Chapter 14 - An Introduction to the Brain and Cranial Nerves

The Adult Human Brain ranges from 750 cc to 2100 cc & contains almost 97% of the body’s neural
tissue; average weight about 1.4 kg (3 lb); gets 20% of the resting cardiac output
The Brain - Six Regions of the Brain
1. Cerebrum
2. Cerebellum
3. Diencephalon
4. Mesencephalon
5. Pons
6. Medulla oblongata
1. Cerebrum: largest part of brain & controls higher mental functions
Divided into left & right cerebral hemispheres; surface layer of gray matter (neural cortex)
Neural cortex (cerebral cortex) - folded surface increases surface area
 Elevated ridges (gyri)
 Shallow depressions (sulci)
 Deep grooves (fissures)
2. Cerebellum: second largest part of brain; coordinates repetitive body movements
Two hemispheres covered with cerebellar cortex
3. Diencephalon: located under cerebrum & cerebellum; links cerebrum with brain stem
Three divisions: Left thalamus, Right thalamus & Hypothalamus
Thalamus - relays and processes sensory information
Hypothalamus - Hormone production, Emotion & Autonomic function
Pituitary gland - major endocrine gland connected to hypothalamus via infundibulum (stalk)
 Interfaces nervous and endocrine systems
The Brain Stem processes information between spinal cord and cerebrum or cerebellum
Includes
 Mesencephalon
 Pons
 Medulla oblongata
4. Mesencephalon (midbrain): processes sight, sound & associated reflexes; maintains
consciousness
5. Pons: connects cerebellum to brain stem & is involved in somatic and visceral motor control
6. Medulla oblongata: connects brain to spinal cord; relays information
Regulates autonomic functions: heart rate, blood pressure, and digestion
Embryological Development determines organization of brain structures
Neural tube - Origin of brain
Enlarges into three primary brain vesicles
– prosencephalon
– mesencephalon
– rhombencephalon
Five Secondary Brain Vesicles: Telencephalon, Diencephalon, Mesencephalon, Metencephalon &
Myelencephalon
Diencephalon and mesencephalon persist
Telencephalon: becomes cerebrum
Metencephalon: forms cerebellum and pons
Myelencephalon: becomes medulla oblongata
Ventricles of the Brain: origins of ventricles: neural tube encloses neurocoel & neurocoel expands
to form chambers (ventricles) lined with ependymal cells
Each cerebral hemisphere contains one large lateral ventricle separated by a thin medial partition
(septum pellucidum)
Third ventricle: ventricle of the diencephalon
Lateral ventricles communicate with third ventricle: via interventricular foramen
Fourth ventricle: extends into medulla oblongata & becomes continuous with central canal of spinal
cord; connects with 3rd ventricle: via narrow canal in mesencephalon - aqueduct of midbrain
The brain is a large, delicate mass of neural tissue containing internal passageways & chambers filled

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 with cerebrospinal fluid
Each of the six major brain regions has specific functions; ascending from the medulla oblongata to
the cerebrum, brain functions become more complex and variable
Conscious thought and intelligence are produced in the neural cortex of the cerebral hemisphere
Brain Protection and Support
A. Physical protection: Bones of the cranium, Cranial meninges & Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
B. Biochemical isolation: Blood–brain barrier
C. The Cranial Meninges: have three layers:
1. Dura mater
2. Arachnoid mater
3. Pia mater
Are continuous with spinal meninges & protect the brain from cranial trauma
1. Dura mater: inner fibrous layer (meningeal layer) & outer fibrous layer (endosteal layer)
fused to periosteum: venous sinuses between two layers
2. Arachnoid mater: covers brain & contacts epithelial layer of dura mater
Subarachnoid space: between arachnoid mater and pia mater
3. Pia mater: attached to brain surface by astrocytes
Dural Folds: folded inner layer of dura mater that extends into cranial cavity; stabilize & support
brain; contain collecting veins (dural sinuses)
Falx cerebri, tentorium cerebelli, and falx cerebelli
Falx cerebri - projects between the cerebral hemispheres; contains superior sagittal sinus
and inferior sagittal sinus
Tentorium cerebelli - separates cerebellum and cerebrum; contains transverse sinus
Falx cerebelli - divides cerebellar hemispheres below the tentorium cerebelli
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF): surrounds all exposed surfaces of CNS; interchanges with interstitial
fluid of brain
Functions of CSF
A. Cushions delicate neural structures
B. Supports brain
C. Transports nutrients, chemical messengers, and waste products
Choroid plexus: specialized ependymal cells and capillaries: produces about 500 mL of CSF/day
– secrete CSF into ventricles
– remove waste products from CSF
– adjust composition of CSF
CSF circulates: from choroid plexus through ventricles to central canal of spinal cord into
subarachnoid space around the brain, spinal cord & cauda equina
