CHAPTER 4: BODY MEMBRANES

Body Membranes -Cover surfaces -Line body surfaces -Form protective, often lubricating sheets around organs TWO MAJOR GROUPS: 1. Epithelial Membranes -include cutaneous (skin), mucous, serous membranes 2. Connective Tissue Membranes - represented by synovial membranes

-dry membrane: only membrane exposed to air II. Mucous membrane -epithelium resting on a loose connective tissue membrane called: lamina propria -lines all body cavities that open to the exterior respiratory, digestive, urinary, reproductive tracts -cellular makeup varies Most contain either stratified squamous or simple columnar epithelium -wet, moist membranes bathed in secretions or urine -often for absorption or secretion -not all mucous membranes secrete mucous Respiratory & digestive: secrete mucous Urinary tract: no secretion of mucous III. Serous membranes -layer of simple squamous resting on a thin of layer of areolar connective tissue -line body cavities closed to the exterior Except for dorsal body cavity, joint cavities -occur in pairs: 1. Parietal layer - lines a specific portion of the wall of the ventral body cavity, folds itself to form: 2. Visceral layer

A. EPITHELIAL MEMBRANES
Also called covering and lining membranes Calling these membranes epithelial is inaccurate: although they all contain an epithelial sheet, its always combined w/ an underlying layer of connective tissue simple organs I. Cutaneous Membranes -skin -superficial epidermis: keratinizing stratified squamous epithelium -underlying dermis: mostly dense (fibrous) connective tissue

-covers the outside of the organs in that cavity - Parietal-Visceral relationship may be viewed as: pushing your fist (organ) into a limp balloon partially filled with water Part that clings closely to fist: visceral serosa lining organs external surface Outer wall of balloon: parietal serosa that lines walls of the cavity, fused to cavity wall (never exposed) - contains serous fluid -thin, clear fluid secreted by parietal and visceral membranes to separate them -allows organs to slide easily across cavity walls w/o friction (pumping heart, stomach churning) -specific names depend on locations: 1. Peritoneum -lines abdominal cavity, covering its organs 2. Pleura -surrounding lungs 3. Pericardium -surrounding

- composed of soft areolar connective tissue and contain no epithelial cells at all -line fibrous capsules surrounding joints: 1.provide smooth surface 2. secrete a lubricating fluid - also line small sacs of connective tissue: bursae and tendon sheaths = cushion organs moving against each other during muscle activity

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
-Skin, its derivatives (sweat and oil glands, hair, nails) -Skin is also called the integument, meaning covering Functions: -NOT ALL PROTECTIVE 1. Keeps water and other precious molecules in the body, keeps water out -contains keratin that is cornified or hardened to prevent water loss 2. Insulates and cushions deeper body organs and protects entire body from: -Mechanical damage (bumps and cuts) -Chemical damage (acids and bases) -UV rays (sunlight) -bacteria 3. Regulates heat loss from body surface -capillary network and sweat glands 4. Acts as mini-excretory system

B. CONNECTIVE TISSUE MEMBRANES

Synovial membranes

-urea, salts and water are lost when we sweat 5. Manufactures proteins to synthesize Vitamin D 6. Contain cutaneous sensory receptors -touch, pain, pressure, temperature *study table 4.1 page 114 Structure of the Skin: Two kinds of tissue: 1. Epidermis -stratified squamous epithelium capable of keratinizing, or becoming hard 2. Dermis - mostly dense connective tissue *epidermis and dermis are firmly connected *blister -result of burn or friction causing epidermis and dermis to separate, allowing interstitial fluid to accumulate in the cavity 3. Subcutaneous tissue - deep to the dermis or hypodermis -adipose tissue -not considered part of the skin, only anchors skin to underlying organs -serves as: 1. shock absorber 2. insulates deeper tissues from extreme temperature 3. responsible for womans curves

I. Epidermis -composed of 5 layers: stratum basale, spinosum, granulosum, lucidum and corneum - avascular -most cells are keratinocytes, a fibrous protein that makes epidermis a tough protective layer Stratum basale/ germinativum -connected to the dermis -epidermal cells that receive the most adequate nourishment via diffusion from the dermis -epidermal cells here continuously undergo cell division, and millions of cells are produced daily (stratum germinativum) Stratum spinosum and stratum granulosum -where daughter cells are pushed further, away from the source of nutrition -cells become flatter, and increasingly full of keratin Stratum lucidum -when cells finally die, they form this -not present in all skin regions, only in regions where skin is hairless and extra thick: palms and soles -has accumulating keratin that secretes a waterrepellent glycolipid into the extracellular

