ANAPHY LAB

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

Integument – means “covering”

Components:
 Skin
 Hair
 Nails
 Glands

Major Functions of the Integumentary System:

1. Protection – skin plays an important role in reducing water loss
- The stratified squamous epithelium protects structures from abrasion
- Melanin absorbs UV light
2. Sensation – has sensory receptors that detect heat, cold, touch, pressure and pain
- Sensory receptors around the hair follicle can detect the movement of a hair

Receptors in Skin:
 Hair
 Free nerve endings
 Merkel’s disc – for light touch and superficial pressure
 Meissner’s corpuscle – deeper pressure and located deep in the epidermis
 Hair follicle receptor
 Pacinian (lamellated) corpuscle – detecting deep pressure, vibration and position
 Ruffini’s ending – responsible for detecting the continuous pressure in the skin

3. Vitamin D production – UV light causes skin to produce a precursor molecule of Vitamin D (7-
Dehydrocholesterol)
- Precursor is carried by blood to be modified in the liver
- Carried by blood to the kidney for further modification
- Formation of active Vitamin D
- Vitamin D is an important regulator of calcium homeostasis
4. Temperature Regulation – body temperature normally is maintained at about 37C (98.6F)
- The amount of blood flow beneath the skin surface and the activity of sweat glands in
the skin both help regulate body temperature
- The rate of chemical reactions (metabolism) is altered by the changes in temperature
- When the body is too cold: the blood vessels constrict to reduce blood flow to the skin
and heat is retained
- To cool the body: blood vessels dilate and heat is transferred from the deep tissues into
the skin, thus sweat is produced

Vasodilation – the dilation of blood vessels as a way of the body to release heat

3 Different Types of Heat Loss:

 Radiation – heat is lost through infrared energy
- Gives off waves of heat from uncovered surfaces (head)
  Convection – heat is lost through air movement
 Conduction – heat is lost through direct contact with an object

5. Excretion – skin glands can remove large amounts of sweat, but only a small amount of waste
products

Skin – made up of two major tissues: epidermis and dermis

- Used to determine the body fat
- Skin weighed approximately 9 lbs.
- Usually referred to as “thin skin”. “Thick skin” is usually found only on the palms of the
hands and soles of feet.
Epidermis – most superficial layer of the skin
- Prevents water loss and resists abrasion
- Composed of 5 epidermal strata
- Renewed through the process known as Keratinization
Keratinization – process in which new cells (with keratin) push old cells to surface
- 40-56 days for new cells to reach surface

5 Epidermal Strata:
 Stratum Corneum – outermost layer of the epidermis
- This layer is also coated and surrounded by lipids, making it waterproof

Conditions associated with Stratum Corneum:

o Dandruff – excessive sloughing of corneum from the surface of the scalp
o Callus – hard skin
o Corn – occurs when the corneum thickens to form a cone-shaped structure over a bony
prominence

 Stratum Lucidum – a smooth, seemingly translucent layer that is found only on the thick skin of
palms, soles and digits
 Stratum Granulosum – has grainy appearance due to further changes to the keratinocytes as
they are pushed from the spinosum
- Generates large amounts of keratin, which is fibrous
 Stratum Spinosum – spiny in appearance due to the protruding cell processing that joins the
cells
- Composed of 8-10 layers of keratinocytes

Keratinocytes – these are the cells that manufacture and store the protein keratin

 Stratum Basale/Stratum Germinativum – deepest layer

- Consists of cuboidal or columnar cells that undergo mitotic divisions about every 19
days
- This stratum is a single layer of cells firmly attached to the dermis

Mitotic Divisions – how cells divide

Dermis – composed of dense collagenous connective tissue containing fibroblasts, adipocytes,
macrophages, nerves, hair follicles, smooth muscles, glands and lymphatic vessels
- 2nd major skin region
- Contains collagen and elastic fibers
- Contains cleavage lines or tension lines

Cleavage lines/Tension lines – areas of the skin where it is most resistant to stretching
- Caused by the orientation of collagen fibers
- Vital in scarring
- An incision made across cleavage lines can gap, increasing the time needed for healing
and resulting in increased scar tissue formation
- An incision made parallel to cleavage lines results in less gapping, faster healing and less
scar tissue
Stretch Marks – visible lines through the epidermis that result from overstretched skin
- Common when a person increasis in size quite rapidly

Layers of the Dermis:

