BIOL 1200: Human Biology

Study Guide for EXAM 1 - Chapters 1 through 3

NOTE: This study guide is a general guideline. It is not intended to be all-inclusive. You should study your
lecture notes, read the chapters in the text, and study the summary and exercises at the end of the chapter.

1. Be able to name and describe the six characteristics of life that are common to all living organisms.
2. Describe the levels of organization of life. (See Fig. 1.2, p. 3)
3. Define energy. Name two ways in which organisms acquire energy. Define metabolism.
4. Define homeostasis. How is it important?
5. What is an adaptation? Explain the relationship between adaptations and evolutionary change.
6. Name and briefly describe the three domains of life.
7. Describe the four kingdoms belonging to Domain Eukarya. (See Fig. 1.6, p. 8) What types of organisms
might be found in each of these kingdoms?
8. Define science. What is the difference between objectivity and subjectivity? Which of these is the aim of
science?
9. Define: hypothesis, theory, principle (law).
10. Describe the steps of the scientific method.
11. Given an experimental situation, be able to identify the experimental (independent) variable, the
responding (dependent) variable, and the control group.
12. With regard to collected data, how are graphs and statistics important?
13. Explain the importance of scientific journals (primary sources of scientific information).
14. Define: matter, element, atom, isotope, compound, molecule, ion.
15. Be familiar with the subatomic particles composing an atom.
16. What can you tell from an atom’s atomic number, atomic mass, and atomic symbol?
17. What determines the chemical properties (reactivity) of an atom?
18. What are the differences between ionic and covalent bonds?
19. What is meant by polarity? How does it contribute to hydrogen bonding?
20. Be familiar with the properties of water.
21. Define: acid, base, buffer.
22. What is the pH scale? What is the amount of difference from one unit to the next on the pH scale?
23. What characteristic of carbon makes it ideal for forming the basis of molecules of life?
24. What is the difference between organic and inorganic molecules?
25. Name and describe the four categories of organic molecules.
26. What is condensation? What is hydrolysis?
27. How do you determine if a fat or oil is saturated or unsaturated?
28. Briefly explain the functions of proteins in humans/animals. (See p. 35)
29. What characteristic of a protein molecule determines its function?
30. How are proteins denatured? What effect does denaturation have on proteins?
31. Describe the four levels of protein structure.
32. What are some important nucleic acids? What, in general, is their function?
33. Compare the structures of DNA and RNA.
34. Describe the structure of ATP. What is the function of this molecule?
35. Define cell.
36. What is the cell theory?
37. Be able to explain surface area to volume relationships regarding cell size.
38. Distinguish between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
39. What is the function of the plasma membrane of a cell?
40. What is the cytoplasm?
41. Explain the importance of compartmentalization to eukaryotic cells.
42. Describe the structure and function of the following eukaryotic cell organelles: nucleus, ribosomes,
endoplasmic reticulum (rough and smooth), Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vesicles, mitochondria,
microtubules, cytoskeleton, cilia, flagella. (See p. 47)
43. What are the functions of adhesion junctions, tight junctions, and, gap junctions in animal cells?
44. What is the endosymbiotic hypothesis?
45. Describe the fluid-mosaic model of the plasma (cell) membrane.
46. Define: selectively permeable, diffusion, osmosis.
47. Define: isotonic, hypotonic, and hypertonic solutions.
48. Compare facilitated (passive) transport with active transport.
49. Define: endocytosis, phagocytosis, pinocytosis, and exocytosis.
50. Define metabolism.
51. What is a metabolic pathway?
52. Define: substrates (reactants), intermediates, enzymes, coenzymes, end products.
53. What four features do enzymes have in common?
54. Define: active site, allosteric site.
55. Define activation energy. How is it altered when enzymes are present?
56. Describe the three components of an ATP molecule.
57. What is the function of ATP?
58. What is phosphorylation? What is the significance of the ATP/ADP cycle?
59. Define cellular respiration.
60. Describe the basic steps required in the breakdown of glucose by cellular respiration. Where does each
step occur in the cell? Which steps require oxygen? How many ATP molecules are produced in each
step? (See pp. 60 – 62)
61. What is fermentation? Where does it occur in the cell? When might it occur? Is oxygen used in the
fermentation process? How many ATP are generated from fermentation? What does the “burning”
sensation in overexerted muscles have to do with fermentation? What is oxygen debt? Distinguish
between lactate fermentation and alcoholic fermentation.
 BIOL 1200: Human Biology
Study Guide for EXAM 2 - Chapters 4 through 6