-point where di na talaga abot ng cells ang blood supply and nutrients from dermis Stratum corneum -20 to 30 cell layers thick -3/4 of the epidermal thickness -contains cornified or horny cells Shinglelike dead cell remnants, completely filled w/ keratin (tough protein, durable overcoat for the body, protection from ext. environment & water loss, resist biological, chemical and physical assaults) -rubs and flakes off slowly and steadily (18 kg/ 40 lb in a lifetime) food source for dust mites -replaced by cells produced by basale cells (new epidermis every 25-45 days) Melanin -pigment that ranges from yellow-brown-black -produced by special spider-shaped cells called melanocytes (found in basale) -when skin is exposed to sunlight, melanocytes are stimulated to produce more melanin (tanning) -As melanocytes produce melanin, membranebound granules are accumulated within them (melanosomes)these granules move to the ends of the spidery arms of the melanocytestaken up by keratinocytesInside keratinocytes, melanin forms pigment umbrella over the superficial side of

the nuclei that shields DNA from damaging effects of UV rays -freckles and moles are seen where melanin is concentrated in one spot II. Dermis -hide -strong, stretchy envelope that helps hold the body together -made up of dense fibrous connective tissue -vary in thickness like epidermis Two regions: 1. Papillary layer - upper dermal region, uneven -contains dermal papillae peglike projections from superior surface indent epidermis has capillary loops that furnish nutrients to epidermis house pain receptors (free nerve endings) and touch receptors (meissners) increase friction and gripping ability (looped and whorled ridges on palms and soles) Papillary patterns are genetically predetermined: fingerprints (identifying films of sweat) 2. Reticular layer

-deepest skin layer -contains blood vessels, sweat, oil glands and pressure receptors (pacinian) -phagocytes are found here and throughout dermis -collagen and elastic fibers: Collagen: toughness of dermis; attract and bind water to hydrate skin Elastic: elasticity while young -abundantly supplied with blood vessels: to maintain body temperature homeostasis When temp. is high, capillaries of dermis become engorged w/ heated blood When temp. is cool, blood bypasses the dermis capillaries temporarily, to allow internal temp. to stay high SKIN COLOR 3 pigments: 1. Melanin- yellow, reddish, brown or black 2. Carotene- deposited in corneum and subcutaneous tissue, yellow-orange 3. Oxygen-rich hemoglobin- in red blood cells *Emotions also influence skin color Disease states: 1. Redness or erythema: embarrassment (fever), hypertension, inflammation or allergy 2. Pallor or blanching: pale (fear, anger), anemia, low blood pressure or impaired blood flow

3. Jaundice: usually signifies a liver disorder in w/c excess bile pigments are absorbed into the blood & deposited in body tissues 4. Bruises or black and blue marks: sites where blood has escaped from circulation and clotted in tissue spaces (hematomas); may signify deficiency in Vit. C or hemophilia (bleeders disease) Appendages of the Skin -arise from the epidermis, maintains unique role body homeostasis I. Cutaneous Glands -all exocrine glands that release secretions to the skin surface via ducts -pushed into deeper skin regions from basale, and resides in dermis Two groups: A. Sebaceous glands -oil glands -found all over skin except palm and sole -ducts empty into a hair follicle, but some open directly onto the skin surface -sebum -product of the sebaceous glands -mixture of oily substances and fragmented cells -lubricant that keeps the skin soft and moist

-prevents hair from becoming brittle -contains chemicals that kill bacteria -become very active during adolescence because hormones are produced B. Sweat Glands -also called sudoriferous glands -widely distributed in the skin -2.5 million glands per person Two types: I. Eccrine -more numerous -produce sweat clear secretion that is 1. primarily water 2. salts (sodium chloride) 3. vitamin C 4. traces of metabolic wastes (ammonia, urea, uric acid) 5. lactic acid (chemical that accumulates during vigorous muscle activity) sweat is acidic (ph 4 to 6) which inhibits the growth of bacteria sweat reaches the skin surface via a duct the opens externally as a funnel shaped pore - important for heat regulation

supplied w/ nerve endlngs that cause them to secrete sweat when external temperature or body temp. is high - it is possible to lose up to 7 L of water on a hot day - if internal temp. changes more than a few degrees 37 C or 98.2 F, life threatening changes occur in the body II. Apocrine Glands -largely confined to the axillary, genital areas of the body -larger than eccrine glands, ducts empty into hair follicles -secretion fatty acids and proteins + other substances milky or yellowish in color odorless, but when bacteria that live on skin use its proteins and fats as source of nutrients, it takes on an unpleasant odor produced continuously - begin to function under the influence of androgens (male sex hormones) - play a minimal role in thermoregulation - precise function: not known yet - activated by nerve fibers during pain/stress/sexual foreplay