CSF in subarachnoid space
 Arachnoid villi: extensions of subarachnoid space extend through dura mater to superior
sagittal sinus
 Arachnoid granulations: large clusters of villi absorb CSF into venous circulation
Blood Supply to the Brain
Supplies nutrients and oxygen to brain delivered by internal carotid arteries & vertebral arteries
& removed from dural sinuses by internal jugular veins
Cerebrovascular Disease: disorders interfere with blood circulation to brain
Stroke or cerebrovascular accident (CVA) shuts off blood to portion of brain & neurons die
Blood–Brain Barrier: isolates CNS neural tissue from general circulation formed by network of
tight junctions between endothelial cells of CNS capillaries
Lipid-soluble compounds (O2, CO2), steroids, and prostaglandins diffuse into interstitial fluid of
brain and spinal cord
Astrocytes control blood–brain barrier by releasing chemicals that control permeability of
endothelium
Blood–CSF Barrier: formed by special ependymal cells & surrounds capillaries of choroid plexus
Limits movement of compounds transferred & allows chemical composition of blood & CSF to
differ
Four Breaks in the BBB
1. Portions of hypothalamus: secrete hypothalamic hormones
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 2. Posterior lobe of pituitary gland: secretes hormones ADH and oxytocin
3. Pineal glands: pineal secretions
4. Choroid plexus: where special ependymal cells maintain blood–CSF barrier
Meninges stabilize brain in cranial cavity, while CSF protects against sudden movement; CSF
provides nutrients and removes wastes
Blood–brain barrier and blood–CSF barrier: selectively isolate brain from chemicals in blood that
might disrupt neural function
The Medulla Oblongata: allows brain & spinal cord to communicate
 Coordinates complex autonomic reflexes & controls visceral functions
Autonomic Nuclei of the Medulla Oblongata
Reticular formation: gray matter with embedded nuclei regulates autonomic functions
Reflex centers control peripheral systems:
– cardiovascular centers: cardiac center controls blood flow through peripheral tissues
– respiratory rhythmicity centers: sets pace for respiratory movements
The Pons: links cerebellum with mesencephalon, diencephalon, cerebrum, and spinal cord
Nuclei involved with respiration
Apneustic center and pneumotaxic center: modify respiratory rhythmicity center activity
The Cerebellum
Functions of the Cerebellum
 Adjusts postural muscles
 Fine-tunes conscious and subconscious movements
 Information from vestibular organ & proprioceptors; determines where body is & where it is
going
Structures of the Cerebellum: anterior and posterior lobes separated by primary fissure
Purkinje cells: large, branched cells found in cerebellar cortex receive input from up to 200,000
synapses
Arbor vitae: highly branched, internal white matter of cerebellum
Disorders of the Cerebellum - Ataxia
 Damage from trauma or stroke
 Intoxication (temporary impairment)
 Disturbs muscle coordination
The Mesencephalon
Structures of the Mesencephalon
 Substantia nigra (pigmented gray matter) produce dopamine & these cells die in Parkinson’s
 Parkinsonism - impairment causes postural disturbances, tremors, body rigidity; symptoms:
"pill-rolling" hand action, "cogwheel" walking, expressionless face
 Treatment L-dopa [levadopa] (DOPAMINE does not cross B-BB); transplants of fetal brain
tissue or adrenal medulla tissue
The Diencephalon: integrates sensory information and motor commands made up of the thalamus,
epithalamus & hypothalamus & pineal gland (secretes hormone melatonin)
The Thalamus: filters ascending sensory information for primary sensory cortex, mediation of
cortical arousal & crude recognition: third ventricle separates left thalamus and right thalamus
The Hypothalamus: right above brainstem
Mamillary bodies located ventral to the hypothalamus: believed to add the sense of smell to
memories
Eight Functions of the Hypothalamus
1. Provides subconscious control of skeletal muscle
2. Controls autonomic function
3. Coordinates activities of nervous and endocrine systems
4. Secretes hormones Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) by supraoptic nucleus & Oxytocin by
paraventricular nucleus
5. Produces emotions & behavioral drives; e.g., feeding center (hunger) & thirst center (thirst)
6. Coordinates voluntary and autonomic functions
7. Regulates body temperature: preoptic area of hypothalamus
8. Controls circadian rhythms (day–night cycles): suprachiasmatic nucleus
The Limbic System is a functional grouping that
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  Establishes emotional states
 Links conscious functions of cerebral cortex with autonomic functions of brain stem
 Facilitates memory storage and retrieval
Components of the Limbic System
Amygdala: center of emotions (e.g., fear), receives signals from the olfactory system and
this may account for the powerful effect that odor has on emotions (and evoking memories).
