly
increase its area.
 LOBES OF THE CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES
 The several sulci divide each
hemisphere into lobes:
- Frontal lobe – for voluntary motor
functions, motivation, aggression,
mood and olfactory.
- Parietal lobe – for touch, pain,
temperature balance, and taste.
- Temporal lobe – for olfactory,
auditory, and memory.
- Occipital lobe – for visual input.
 PRACTICAL CONSIDERATION
 Damage to the cortex due to trauma,
stroke, or a tumor results in specific
deficits, such as problems with speech,
difficulty in reading, or inability to
sense or move specific parts of the
body.

 Since brain cells cannot reproduce,

once a brain region is destroyed, it
cannot be repaired or replaced, so these
deficits are often permanent.
 THE HINDBRAIN
 The hindbrain is represented by the
medulla oblongata, the pons, and the
cerebellum. This constitute the
“brainstem”.
 The medulla oblongata is the most
posterior division of the brain, and is a
conical continuation of the spinal cord.
This is the respiratory center of the body.
 Between the medulla and the midbrain is
a thick bundle of fibers, the pons
(“bridge”) that carry impulses from one
side of the cerebellum to the other.
 THE CEREBELLUM
 The cerebellum lies above the
medulla and is concerned with
equilibrium, posture, and
movement.

 Its development is directly

correlated with the individual’s
mode of locomotion, agility of limb
movement, and balance.
 HYPOTHALAMUS
 The hypothalamus contains many different
clusters of neurons.
 Some of these are neurosecretory cells that
release hormones.
 Through this hormone production and neural
connections, the hypothalamus acts as a major
coordinating center, controlling body
temperature, hunger, the menstrual cycle, water
balance, and the autonomic nervous system.
 In addition, stimulation of specific areas of the
hypothalamus elicits emotions such as rage,
fear, pleasure, and sexual arousal.
 OTHER BRAIN FUNCTIONS
 Speech
- speech area is in the left cerebral cortex.
- two major cortical areas are involved:
the Wernicke’s area which is the sensory
speech area and the Broca’s area which is
the motor speech area.
- damage to these areas may result in
aphasia, absent or defective speech or
language comprehension.
 Memory
- memory is consists of four processes:
encoding, consolidation, storage, and
retrieval.
- Short-term memory or working
memory is where information is
retained for a few seconds to a few
minutes.
- Long-term memory occurs when
some pieces of information are
transferred for storage from short-term
memory. The length of time that
memory is stored may depend on how
often it is retrieved and used.
 THE SPINAL CORD
 The spinal cord varies in size with different
vertebrates.
 In the average man, it is about 18 inches
long, extending only to the level of the first
lumbar vertebra.
 It is protected by three layers of meninges –
the dura mater, arachnoid, and pia mater.
 Spaces between these protective layers
contain cerebrospinal fluid which forms a
protective cushion.
 The spinal cord is also protected by the
bones of the vertebral column, the vertebrae.
 SECTION OF A SPINAL CORD
• The spinal cord is divided into right and left
halves (fig. 11.3).
• Peripherally located is the white matter which
is surrounded by the gray matter shaped like a
butterfly.
• The white matter in each half of the spinal cord
is organized into three columns, or funiculi,
called the ventral, dorsal, and lateral columns.
• Each column is subdivided into tracts, also
called fasciculi or pathways.
• The tracts consist of axons ascending to the
brain or descending from the brain.
 FUNCTIONS OF THE SPINAL CORD
 The spinal cord has two major
functions – conducting nerve impulses
and serving as a center for spinal
reflexes.
 The nerve tracts of the spinal cord
consist of axons that provide a two-
way communication system between
the brain and the body parts outside
the nervous system: the ascending
tracts and the descending tracts.
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Cranial Nerves
 AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
 The autonomic nerves govern the
involuntary functions of the body which
do not ordinarily affect consciousness.

 Autonomic nerves control the movements

of most organs in the body. Although
these nerves have both sensory and motor
components, the former are considered of
minor importance.

 Their actions are antagonistic.

 SUBDIVISIONS OF THE AUTONOMIC NERVES

 Parasympathetic division –
centered partly in the brain and
partly in the lower end of the
spinal cord.
 It is for this reason that it is
regarded as craniosacral division
of the autonomic nervous system.
 Once stimulated, it is for the rest
and repose response of the body.
 SUBDIVISIONS OF THE AUTONOMIC NERVES

 The sympathetic division is centered in

the middle part of the spinal cord. Thus it
is also known as the thoracolumbar
division.
 Sympathetic fibers excite the heart, blood
vessels, sphincters of the intestines,
urinary bladder, dilator muscles of the iris
and others.
 It is for the fight or flight response of the
individual.
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