C. Hair and hair follicles -serves minor protective functions I. Hair -produced by hair follicle (flexile epithelial structure) -root Part of hair enclosed in the follicle - shaft Part projecting from the surface of the scalp or skin Dead, almost entirely protein -hair is formed by division of the well nourished stratum basale epithelial cells in the matrix (growth zone) -medulla Central core -cortex Surrounds medulla, bound by cuticle -cuticle Single layer of cells that overlap each other like shingles on a roof This arrangement allows to keep hairs apart and keep them from matting Most heavily keratinized region: provides strength and helps inner hair layers tightly compacted Most subject to abrasion, split ends -hair pigment

Made by melanocytes in the hair bulb Varying types of melanin combine to produce hair color Hair types: 1. When hair shaft is oval -hair is smooth and silky, person has wavy hair 2. When hair shaft is flat and ribbonlike -hair is curly or kinky 3. When hair shaft perfectly round -hair is straight and tends to be course -hair is found everywhere except: 1. palm and sole 2. nipples 3. lips -hairs are among the fastest growing tissues of the body -hormones account for the development of hairy regions: scalp, pubic, axillary areas II. Hair follicles - Compound structures - Inner epidermal sheath Composed of epithelial tissue and forms the hair - Outer dermal sheath Dermal connective tissue

 Supplies blood vessels to the epidermal portion and reinforces it Nippelike papilla provides blood supply to matrix in the hair bulb - Arrector pili -connect each side of the hair follicle to the dermal tissue -when these muscles contract, hair is pulled upright dimpling the skin surface w/ goose bumps -hair raising phenomenon is not very useful to humans D. NAILS Nail -scale like modification of the epidermis that corresponds to the hoof or claw of other animals -has a free edge, a body (visible portion), and root (embedded in the skin) -borders of the nail are overlapped by skin folds called nail folds -cuticle Thick proximal nail fold -nail bed Stratum basale of the epidermis extends beneath the nail -nail matrix Thickened proximal area of the nail bed Responsible for nail growth

- As nail cells are produced by matrix, they become heavily keratinized and die - Nails are transparent and nearly colorless, but look pink because of the blood supply in the underlying dermis Exception: lunula (white crescent)= low blood supply due to thick underlying skin Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin - The skin can develop over 1000 different ailments I. Infections and Allergies A. Atheletes foot -itchy, red, peeling condition of the skin between toes, resulting from fungus infection -tinea pedis B. Boils and carbuncles -inflammation of hair follicles and sebaceous glands -common in the dorsal neck -Carbuncles: composite boils typically caused by infection: staphylococcus aureus C. Cold sores -small fluid filled blisters that itch and sting caused by herpes simplex infection

-localizes in the cutaneous nerve until activated by emotional upset, fever or UV rays -usually occur around the lips and oral mucosa of mouth D. Contact dermatitis -itching, redness and swelling of the skin, progressing to blistering -caused by exposure of the skin to chemicals E.Impetigo -pink, water-filled raised lesions that develop a yellow crust and rupture -highly contagious staphylococcus infection -common among elementary school-aged children F. Psoriasis -chronic -overproduction of skin cells that result in reddened epidermal lesions covered w/ dry, silvery scales that itch, burn, crack and bleed -when sever, may be disfiguring -also believed to be an autoimmune disorder in w/c immune system attacks a persons own tissues attacks are triggered by trauma, infection, hormonal changes or stress

II. Burns -skin is only as thick as a paper towel Burn -is tissue damage and cell death caused by intense heat, electricity, UV rays or certain chemicals When skin is burned and its cells destroyed: 1. The body loses its precious supply of fluids containing proteins and electrolytes as these seep from the burned surfaces 2. Dehydration and electrolyte imbalance follow and lead to shutdown of kidneys and circulatory shock (inadequate circulation of blood caused by low blood volume) 3. Later, infection becomes the most impt. Threat and the leading cause of death (burned skin is only sterile up to 24 hours; and the patients immune system becomes depressed w/in 1-2 days after severe burns) RULE OF NINES -volume of fluid lost can be estimated directly by determining how much of the body surface is burned -divides the body in 11 areas, each accounting for 9% of total body surface area+ 1% in genitals