Hippocampus: long-term memory, learning, emotion
The Cerebrum is largest part of the brain; controls conscious thoughts & intellectual functions:
processes somatic sensory & motor information
Gray matter: in cerebral cortex and basal nuclei
White matter: deep to basal cortex
Structures of the Cerebrum
 Gyri of neural cortex: increase surface area (number of cortical neurons)
 Longitudinal fissure: separates cerebral hemispheres
 Lobes: divisions of hemispheres
 Central sulcus divides: anterior frontal lobe from posterior parietal lobe
 Lateral sulcus divides: frontal lobe from temporal lobe
 Parieto-occipital sulcus divides: parietal lobe from occipital lobe
Three Functional Principles of the Cerebrum
1. Each cerebral hemisphere receives sensory information from & sends motor commands to, the
opposite side of the body
2. The two hemispheres have different functions, although their structures are alike
3. Correspondence between a specific function & a specific region of cerebral cortex is not precise
White Matter of the Cerebrum
Association fibers: connections within one hemisphere:
Commissural fibers: bands of fibers connecting two hemispheres:
Basal Nuclei (cerebral nuclei): masses of gray matter embedded in white matter of cerebrum
that direct subconscious activities
Functions of Basal Nuclei involved with subconscious control of skeletal muscle tone &
coordination of learned movement patterns (walking, lifting)
Motor and Sensory Areas of the Cortex: Central sulcus separates motor and sensory areas
A. Motor areas
Precentral gyrus of frontal lobe: directs voluntary movements
Primary motor cortex: is the surface of precentral gyrus
Pyramidal cells: are neurons of primary motor cortex
B. Sensory areas
Postcentral gyrus of parietal lobe: receives somatic sensory information (touch, pressure,
pain, vibration, taste & temperature)
Primary sensory cortex: surface of postcentral gyrus
Special Sensory Cortexes
Visual cortex: information from sight receptors
Auditory cortex: information from sound receptors
Olfactory cortex: information from odor receptors
Gustatory cortex: information from taste receptors
Association Areas
 Sensory association areas: monitor & interpret arriving information at sensory areas of
cortex
 Somatic motor association area (premotor cortex): coordinates motor responses (learned
movements)
 Somatic sensory association area: interprets input to primary sensory cortex (e.g.,
recognizes & responds to touch)
 Visual association area: interprets activity in visual cortex
 Auditory association area: monitors auditory cortex
Integrative Centers are located in lobes and cortical areas of both cerebral hemispheres
Receive information from association areas & direct complex motor or analytical activities
General Interpretive Area (Wernicke area): present in only one hemisphere
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 Receives information from all sensory association areas & coordinates access to complex visual
& auditory memories
Other Integrative Areas
Speech center associated with general interpretive area; coordinates all vocalization functions
Prefrontal cortex of frontal lobe integrates information from sensory association areas;
performs abstract intellectual activities (e.g., predicting consequences of actions)
Interpretive Areas of Cortex
Brodmann areas: patterns of cellular organization in cerebral cortex
Hemispheric Lateralization: functional differences between left and right hemispheres
Each cerebral hemisphere performs certain functions that are not ordinarily performed by
the opposite hemisphere
Table 14.8
Left Hemisphere in most people, left brain (dominant hemisphere) controls: Reading, writing &
math, Decision making, Speech & language
Right Hemisphere relates to senses (touch, smell, sight, taste, feel) & recognition (faces, voice
inflections)
Monitoring Brain Activity
Brain activity is assessed by an electroencephalogram (EEG) with electrodes are placed on the
skull; patterns of electrical activity (brain waves) are printed out
Four Categories of Brain Waves
1. Alpha waves: found in healthy, awake adults at rest with eyes closed
2. Beta waves: higher frequency; found in adults concentrating or mentally stressed
3. Theta waves: found in children & in intensely frustrated adults; may indicate brain disorder
in adults
4. Delta waves: during sleep & in awake adults with brain damage
Synchronization: pacemaker mechanism; ynchronizes electrical activity between hemispheres;
brain damage can cause desynchronization
Seizure is a temporary cerebral disorder that changes the electroencephalogram; symptoms
depend on regions affected
Cranial Nerves: 12 pairs connected to brain
Three Classifications of Cranial Nerves
1. Sensory nerves: carry somatic sensory information, including touch, pressure, vibration,
temperature & pain, smell, sight, hearing, balance
2. Motor nerves: axons of somatic motor neurons
3. Mixed nerves: mixture of motor and sensory fibers
Cranial nerves are classified by primary functions but may also have important secondary
functions
Olfactory Nerves (I) Primary function: Special sensory (smell)
Optic Nerves (II) Primary function: Special sensory (vision)
Oculomotor Nerves (III) Primary function: Motor (eye movements)
Trochlear Nerves (IV) Primary function: Motor (eye movements)
Trigeminal Nerves (V) Primary function: Mixed to face
Abducens Nerves (VI) Primary function: Motor (eye movements)
Facial Nerves (VII) Primary function: Mixed to face (taste receptors on anterior 2/3 of tongue;
muscles of facial expression; tear and nasal mucous glands
Vestibulocochlear Nerves (VIII) Primary function: special sensory (balance, equilibrium & hearing)
Glossopharyngeal Nerves (IX) Primary function: Mixed to head & neck (nerves involved in
swallowing)
Vagus Nerves (X) Primary function: Mixed: widely distributed in thorax & abdomen
Sensory: diaphragm and visceral organs of thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities
Visceral motor: muscles of the palate, pharynx, digestive, respiratory & cardiovascular systems in
thoracic & abdominal cavities
Accessory Nerves (XI) Primary function: Motor to muscles of neck and upper back
Hypoglossal Nerves (XII) Primary function: Motor (tongue movements)
Cranial Reflexes: monosynaptic & polysynaptic reflex arcs involve sensory & motor fibers of
cranial nerves; clinically useful to check cranial nerve or brain damage
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