 Papillary Layer – thin connective tissue layer which contains blood vessels

Dermal Papillae – projections that extend up into the epidermis

- Remove waste and help regulate body temperature
- Ridged on hands and feet (fingerprints) which helps to grip objects by creating friction
- Pattern is genetically determined
- Responsible for our fingerprints

 Reticular Layer – deepest layer of the dermis

- Accounts for 80% of dermis

Skin Color and Variations are Determined by:

 Pigments
 Genetics
 Blood circulation
 Thickness of stratum corneum

Melanocytes – irregularly shaped cells that is responsible for the production of melanin
- Melanocytes of darker skinned people produce more and darker melanin than fairer-
skinned people
- All races have the same number of melanocytes
Melanin – produces melanocytes
- Ranges from yellow to reddish-brown to black
- Responsible for hair and eye color
- Provides protection against UV light
- Amount produced is determined by genetics, IV light and hormones
Freckles – the accumulation of melanin
Albinism – absence of melanin

Melanin Transfer to Epithelial Cells:

1. Melanosomes are produced by the Golgi Apparatus of the melanocyte
 2. Melanosomes move into the melanocyte cell processes
3. Epithelial cells phagocytize the tips of the melanocyte cell processes
4. The melanosomes, which were produced inside the melanocytes, have been transferred to
epithelial cells and now inside them

Hypodermis/Subcutaneous Tissue – serves as shock absorber and insulator that retains heat and
responsible in some of the differences in appearance between men and women
- Used to estimate total body fat
- Attached skin to underlying tissue and bone
- Supplies the area with blood vessels and nerves
- The amount and location of adipose tissue varies with age, sex and diet

Accessory Skin Structures:

 Hair – it is found everywhere

Hair components:
 Hair Shaft – flexible strands of keratinized cells; protrudes above the surface of the skin
 Hair Root – protrudes below the surface
 Hair Bulb – this is where the hair is produced
 Hair Follicle – group of cells that surround the root and bulb and responsible for giving different
shapes to the hair
- An invagination of the epidermis that extends deep into the dermis
 Hair Cortex – a hard covering of hair that is surrounded by the cuticle
 Hair Medulla – softer center that is surrounded by the cortex
 Hair Papilla – an extension of the dermis that protrudes into the hair bulb
- Contains the blood vessels that supplies the hair bulb with nourishment they needed to
produce hair
 Arrector Pili – made up of smooth muscle that surrounds each hair follicle
- Arrector Pili’s contraction causes the hair to become more perpendicular to the skin
surface (goosebumps)

Glands of the Skin:

 Sebaceous Glands – secrete sebum, released by holocrine secretion

Sebum – oily substance which in lipids that lubricates hair and skin to prevent dryness and makes the
skin waterproof

 Sweat Glands – two types are eccrine and aprocrine

Eccrine Sweat Glands – produces secretion that is mostly water with a few salts
- Opens into sweat pores

Apocrine Sweat Glands – produce a thick secretion rich in organic substances

- Open into hair follicles in the armpits and genitalia

 Nails – a thin plate with layers of dead stratum corneum cells with a very hard type of keratin
Nail Structure:
 Nail Body – visible part of the nail
 Nail Root – part of the nail covered by the skin
 Cuticle/Eponychium – a stratum corneum that extends onto the nail body
 Nail Matrix – made up of epithelial cells that gives rise to most of the nail
 Nail Bed – located distally to the nail matrix
 Lunula – whitish, crescent-shaped area seen at the base of the nail

Integumentary System as a Diagnostic Aid:

 Sandpaper Texture (skin) – associated with vitamin A deficiency in which the skin produces
excess keratin
 Spoon-shaped nails (koilonychia) – associated with iron-deficiency anemia in which the nails lose
their normal contour and become flat or concave

Variation in Skin Color:

 Redness/Blushing – caused by increased blood flowing through the skin
- Associated with fever, hypertension, inflammation and allergies

Scarlet Fever – a bacterial infection that caused a reddish rash on the skin

 Pallor/Paleness – caused by decreased blood flow

- Associated with anemia, low blood pressure and shock
 Cyanosis – bluish color of the skin caused by a decrease in the blood oxygen content
- Associated with impaired circulation or respiratory functions
 Jaundice – yellowish discoloration of the skin
- Associated with liver disorder or too much consumption of carotene

