Cell Membrane

The cell membrane acts as a selective barrier to control the movement of essential substances
for one’s survival. Made up of Phospholipid Bilayer

- All cells have a cell membrane made of phosphate, proteins, & lipids
- It’s a double layer of phosphates & fats (lipids)
- Phospholipids, the cell membrane’s fundamental building blocks, have hydrophilic
(water loving) phosphate heads & hydrophobic (water hating) fatty acid tails
- The cell membrane both repels & attracts water at the same time

Cellular Transport
The process by which molecules are moved from 1 side of the cell membrane to the
other

Factors of cell transport

- Structure & composition of the membrane
- Size of molecules
- Pressure gradient (High to low concentration) or movement of molecules
- Internal & external condition of the cell

Types
- Active: Needs energy (ATP). Moves molecules from low to high &
therefore not needing a pressure gradient
Types of active transport
- Exocytosis: The membrane engulfs waste particles & spew them out. Allows
waste particles that are too big for the membrane & protein channels to pass
 - Endocytosis: The membrane engulfs food particles & put them inside the cell
Allows food particles that are too big for the membrane & protein channels to
pass

Types of Endocytosis
- Phagocytosis: Eating large molecules of food
- Pinocytosis: Drinking small liquids

- Passive: Doesn’t require energy. Moves molecules from high to low

concentration
Types of passive transport
- Facilitated diffusion: Big molecules getting in & out through the use of protein
channels
- Simple diffusion: Small molecules getting in & out w/o the use of protein
channels
Types of simple diffusion
- Osmosis: A special type of diffusion that is limited to the movement of water.
The water will move from areas of higher concentration to areas of lower
concentration. Requires a semipermeable membrane
Osmosis
Terms
- Solute: Particles to be dissolved
- Solvent: Substance that dissolves

- Hypo: Low
- Hyper: High
- Iso: Equal

Types of solution
- Isotonic: Solute = solvent
- Hypertonic: Solute > solvent
- Hypotonic: Solute < solvent

Water balance in animal cells

- If the animal cell is in a hypotonic (water flows in) environment, the cell gains
water, swells, & may pop. This is called cell lysis
- If the cell is in a hypertonic (water exits) environment, the cell loses water,
shrivels, & may die. This is called plasmolysis

Water balance in plant cells

- Plant cells like a hypotonic environment. Their strong cell wall withstand the
osmotic pressure than can cause animal cells to burst or shrivel. At most, their
vacuoles will expand
- If the cell is in a hypertonic environment, it will shrink however not as intense as
an animal cell would in a hypertonic environment. This is again due to its cell
wall
Integumentary system
System consists of the skin & its accessory structures, including the hair, nails,
sebaceous glands, & sweat glands

Skin
- The exterior covering of the body
- Weighs more than 6 pounds in the average adult, & covers more than 3k
square inches
- Largest organ in the body
- Supplied w/ blood vessels & nerves

Functions of the skin

- Provides protection against invasion by bacteria & harmful agents
- Inhibits excessive loss of water & electrolytes
- Produces protective pigmentation to protect the body against excessive
exposure from the sun
- Helps produce the body’s supply of vitamin D
- Regulates body temperature. Blood vessels constrict when it’s too cold &
dilates when it’s too hot. Sweat glands also produce more sweat when it’s too
hot too
- Provides sensation as it contains nerve endings that act as sensory receptors
for pain, heat, cold, & pressure
Layers of the skin
- Epidermis: Outermost skin layer. Consists of 4 types of cells & several sub-
layers called strata
Types of cells in the Epidermis
- Keratinocytes: Produces the fibrous protein keratin
- Melanocytes: Produces the brown pigment melanin
- Merkel cells: Functions as touch receptors in association w/ sensory nerve
endings
- Langerhans’ cells: Epidermal macrophages that help activate the immune
system
Layers of the Epidermis
- Stratum Corneum (Horny layer): The outermost strata of the epidermis. Mostly
dead cells, filled w/ a protein substance called keratin
- Stratum Lucidum (Clear layer): A translucent layer lying directly beneath the
corneum. May not even exist in thinner skin. Cells in this layer are also dead or
are in the process of dying
- Stratum Granulosum (Granular layer): One or more layers of cells starting to die
& become hard. They are in the process of keratinization, becoming fibrous
protein similar to that in hair & nails
- Stratum Spinosum (Spiny layer): Also known as the prickle cell layer, due to the
fact that the cells are held together w/ spiny projections
- Stratum Germinativum (Basal layer): The innermost layer of the epidermis.
Contains melanin, the pigment that gives color to the skin
 - Dermis: Beneath the epidermis & is composed of connective tissue. Contains
lymphatics, nerves, nerve endings, blood vessels, sebaceous & sweat glands,
elastic fiber, & hair follicles. Compose of 2 layers: papillary & reticular
- Hypodermis: Subcutaneous layer deep in the skin. Contains fatty tissue/
adipose tissue protects inner organs & maintains body temperature