NOTE: This study guide is a general guideline. It is not intended to be all-inclusive. You should study your
lecture notes, read the chapters in the text, and study the summary and exercises at the end of the chapter.

Chapter 4
1. What are tissues?
2. Name the four major tissue types. Briefly, what are their functions?
3. What are the three basic components that all connective tissues contain? What is the matrix portion of
connective tissue?
4. What three types of fibers are found in connective tissue?
5. Describe fibrous connective tissue. Distinguish among loose fibrous connective tissue, adipose tissue,
and dense fibrous connective tissue.
6. Describe supportive connective tissue.
7. Distinguish among the following types of cartilage: hyaline cartilage, elastic cartilage, fibrocartilage.
8. What substances are responsible for the hardness of bone?
9. Distinguish between compact bone and spongy bone.
10. Describe the following liquid connective tissues: blood, lymph. What makes up the matrix of each?
What kinds of cells are found in each?
11. Describe the function of muscle tissue.
12. Distinguish among the following types of muscle: skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, cardiac muscle.
Where is each type found? Are they voluntary or involuntary? Do they have striations? What are
intercalated disks?
13. What are the two components of nervous tissue? What are the three functions of nervous tissue?
14. Describe the three parts of a neuron and their functions.
15. Name three kinds of neuroglial cells. What are their functions?
16. Describe the function and location of epithelial tissue.
17. Describe simple epithelia. What shapes are found among these cells? Where would simple epithelia
be found?
18. Describe pseudostratified columnar epithelium. Where would it be found?
19. Distinguish between the following types of glandular epithelia: exocrine glands, endocrine glands.
Give examples of each.
20. What is stratified epithelium? Distinguish between stratified squamous epithelium and transitional
epithelium. Where would each be found? What is keratin?
21. Define: integumentary system. What is its function?
22. Describe the functions of the following epidermal cells: basal cells, Langerhans cells, melanocytes.
23. What might be the effect of ultraviolet radiation on the epidermis?
24. Describe the structure of the dermis of the skin. What types of tissues would be found here?
25. Describe the following accessory organs of the skin: nails, hair follicles, arrector pili muscles,
oil (sebaceous) glands, sweat (sudoriferous) glands.
26. Define: organ. What is an organ system?
27. Give a brief description of the following organ systems. What is/are their main functions? Where are they
located in the body?
integumentary system, cardiovascular system, lymphatic and immune systems, digestive system,
respiratory system, urinary system, skeletal system, muscular system, nervous system, endocrine
system, reproductive system
28. Define: dorsal cavity and ventral cavity.
29. Distinguish among the following body membranes: mucous membranes, serous membranes, synovial
membranes.
30. Define homeostasis.
31. Distinguish between blood and interstitial fluid. What are their functions?
32. Distinguish between negative feedback and positive feedback. Give examples of each.
Chapter 5
33. What are the two parts of the cardiovascular system? Briefly, what are their functions?
34. What is the purpose of circulation? What is the function of blood? Where is blood purified or
cleared of its wastes? At what sites does blood gain nutrients? What system collects and returns excess
tissue fluid to the general circulation?
35. Name and describe the three types of blood vessels. What are their functions? How are they structurally
different?
36. The heart is a double pump. What does this mean?
37. Describe the structure of the heart with regard to its chambers and valves. What kind of muscle is found
