Chapter 5 - Introduction to the Integumentary System

The integument is the largest system of the body

– 16% of body weight; 1.5 to 2 m in area
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The integument is made up of two parts

1. Cutaneous membrane (skin)
2. Accessory structures
1. The cutaneous membrane has two components
A. Outer epidermis - superficial epithelium (epithelial tissues)
B. Inner dermis - connective tissues
2. Accessory Structures - originate in the dermis & extend through the epidermis to skin surface
Hair, Nails & Multicellular exocrine glands
Connections
Cardiovascular system - blood vessels in the dermis
Nervous system - sensory receptors for pain, touch, and temperature
Subcutaneous layer (superficial fascia or hypodermis) - loose connective tissue located below
dermis - location of hypodermic injections
Functions of Skin
1. Protects underlying tissues and organs
2. Excretes salts, water, and organic wastes (glands)
3. Maintains body temperature (insulation and evaporation)
4. Synthesizes vitamin D3
5. Stores lipids
6. Detects touch, pressure, pain, and temperature
A. Epidermis is avascular stratified squamous epithelium
– Nutrients and oxygen diffuse from capillaries in the dermis
Cells of the Epidermis
Keratinocytes - contain large amounts of keratin- the most abundant cells in the epidermis
Thin Skin - covers most of the body & has 4 layers of keratinocytes
Thick Skin - covers the palms of the hands & soles of the feet & has 5 layers of keratinocytes
Structures of the Epidermis
The five strata of keratinocytes in thick skin from basal lamina to free surface
1. Stratum germinativum (Stratum Basale)
2. Stratum spinosum
3. Stratum granulosum
4. Stratum lucidum
5. Stratum corneum
1. Stratum Germinativum - the “germinative layer”; has many germinative (stem) cells/basal cells
– Is attached to basal lamina by hemidesmosomes & forms a strong bond between epidermis &
dermis
– Forms epidermal ridges (e.g., fingerprints)
– Dermal papillae (tiny mounds) - increase the area of basal lamina
» Strengthen attachment between epidermis & dermis
Specialized Cells of Stratum Germinativum
a. Merkel cells - found in hairless skin and respond to touch (trigger nervous system)
b. Melanocytes - contain the pigment melanin; scattered throughout stratum germinativum
2. Stratum Spinosum - the “spiny layer”; produced by division of stratum germinativum
– 8 - 10 layers of keratinocytes bound by desmosomes; cells shrink until cytoskeletons stick
out (spiny)
– Continue to divide, increasing thickness of epithelium; contain dendritic (Langerhans) cells,
active in immune response
3. Stratum Granulosum - the “grainy layer”; stops dividing, starts producing:
a. Keratin - a tough, fibrous protein that makes up hair and nails
b. Keratohyalin- dense granules with cross-link keratin fibers
Cells of Stratum Granulosum - produce protein fibers; dehydrate and die

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 – Create tightly interlocked layer of keratin surrounded by keratohyalin
4. Stratum Lucidum - the “clear layer”; found only in thick skin
– Covers stratum granulosum
5. Stratum Corneum - the “horn layer”; exposed surface of skin
– 15 to 30 layers of keratinized cells that are water resistant; shed & replaced every 2 weeks
Keratinization - the formation of a layer of dead, protective cells filled with keratin
Occurs on all exposed skin surfaces except eyes
Skin life cycle - it takes 15–30 days for a cell to move from stratum germinativum to corneum
2 weeks from new keratinocytes made to the bottom of stratum corneum layer stack at least 2 more
weeks until those cells are sloughed off
30-45 days complete renewal of epidermis; 1.5 lbs of skin shed per year
Callus/a corn - thickening of epidermis, due to friction/abrasion, more mitotic division
Blister = separation of epidermis and dermis, with interstitial fluid accumulation)
Redness of the lips is due to the uncornified epithelium, so capillaries show through