Skin color
- Melanin: Yellow to reddish-brown to black pigment. Responsible for dark colors
- Carotene: Yellow to orange pigment. Most obvious in the palms & soles
- Hemoglobin: Reddish pigment. Responsible for the pinkish hue of the skin

Glands
- Sweat glands (Sudoriferous gland):
- About 2 million are distributed over the surface of the body, more numerous on
the palms, soles, forehead, & axillae/underarms
- Sweat rids the body of waste through the pores of the skin
- As it accumulates, sweat may become odorous because of bacteria
- Oil glands (Sebaceous gland):
- Softens skin when stimulated by hormones
- Simple alveolar glands can be found all over the body
- Secretes an oily secretion called sebum
- Has tiny ducts that open each hair follicle
Hair
- A threadlike structure formed by a group of cells that develop within a hair
follicle or socket
- Each hair has a shaft that is visible & a root that is embedded in the follicle
- Made up of hard keratin
- Helps maintain warmth
- Alerts the body to the presence of insects or foreign objects on the skin
- Guards the scalp against physical trauma, heat loss, & sunlight

Nail
- Hard keratin structures that protect the ends of the fingers & toes
- Most of the nail body appears pink due to underlying capillaries

Common skin ailments

Acne
Acne is a common skin condition that happens when hair follicles under the skin
become clogged. It’s caused by excess/high production of oil, buildup of dead skin
cells, & the growth of bacteria in the pore. Most outbreaks happen in the face
Types of acne
- Whiteheads: Plugged hair follicles that stay beneath the skin & produces a
white bump
- Blackheads: Plugged follicles that reach the surface of the skin & opens up
- Papules: Inflamed lesions that usually appear as small, pink bumps on the skin
- Pustules/pimples: Papules topped by white or yellow pus - filled lesions that
may be red at the base
- Nodules: Large, painful solid lesions that are lodged deep within the skin
- Severe nodular acne (cystic acne): Deep, painful, puss-filled lesions
Psoriasis
Psoriasis is a chronic disease in which the immune system becomes overactive,
causing skin cells to multiply too quickly. It is seen as patches of itchy or burning thick,
red skin w/ silvery-white scales on the elbows knees, scalp, trunk, palms, & soles of the
feet; Dry, cracked skin; Thick, ridged, pitted nails
Vitiligo
A chronic autoimmune disorder that causes patches of skin to lose pigment or color.
This happens when melanocytes are attacked & destroyed, causing the skin to turn a
milky-white color

Alopecia Areata
Causes hair loss & can occur anywhere on your body. Usually begins in children &
young adults, but it can start at any age

Athlete’s foot
A fungal infection that affects the upper layer of the skin of the foot, especially when it’s
warm, moist, & irritated. The skin, especially in between the toes, becomes itchy –
there is also a stinging or burning sensation. It is contagious
Muscular system
The muscular system, together w/ the skeletal system, gives the body its structure &
support for movement

Muscles
- Moves body parts since they are attached to bones
- Consists of bundles of fibers

Muscle fibers
- Muscle fibers consists of a small, threadlike cylindrical structures known as
myofibrils
- Muscle fibers shorten when a muscle contracts
Muscular system support
- Tendons: Connects the skeletal muscle to the bone (BTS: Bone, tendon,
skeletal)
- Fascia: Holds the myofibrils/strands together

Functions of the muscular system

- Muscles allow us to do various positions
- Muscles hold skeleton together
- Help maintain a normal body temperature
- Muscles affect the rate of blood flow
- Muscles allow digestion
- Muscles allow movement

Types of muscles
- Skeletal muscles: Muscles attached to the bone
- Smooth muscles: Muscles that make up the internal organs (except for the
heart)
- Cardiac muscles: Muscles that make up the heart
Muscle types & differences
Number of
Type Function Appearance Location Example
nucleus/nuclei
Attached
Leg
Skeletal Voluntary Striped Multinucleate to the
muscles
bones
Internal Small
Smooth Involuntary Smooth Single nucleus
organs intestine
Heart
Cardiac Involuntary Striped Single nucleus Heart
muscles
Muscle anatomy

Skeletal system
The body system that serves as a support framework, protects vital organs, works w/
muscles to produce movement, & produce blood cells
- Composed of bones, ligaments, & tendons (BLT: Bone, ligament, & tendon)
- Produces blood cells in the red marrow
- Stores calcium & phosphorous
- Majority of our bones are found in our hands & feet

Parts of the skeletal system

- Bones
- Joints
- Cartilages
- Ligaments (Bone to bone) (Tendon: Bone to muscle)

Divisions of the skeletal system

- Appendicular: Shoulders, arms, hips, & legs (126 bones in total)
 - Axial: Skull, rib cage, spine, & sternum (80 bones in total)