in the heart? What is the pericardium? What are chordae tendineae? What is the function of the
intercalated disks?
38. What is the function of the coronary arteries? What happens if they get clogged with cholesterol?
39. Trace the pathway of blood through the heart beginning with the superior and inferior vena cavae and
ending with the aorta.
40. Define cardiac cycle. What is systole? What is diastole? What accounts for the “lub-dub” sounds when
the heart beats?
41. What are the functions of the following structures related to the electrical activity of the heart?
sinoatrial (SA) node, atrioventricular (AV) node, atrioventricular bundle, Purkinje fibers
42. What role does the medulla oblongata play in control of the heartbeat? What hormones are released
from the adrenal medulla to stimulate the heart?
43. What is an electrocardiogram? What part of the cardiac cycle do the P wave, the QRS complex, and the
T wave represent?
44. In what blood vessel is blood pressure the highest? In what blood vessels is blood pressure the lowest?
45. Define pulse. What causes a pulse?
46. Define blood pressure. What is a sphygmomanometer? Define systolic pressure and diastolic pressure.
Define hypertension and hypotension.
47. What is the advantage of blood moving through capillaries slowly?
48. What are some factors involved in the return of blood to the heart through veins? What is the importance
of valves in veins?
49. Describe the pulmonary circuit in the cardiovascular pathway.
50. Describe the systemic circuit of the cardiovascular pathway.
51. What does the hepatic portal system do?
52. At what point does lymph return to the general blood circulation?
53. Briefly describe the following cardiovascular disorders: hypertension, atherosclerosis, stroke, heart attack,
aneurysm, angina pectoris.
54. What is the reason that many doctors recommend that some patients take a baby aspirin each day?
55. Name two ways to treat clogged arteries.
56. What are some medical procedures to treat heart failure?
Chapter 6
57. What are the three functions of blood?
58. What are the two components of blood? Name the cellular components found in the blood. What are
pluripotent stem cells?
59. What types of components are found in blood plasma? Describe the functions of the following: albumins,
globulins, gamma globulins, fibrinogen.
60. Describe the structure of a red blood cell (erythrocyte).
61. What substance carries the oxygen in red blood cells?
62. How is carbon dioxide transported in the blood?
63. Where are blood cells produced? What is the average life span of a red blood cell? What is EPO?
64. Describe the following disorders involving red blood cells: anemia, sickle-cell disease.
65. Describe the structure of white blood cells (leukocytes). What are their functions?
66. What are colony-stimulating factors?
67. What is an antigen?
68. What are the functions of the following granular leukocytes: neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils.
69. What are the functions of the following agranular leukocytes: monocytes, lymphocytes.
70. Briefly describe the following disorders of white blood cells: severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID),
leukemia, mononucleosis.
71. Describe the structure and function of platelets (thrombocytes).
72. Briefly describe the process of blood clotting.
73. What are following disorders related to blood clotting: thrombocytopenia, hemophilia.
74. Describe the ABO blood groups in humans. What blood type is the universal donor?
What blood type is the universal recipient? What is agglutination?
75. What is the Rh factor? What problems can arise if an Rh-negative mother carries an Rh-positive baby?
What is RHOgam?
76. Tie together how the various systems of the body work in concert to maintain the homeostasis of the
blood.
 BIOL 1200: Human Biology
Study Guide for EXAM 3 - Chapters 7 through 11