Carotene – yellow pigment found in plants such as squash or carrots

- Normally used as a source of vitamin A and accumulates in lipids of stratum corneum
and the adipocytes of dermis and subcutaneous tissue
Bilirubin – causes the yellowish color to happen (hepatitis)
 Bronzing – a darkened skin pigmentation usually caused bu stimulant effect of excess
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) on the melanocytes
- Associated with Addison’s Disease
 Bruising – a blue to purple discoloration caused by broken blood vessels
- Associated with trauma, blood disorders
 Burn – an injury to a tissue caused by heat, cold, friction, chemicals, electricity or radiation

Classification of Burns:
 Partial-Thickness Burn – part of the stratum basale remains viable and regeneration of the
epidermis occurs from within the burn area, as well as from the edges of the burn
o First-Degree Burn – involves only the epidermis
- Presence of redness, slight swelling, pain
- Heals within 2-3 days or about a week with no scarring
- Usually caused by sunburn or brief exposure to very hot or very cold
o Second-Degree Burn – damages both the epidermis and dermis
- Symptoms may include redness, pain, swelling and blisters
 - If minimal dermal damage, heals about 2 weeks with no scarring
- If burn goes deep into the dermis, the wound appears red, tan or white and heals for
several months with some scarring
 Full-Thickness Burn/Third-Degree Burn – the epidermis and dermis are completely destroyed
- Usually painless as the sensory receptors have been destroyed
- The burned areas appear white, tan, brown, black or deep cherry red
- Recovery occurs from the edges of the burn wound
- Skin graft may be necessary

Burn Treatments:
 Split Skin Graft – a burn treatment procedure in which the epidermis and part of the dermis are
removed from another part of the body and placed over the burned area
 Debridement – a procedure that involves the removal of dead tissue from the burn area that
helps prevent infections by cleaning the wound

Diseases and Disorders of the Skin:

 Ringworm – fungal infection that produces patchy scaling and inflammatory response in the skin
 Eczema and Dermatitis – inflammatory conditions of the skin caused by allergy, infection, poor
circulation or exposure to chemical or environmental factors
 Psoriasis – chronic skin disease characterized by thicker than normal epidermal layer (stratum
corneum) that sloughs to produce large, silvery scales; bleeding may occur if the scales are
scraped away

Bacterial Infections:
 Impetigo – small blisters containing pus; easily rupture to form a thick, yellowish crust; usually
affects children
 Decubitus Ulcers (bedsores or pressure sores) – develop in people who are bedridden or
confined to a wheelchair; compression of tissue and reduced circulation result in the destruction
of the subcutaneous tissue and skin, which later become infected by bacteria, forming ulcers

Viral Infections:
 Rubeola (measles) – skin lesions; caused by a virus contracted through the respiratory tract; may
develop into pneumonia or infect the brain, causing damage
 Rubella (German Measles) – skin lesions; usually mild viral disease contracted through the
respiratory tract; if contracted during the pregnancy, it can cross the placenta and damage the
fetus
 Chicken Pox – skin lesions; usually mild viral disease contracted through the respiratory tract
 Shingles – painful skin lesions that can reccur when the dormant virus is activated by trauma,
stress or another illness; caused by the chicken pox virus after childhood infection
 Cold Sores (fever blisters) – skin lesions; caused by herpes simplex I virus; transmitted by oral or
respiratory routes; lesions recur
 Genital Herpes – genital lesions; cauded by herpes simplex II virus; transmitted by sexual contact

Skin Cancer – most common type of cancer

- Fair-skinned people or older than 50 years old are at risk
- Prevented by limiting sun exposure and using sunscreens that block UVA and UVB rays
UVA rays – causes tanning of the skin
UVB rays – causes burning of the skin

Types of Skin Cancer:

 Basal Cell Carcinoma – most frequent type
- From stratum basale to dermis
- Readily treatable with surgery
 Squamous Cell Carcinoma – develops from cells superficial to stratum basale
- May spread (metastasize) and lead to death
 Malignant Melanoma – rare form that arises from melanocytes
- Comes from a pre-existing mole
- Metastasis is common and fatal

Effects of Aging:
 Blood flow to the skin is reduced
 Skin becomes thinner and elasticity is lost
 Sweat and sebaceous glands are less active
 Gray or white hair is evident

SKELETAL SYSTEM

Functions of the Skeletal System:

1. Support
2. Protect
3. Movement
4. Storage
5. Blood Cell Production

Components of Skeletal System:

 Bone
 Cartilage – reduce friction and model for bone formation
 Tendons – attach bone to muscle
 Ligaments – attach bone to bone