Perspiration
A. Insensible perspiration - interstitial fluid lost by evaporation through stratum corneum
B. Sensible perspiration - water excreted by sweat glands
Dehydration results from:
a. Damage to stratum corneum (e.g., burns and blisters [insensible perspiration])
b. Immersion in hypertonic solution (e.g., seawater [osmosis])
Hydration - results from immersion in hypotonic solution (e.g., freshwater [osmosis])
Causes swelling of epithelial cells, evident on the palms and soles
Skin Color is influenced by:
1. Two pigments
A. Carotene:orange-yellow pigment; found in orange vegetables
– accumulates in epidermal cells & fatty tissues of the dermis & can be converted to vitamin A
B. Melanin:yellow-brown or black pigment; produced by melanocytes in stratum germinativum
– stored in transport vesicles (melanosomes) and transferred to keratinocytes
2. Blood circulation (red blood cells)
Function of Melanocytes - melanin protects skin from sun damage
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation causes DNA mutations and burns that lead to cancer and wrinkles
Skin color depends on melanin production, not number of melanocytes
Capillaries and Skin Color - oxygenated red blood contributes to skin color
a. Blood vessels dilate from heat, skin reddens
b. Blood flow decreases, skin pales
Cyanosis- bluish skin tint caused by severe reduction in blood flow or oxygenation
Illness and Skin Color
– Jaundice - buildup of bile produced by liver; yellow color
– Addison disease- a disease of the pituitary gland; skin darkening
– Vitiligo - loss of melanocytes; loss of color
Vitamin D3
1. Epidermal cells produce cholecalciferol (vitamin D3) in the presence of UV radiation
2. Liver & kidneys convert vitamin D3 into calcitriol to aid absorption of calcium & phosphorus
3. Insufficient vitamin D3 can cause rickets
Epidermal Growth Factor (EGF) is a powerful peptide growth factor
– Is produced by glands (salivary and duodenum) & is used in laboratories to grow skin grafts
Functions of EGF
1. Promotes division of germinative cells
2. Accelerates keratin production
3. Stimulates epidermal repair
4. Stimulates glandular secretion
B. The Dermis is located between epidermis and subcutaneous layer
– Anchors epidermal accessory structures (hair follicles, sweat glands) & has two components:
1. Outer papillary layer
2. Deep reticular layer

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 1. The Papillary Layer - consists of areolar tissue
a. Contains smaller capillaries, lymphatics, and sensory neurons
b. Has dermal papillae projecting between epidermal ridges
2. The Reticular Layer - consists of dense irregular connective tissue
a. Contains larger blood vessels, lymph vessels, and nerve fibers
b. Contains collagen and elastic fibers and connective tissue proper
Dermatitis - an inflammation of the papillary layer
Caused by infection, radiation, mechanical irritation, or chemicals (e.g., poison ivy) and
haracterized by itch or pain
Dermal Strength and Elasticity - due to presence of two types of fibers
» Collagen fibers: very strong, resist stretching but bend easily; provide flexibility
» Elastic fibers:permit stretching and then recoil to original length; limit the flexibility of
collagen fibers to prevent damage to tissue
Skin Damage
A. Sagging and wrinkles (reduced skin elasticity) are caused by
» Dehydration
» Age
» Hormonal changes
» UV exposure
B. Stretch Marks - thickened tissue resulting from excessive stretching of skin due to:
» pregnancy
» weight gain
Lines of Cleavage - collagen & elastic fibers in the dermis are arranged in parallel bundles
Resist force in a specific direction
Lines of cleavage establish important patterns
» A parallel cut remains shut, heals well
» A cut across (right angle) pulls open and scars
The Dermal Blood Supply
» Cutaneous plexus - a network of arteries along the reticular layer
» Papillary plexus - capillary network from small arteries in papillary layer
» Venous plexus - capillary return deep to the papillary plexus
» Contusion - damage to blood vessels resulting in “black–and–blue” bruising
Innervation of the Skin - nerve fibers in skin control
a. Blood flow
b. Gland secretions
c. Sensory receptors
Many chemicals penetrate skin - steroids, organic solvents, metals
Transdermal medications = oil-based to facilitate absorption (e.g., scopalomine, nitroglycerin,
estrogens, nicotine)
Hemangiomas = benign cancers of dermis, birthmark
Retin A increases blood flow in dermis - facilitates healing
Tattoos are difficult to remove because the ink is placed into the dermis
Decubitis ulcers = bedsores, compression of blood vessels, necrotic tissue

Sensory Receptors
Touch - Merkel’s disc in stratum germinativum, Meissner’s corpuscles in dermal papilla
Pressure - Pacinian corpuscles in deep dermis and subcutaneous layer
The Hypodermis - the subcutaneous layer or hypodermis
Lies below the integument; stabilizes the skin and allows separate movement
» Is made of elastic areolar & adipose tissues - is connected to the reticular layer of
integument by connective tissue fibers and has few capillaries and no vital organs
» Is the site of subcutaneous injections using hypodermic needles
Deposits of subcutaneous fat have distribution patterns determined by hormones
» Are reduced by cosmetic liposuction (lipoplasty)
Hair - Hair, hair follicles, sebaceous glands, sweat glands, and nails
» Are integumentary accessory structures that are derived from embryonic epidermis
» Are located in dermis and project through the skin surface