Classification of Burns: 1. First degree burns -only the epidermis is damaged -temporary discomfort -not usually serious and generally heal in 2-3 days without attention -sunburn 2. Second-degree burn -injury to epidermis and upper region of dermis -skin is red and painful, blisters appear -regeneration can occur -no permanent scar result if care is taken to prevent infection *first and second degree burns- partial-thickness burns 3. Third degree burns -destroy the entire thickness of the skin, so these burns are also called full thickness burns -burned area appears blanched or blackened -not painful (destroyed nerve endings) -regeneration is not possible, skin grafting must be done BURNS ARE CRITICAL WHEN: 1. Over 25% of the body has second degree burns

2. Over 10% of the body has third degree burns 3. Third degree burns on face, hands or feet *Facial burns dangerous because: burns in respiratory passage can cause suffocation & joint injuries because scar tissue can severely limit joint mobility Skin Cancer -Most skin neoplasms are benign and do not spread (metastasize) to other body areas -single most common type of cancer -causes: infections, chemicals, physical trauma A. Basal Cell Carcinoma -least malignant and most common type of skin cancer -cells of stratum basale are altered that they cannot form keratin -cancer cells proliferate, invading dermis and subcutaneous tissue -cancer lesions: occur most often on sun-exposed areas and appear as shiny dome shaped noduleslater develop into an ulcer w/ a pearly beaded edge - slow growing, metastasis seldom occurs before its noticed -cure: lesion is removed surgically B. Squamous Cell Carcinoma

-arises from cells of stratum spinosum -lesion appears scaly, reddened papule (small round elevation) forms an ulcer w/ a firm raised border -appears mostly on scalp, ears, dorsum of hands, lower lip -grows rapidly and metastasizes to adjacent lymph nodes if not removed -sun-induced -when caught early and removed surgically/ by radiation therapy, chance of full cure is good C. Malignant Melanoma -cancer of melanocytes -5% of skin cancers -often deadly -can begin wherever there is a pigment, some develop from pigmented moles -arises from accumulated DNA damage in a skin cell, appears like a spreading brown-black patch -metastasizes fast to surrounding lymph and blood vessels -chance for survival 50%, early detection helps -sunbathing, tanning ABCD RULE: 1) Asymmetry- 2 sides of pigmented mole dont match 2) Border irregularity- borders of the lesion are not smooth, exhibit indentations

3) Color-areas of different colors (blacks, browns, tans, blues, reds) 4) Diameter- spot is larger than 6 mm in diameter 5) Elevation-above skin surface Therapy: wide surgical excision w/ immunotherapy DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS: Lanugo -during 5th and 6th months of fetal development, a soon to be born infant is covered w/ this -downy type of hair -shed by birth Vernix caseosa -white, cheesy looking substance -produced by sebaceous glands -protects babys skin while floating in water-filled sac inside mother Newborns skin is very thin, and blood vessels are easily seen through it Milia -accumulations in the sebaceous glands -small white spots on nose and forehead -disappear by 3rd week of birth As baby grows, skin becomes thicker and moist, more subcutaneous fat is deposited

 During adolescence, hair and skin become more oily as sebaceous glands are activated= acne may appear Acne subsides in early adulthood, and skin reaches its optimal appearance during 20s or 30s Dermatitis or skin inflammations become more common as visible changes are seen in our skin During old age, amount of subcutaneous tissue decreasesintolerance to cold Skin also becomes drier, may become itchy and bothersome Thinning of skin, makes it more susceptible to bruising and other types of injuries Decreased elasticity of skin + loss of subcutaneous fat= allows bags to form under eyes and our jowls begin to sag Loss of elasticity: speeded up by smoking and sunlight By 50, number of hair follicles has dropped by 1/3 and continues to decline hair thinning and alopecia (degree of baldness)

Male pattern baldness- maraming lalaki ang nakakalbo A bald man is not really hairless, the hairs are colorless and tiny (vellus hairs) since the follicles have begun to degenerate Graying hair- genetically controlled by a delayed action gene (once gene takes effect, the production of melanin deposited decreases or is entirely absent)