Bones, cartilage, tendons and ligaments are connective tissues

Connective tissue – a tissue that supports, protects and gives structure to other tissues and organs in the
body
Proteoglycans – large polysaccharides attached to proteins
- Part of ground substance
- Store water
Extracellular Matrix – is a large network of proteins and other molecules that surround, support and give
structure to cells and tissues in the body
Collagen and Minerals – bone’s extracellular matrix (flexible and able to bear weight)
Collagen and Proteoglycans – cartilage’s extracellular matrix (good shock absorber)
Collagen – tendons and ligament’s extracellular matrix (very tough)
Classification of Bones:
Based on shape
 Long
 Short
 Flat – for protection of vital organs
 Irregular

Type of Bone Tissue

 Compact
 Spongy (cancellous)

Long Bone Structure

 Diaphysis – shaft
- Compact bone tissue (on outside)
 Epiphysis – ends
- Spongy bone tissue
 Articular Cartilage – covers epiphyses
- Reduces friction
 Epiphyseal plate – site of growth
- Between diaphysis and epiphysis
 Medullary cavity – center of diaphysis
- Red or yellow marrow
 Periosteum – membrane around bone’s outer surface
 Endosteum – membrane that lines medullary cavity

Compact Bone Tissue

 Location – outer part of diaphysis (long bones) and thinner surfaces of other bones
 Osteon – structural unit of compact bone
- Includes lamella, lacunae, canaliculus, central canal and osteocytes
 Lamella – rings of bone matrix
 Lacunae – spaces between lamella
 Canaliculus – tiny canals
- Transports nutrients and removes waste
 Central canal – center of osteon
- Contains blood vessels for nutrients

Spongy Bone Tissue

 Location – epiphyses of long bones and center of other bones
 Trabeculae – interconnecting rods, spaces contain marrow
 No osteons

Bone Cells
 Osteocytes – maintain bone matrix
 Osteoblast – build bone tissues
 Osteoclasts – carve bones
Bone Formation
 Ossification – process of bone formation (occurs in utero)
 Osteoblast’s role – build bone
- After an osteoblast becomes surrounded by bone
- Matrix becomes an osteocyte

Ossification Center – where bone formation begins

Primary Ossification Center – where bone first begins to appear
- Forms diaphyses
Secondary Ossification Center – forms epiphyses

Intramembranous Ossification – bone formation within connective tissue membranes

- Osteoblasts build bone (ex. Skull bones
Endochondral Ossification – bone formation inside cartilage
- Cartilage models are replaced by bone (all bones excet skull)

Steps in Endochondral Ossification:

1. Chondroblasts build a cartilage model, the chondroblasts become chondrocytes
2. Cartilage model calcifies (hardens)
3. Osteoblasts invade calcified cartilage and a primary ossification center forms diaphysis
4. Secondary ossification centers for epiphysis
5. Original cartilage model is almost completely ossified and remaining cartilage is articular
cartilage

Bone Growth
 Infancy and Youth – long bones lengthen at epiphyseal plate
- Long bones widen by adding more lamella
 End of bone growth (in length) – epiphyseal plate is replaced by an epiphyseal line

Bone Repair
1. Broken bone causes bleeding and a blood clot forms
2. Callus forms which is a fibrous network between 2 fragments
3. Cartilage model forms first then, osteoblasts enter the callus and form cancellous bone this
continues for 4-6 weeks after injury
4. Cancellous bone is slowly remodeled to form compact and cancellous bone

Bone Remodeling – removal of existing bone by osteoclasts and deposition of new bone by osteoblasts
- Occurs in all bones
- Responsible for changed in bone shape, repair, adjustment of bone to stress and
calcium ion regulation

Bone and Calcium Homeostasis

 Bone is a major storage site for calcium
 Movement of calcium in and out of bone helps determine blood levels of calcium
 Calcium moves into bone as osteoblasts build new bone
 Calcium move out of bone as osteoclasts break down bone
 Calcium homeostasis is maintained by parathyroid hormone (PTH) and calcitonin
Hematopoietic Tissue – tissue that makes blood cells
Red Marrow – location of blood forming cells
- Location of hematopoietic tissue in newborns
Yellow Marrow – mostly fat

Location of hematopoietic tissue in adults:

- Red is replaced with yellow marrow
- Red marrow is mainly in epiphyses of femur and humerus

Bone Anatomy:
 Foramen – hole (ex. Foramen Magnum)
 Process – projection (ex. Mastoid process)
 Fossa – depression (ex. Glenoid fossa)
 Condyle – smooth, rounded end (ex. Occipital condyle)
 Meatus – canal-like passageway (ex. External auditory meatus)
 Tubercle – lump of bone (ex. Greater tubercle)