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Human body is covered with hair, except - palms, soles, lips and portions of external genitalia
Functions of Hair
a. Protects and insulates
b. Guards openings against particles and insects
c. Is sensitive to very light touch
The Hair Follicle
» Is located deep in dermis and produces nonliving hairs
» Is wrapped in a dense connective tissue sheath
» Base is surrounded by sensory nerves (root hair plexus)
Accessory Structures of Hair
a. Arrector pili - involuntary smooth muscle causes hairs to stand up - produces “goose
bumps”
b. Sebaceous glands - lubricate the hair and control bacteria
Regions of the Hair
a. Hair root - lower part of the hair attached to the integument
b. Hair shaft - upper part of the hair not attached to the integument
Hair Production - begins at the base of a hair follicle, deep in the dermis
» The hair papilla contains capillaries and nerves
» The hair bulb produces hair matrix: a layer of dividing basal cells produces hair
structure and pushes hair up and out of skin
Hair Shaft Structure
A. Medulla - the central core
B. Cortex - the middle layer
C. Cuticle - the surface layer
Keratin - as hair is produced, it is keratinized
a. Medulla contains flexible soft keratin
b. Cortex and cuticle contain stiff hard keratin
Hair Growth Cycle
» Growing hair - is firmly attached to matrix
» Club hair: is not growing and is attached to an inactive follicle
» New hair growth cycle: follicle becomes active and produces new hair, club hair is shed
Types of Hairs
» Vellus hairs - soft, fine and cover body surface
» Terminal hairs - heavy, pigmented; found on head, eyebrows, and eyelashes
» Other parts of body after puberty
Hair Color - produced by melanocytes at the hair papilla; determined by genes
Exocrine Glands in Skin
A. Sebaceous glands (oil glands) - holocrine glands; secrete sebum
B. Sweat glands - two types: 1) apocrine glands and 2) merocrine (eccrine) glands
» Watery secretions
Types of Sebaceous (Oil) Glands
1. Simple branched alveolar glands - associated with hair follicles
2. Sebaceous follicles - discharge directly onto skin surface
Sebum: contains lipids and other ingredients; lubricates & protects epidermis & inhibits bacteria
Apocrine sweat glands - found in armpits, around nipples, and groin
– Secrete products into hair follicles
– Produce sticky, cloudy secretions that break down and cause odors
– Surrounded by myoepithelial cells - squeeze apocrine gland secretions onto skin surface in
response to hormonal or nervous signal
Merocrine (Eccrine) sweat glands - widely distributed on body surface, mainly on palms & soles
– Coiled, tubular glands that discharge directly onto skin surface
– Sensible perspiration - water, salts, and organic compounds
Functions of merocrine sweat gland activity
» Cools skin
» Excretes water and electrolytes
» Flushes microorganisms and harmful chemicals from skin

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Other Integumentary Glands
– Mammary glands - produce milk
– Ceruminous glands - produce cerumen (earwax) and protect the eardrum
Control of Glands - Autonomic nervous system controls sebaceous and apocrine sweat glands
» Works simultaneously over entire body
– Merocrine sweat glands are controlled independently and sweating occurs locally
Thermoregulation - is the main function of sensible perspiration
» Works with cardiovascular system and regulates body temperature
Nails - protect fingers and toes
– Made of dead cells packed with keratin
– Metabolic disorders can change nail structure
Repair of the Integument
– Bleeding occurs
– Mast cells trigger inflammatory response
– A scab stabilizes and protects the area
» Germinative cells migrate around the wound
» Macrophages clean the area
» Fibroblasts and endothelial cells move in, producing granulation tissue
– Fibroblasts produce scar tissue
» Inflammation decreases, clot disintegrates
» Fibroblasts strengthen scar tissue
» A raised keloid may form
Effects of aging include
1. Epidermal thinning
2. Decreased numbers of dendritic (Langerhans) cells
3. Decreased vitamin D3 production
4. Decreased melanocyte activity
5. Decreased glandular activity (sweat and oil glands)
6. Reduced blood supply
7. Decreased function of hair follicles
8. Reduction of elastic fibers
9. Decreased hormone levels
10. Slower repair rate
Importance of the Integumentary System - protects and interacts with all organ systems
– Changes in skin appearance are used to diagnose disorders in other systems
Problems
1. Photoaging of Skin
a. leathery, premalignant cells
b. tangled fibers
c. enlarged sebaceous glands
2. Burns 3rd leading cause of death - 10,000 per year in US
106 burned badly enough/yr to be hospitalized
can be electrical, chemical, radioactive, or heat-related burns
Classification - rule of nines
degree of burn: FIRST (heals 2-3dys) (partial thickness burn - 1o & 2o)
SECOND (heals 3-4wks)
THIRD (white or charred skin, grafting) (full thickness)
Critical if: 30% of body with 2nd degree
OR >10% of body with 3rd degree
OR 3rd of face (swollen respiratory passages)
Contributors to death? dehydration circulatory problems kidney shutdown
hypovolemic shock infection/depressed immune system
Treatments
cowhide/sharkskin FROSTBITE ~ burns (classified similarly)
epidermal monolayer 1st degree - whitish
antibiotics 2nd degree - edema, engorged w/ blood
3rd degree - edema, bleeding, numbness, necrotic
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increased nutrients