Bones
Types
- Long: (Arms & legs) Bones longer than they’re wide
- Flat: (Skull & sternum) Flat, curved. Provides broad surfaces for muscle
attachment & protection of internal organs
- Short: (wrist & ankle) Usually square in shape in shape, cube like
- Irregular: (Vertebrae & pelvis) Odd shapes
- Sesamoid: (Patella) Small, round bones embedded within tendons, often near
joints
Structures of the bone
- Periosteum (Outer layer of the bone): A tough, white membrane covering &
protecting the bones
- Compact bone: A dense connective tissue found underneath the periosteum.
Contains bone cells, blood vessels, & collagen
- Spongy bone: A loosely structured network of separated connective tissue
found underneath the compact bone
- Bone marrow: A soft tissue found within the spongy bone
Types of bone marrow
- Red bone marrow: Found in flat bones & produces red & white blood cells
- Yellow bone marrow: Found in long bones & consists of fats that store energy

Major bones of the body

Protects organs
- Thoracic cage:
- Known as the ribcage, is a body structure that surrounds & protects the organs
in the thoracic cavity, including the heart & lungs
- Consists of the sternum (breast bone), the thoracic vertebrae, & 12 pairs of ribs
w/ their coastal cartilages
 - Skull:
- Divided into 2 main parts: cranium & mandible (jaw)
- Forms the head & protects the brain
- Bones are connected by sutures
- Only the mandible is attached by a freely movable joint

Supports weight & facilitate movement

- Pelvis:
- A basin-shaped structure that forms the lower part of the trunk & supports the
weight of the upper body when sitting
- Female pelvises tends to be wider & shallower than male pelvises,
accommodating the needs of childbirth
- Spine:
- Consists of individual vertebrae that support the body & protect the spinal cord
- It allows flexibility & movement while maintaining an upright posture
- Clavicle/collar bone:
- Holds the shoulder joint away from the rest of the upper body
- Only as thick as your finger

- Scapula:
- Located on the back side of the ribcage
- Helps provide part of the shoulder joint & movement for the arms

- Humerus, Radius, & Ulna:

- These are the bones of the arm (Humerus is the upper arm while radius & ulna
are the lower)
- They support the weight of the upper body & facilitate various arm movements

- Carpals & metacarpals:

- Carpals provide flexibility to the wrist & contribute to movements of the hand
- Metacarpals provide structural support to the hand & contribute to its overall
function & mobility
- Femur:
- The femur is the longest & strongest bone in the body
- It supports the body’s weight & facilitates movement at the hip joint
- Tibia & fibula:
- The bones of the lower leg
- They support the body’s weight & provide attachment points for muscles
involved in walking & standing
 - Tarsals & metatarsals:
- Tarsals are the seven bones that make up the ankle & the proximal part of the
foot
- Tarsals provide stability to the ankle joint & contribute to the overall structure of
the foot
- Metatarsals are the long bones that connect the tarsals to the phalanges (toe
bones)
- Metatarsals provide support, help maintain the arch of the foot, & contribute to
the propulsion of the body during walking & running

- Joints:
- A joint is a place where 2 bones come together
- Joints allow the bones to move in different ways
Types of joints
- Immovable: A joint that allows little or no movement
- Movable: Allow the body to move in a wide range of movements. Bones in
movable joints are held together by strong connective tissue called ligaments
Types of movable joints
- Ball & socket
- Pivot
- Hinge
- Saddle
- Gliding/plane
- Condyloid
Common skeletal ailments

Scoliosis
A medical condition characterized by an abnormal curvature of the spine. This
condition can affect any part of the spine but is most common in the thoracic and
lumbar regions
Symptoms
- Uneven shoulders or hips
- One shoulder blade appearing more prominent
- Uneven waist
- Leaning to one side

Treatment
- Observation: Mild cases only require regular monitoring
- Bracing: For moderate curves in growing children to prevent progression
- Surgery: In severe cases or when other treatments are ineffective, spinal fusion
may be recommended to straighten & stabilize the spine

Osteoporosis
A medical condition characterized by the weakening of bones, leading to an increased
risk of fractures. It occurs when the density & quality of bone are reduced
Symptoms
- Often referred to as a silent disease because it may progress without symptoms
until a fracture occurs
- Fractures, especially in the hip, spine, & wrist, are common symptoms
- Loss of height & a stooped posture may be observed due to vertebral
compression fractures

Prevention & treatment

- Adequate calcium & vitamin D intake
- Weight-bearing exercises to promote bone health
- Medications, including bisphosphonates, hormone therapy, or other drugs to
prevent bone loss
- Lifestyle modifications to reduce fall risks

Fracture
Commonly known as a broken bone. Occurs when there is a disruption in the continuity
of the bone. Fractures can range from mild, where the bone is partially cracked or
broken, to severe where the bone is completely shattered or displaced
Dislocation
Occurs when the normal alignment of two bones at a joint is disrupted, resulting in the
bones being forced out of their usual positions. Dislocations commonly affect joints,
and they can be caused by trauma, accidents, or falls
Anterior Cruciate Ligament
A common knee injury that occurs when the ACL, one of the major ligaments in the
knee joint, is partially or completely torn. This injury is often associated w/ sports
activities that involve sudden stops, changes in direction, or direct blows to the knee