Anatomical Terms for Features of Bones:

Major Features:
 Body, Shaft – main portion
 Head – enlarged (often rounded) end
 Neck – constricted area between head and body
 Condyle – smooth, rounded articular surface
 Facet – small, flattened articular surface
 Crest – prominent ridge
 Process – prominent projection
 Tubercle or Tuberosity – knob or enlargement
 Trochanter – large tuberosity found only on proximal femur
 Epicondyle – enlargement near or above a condyle

Openings or Depressions:
 Foramen – hole
 Canal, Meatus – tunnel
 Fissure – cleft
 Sinus – cavity or empty space
 Fossa – Depression

2 Divisions of Skeletal System:

 Axial Skeleton
 Appendicular Skeleton

Parts of Axial Skeleton:

 Skull
 Vertebral Column
 Thoracic Cage

I. Neurocranium – composed of 8 cranial bones

 - 29 bones
Mastoid Process – attached to neck muscles
External Auditory Meatus – ear canal
Nasolacrimal Canal – canal between nasal cavity and eye
- Conducts tears
Styloid Process – attachment site for tongue
Mandibular Fossa – depression where lower jaw and skull meet

II. Facial Bones/Viscerocranium

 Zygomatic – cheek bone
 Mandible – lower jaw
 Maxilla – upper jaw
 Hard Palate – roof of mouth
 Hyoid Bone – floating bone

Birth Defects – orofacial defects

1. Cleft Lip
2. Cleft Palate

Cranial Sutures – fibrous bonds of tissue that connects the bones of the skull
 Corona Suture – connects frontal bone to the parietal bone
 Squamous Suture – binds or connect the parietal bone and temporal bone
 Lambdoid Suture – connects the parietal bone and occipital bone
 Saggital suture – connects the two parietal bones

Fontanelles – junction where 2 frontal and 2 parietal bones meet

Vertebral Column Parts

 7 cervical vertebra
 12 thoracic vertebra
 5 lumbar vertebra
 1 sacrum
 1 coccyx
 Atlas - 1st vertebra holds head
 Axis – 2nd vertebra rotates head

Functions of Vetebral Column:

 Support
 Protect Spinal Cord
 Movement

Thoracic Cage – protects vital organs

- Formed by 12 pairs of ribs
 Sternum
 Breastbone
Classification of Ribs:
 True Ribs – attach directly to sternum by cartilage
 False Ribs – attach indirectly to sternum by cartilage
 Floating Ribs – not attached to sternum

Appendicular Skeleton – 126 appendicular bones

- 64 bones in upper extremities
- 62 bones in lower extremities

Parts of Appendicular Skeleton:

1. Pectoral Girdle – shoulder girdle
- Responsible for providing support to the shoulder
2. Upper Limb
3. Pelvic Girdle

Pectoral Girdle Parts:

 Clavicle – collar bone
 Scapula – shoulder blade

Upper Limb Bones:

 Humerus – upper limb
- The longest and largest bone of the upper limp
 Ulna – forearm
 Radius - forearm
 Carpal - wrist
 Metacarpals – hand

Pelvic Girdle Parts:

 Pelvis – includes pelvic girdle and coccyx
 Ischium – inferior and posterior region
 Ilium – most superior region
 Acetabulum – hip socket (joint)

Differences Between Male and Female Pelvic Girdles:

 General – female pelvis somewhat lighter in weight and wider laterally but shorter superiorly to
inferiorly and less funnel-shaped; less obvious muscle attachment points in female than in male
 Sacrum – broader in female, with the inferior portion directed more posteriorly; the sacral
promontory projects less anteriorly in female
 Pelvic inlet – heart shaped in male; oval in female
 Pelvic outlet – broader and more shallow in female
 Subpubic angle – less than 90 degrees in male; 90 degrees or more in female
 Ilium – more shallow and flared laterally in female
 Ischial spines – farther apart in female
 Ischial tuberosities – turned laterally in female and mediallu in male

Lower Limb Bones:

 Femur - thigh
  Patella – knee cap
 Tibia – large lower leg
 Fibula – small lower leg
 Tarsals - ankle
 Metatarsals – foot
 Phalanges – toes and fingers

22 bones – skull
6 bones – auditory ossicles
26 bones – vertebral column
25 bones – thoracic cage
80 bones – axial skeleton
64 bones – girdle and upper limb
62 bones – girdle and lower limb
126 – appendicular skeleton
206 – total bones in the body