NOTE: This study guide is a general guideline. It is not intended to be all-inclusive. You should study your
lecture notes, read the chapters in the text, and study the summary and exercises at the end of the chapter.

Chapter 7
1. The lymphatic system consists of what two portions?
2. What are the four main functions of the lymphatic system?
3. Lymphatic vessels form a one-way system. What does this mean?
4. Name the primary organs of the lymphatic system. What are their functions?
5. Name the secondary organs of the lymphatic system. What are their functions?
6. What is the difference between innate immune defenses and adaptive defenses?
7. Describe and give examples of the following innate immune defenses.
a) physical barriers
b) chemical barriers
8. What is the function of normal flora in the body? What problems arise from chronic use of antibiotics?
9. With regard to the inflammatory response, what are the functions or significance of the following?
a) histamine
b) rise in temperature
c) swelling
d) cytokines
10. With regard to protective proteins, briefly describe the complement system and its functions.
11. What are interferons? What is their function?
12. How do adaptive defenses work?
13. What is the clonal selection model?
14. What are plasma cells? From where do they come? What is their function? What is apoptosis?
15. What are memory B cells? From where do they come? What is their function?
16. Briefly describe the structure of an antibody. How do they interact with antigens?
17. What are the five classes of antibodies? Which one is found in secretions such as saliva and tears?
Which one is associated with allergies?
18. What are monoclonal antibodies?
19. What are T cells? How do they recognize a foreign antigen? What are the functions of APC and MHC?
20. Define clonal expansion. What are the functions of cytotoxic T cells and helper T cells?
21. What type of T cells does HIV attack? What are opportunistic infections?
22. What is the function of memory T cells?
23. What is acquired immunity? Compare active immunity with passive immunity. How might a person
achieve active immunity? How might a person achieve passive immunity?
24. What do cytokines have to do with immunity?
25. What are allergies? What is anaphylactic shock?
26. What occurs during transplant rejection? What is xenotransplantation?
27. What do SCID and AIDS have to do with immunity problems?
28. What are some examples of autoimmune diseases?

Chapter 8
29. What is the typical cause of most human infectious diseases?
30. What are the three lines of defense against invasion concerning infectious diseases?
31. What type of cells are bacteria? What is a capsule? What is a plasmid?
32. What is a virus? What are the two parts of a virus? How do they replicate?
33. What is a prion? What type of diseases do they cause?
34. Define: epidemic, outbreak, pandemic.
35. What virus causes AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome)?
36. What is an opportunistic infection?
37. Where did the HIV virus originate? Why is AIDS considered a pandemic?
38. What cells of the immune system are infected by HIV? What is one of the most common causes
of death in the United States of people who have AIDS?
39. For each of the following phases of HIV infection, note the symptoms and the CD4 T-cell count.
a) Category A: Acute Phase
b) Category B: Chronic Phase
c) Category C: AIDS
40. What type of virus is HIV?
41. What are the methods of transmission of HIV?
42. What does an HIV test detect?
43. What is the cause of tuberculosis? What are tubercles? What are the symptoms of TB? How
long does it take to treat tuberculosis?
44. What is the cause of malaria? What vector transfers the pathogen for malaria?
45. What are the symptoms of malaria? Is malaria curable? What methods are being used to prevent
the spread of malaria?
46. What is the cause of influenza? How is the flu spread in populations?
47. What do the spikes on the flu virus have to do with whether or not we might get a particular flu virus?
48. What is bird flu? Can humans catch the bird flu? How?
49. What are some examples of emerging diseases? What are reemerging diseases?
50. Why is antibiotic resistance such a problem? List four ways that we all can fight antibiotic resistance.
51. What is MRSA? Who might be most likely to come in contact with MRSA?
Chapter 9
52. List and describe the four stages of the digestive process.
53. Briefly describe the structure of the mouth. What is the function of the mouth? Distinguish between
mechanical digestion and chemical digestion. What is the function of salivary amylase?
54. What is a bolus?
55. Name the two parts that each tooth has. Distinguish among enamel, dentin, and pulp.
56. What are some ailments associated with the teeth?
57. What type of muscle composes the tongue? What are the sensory receptors of the tongue?
58. What is the pharynx? What is the function of the esophagus?
59. What does the epiglottis do when we swallow? Can we breathe and swallow at the same time? Why or
why not?
60. What is peristalsis? Where does it occur in the digestive tract?
61. What are sphincters? What is their function?
62. What is heartburn and what causes it?
63. What happens physically in the digestive system that causes vomiting?
64. What is the function of the stomach? What is chyme? What are rugae?
65. What is the function of the small intestine?
66. Why do you suppose pancreatic juice is alkaline (basic)? What are the functions of: lipase, pancreatic
amylase, and pancreatic trypsin?
67. What are villi? Where would you find them and what is their function? What are lacteals?
68. What is the cause of lactose intolerance? What are the symptoms?
69. What is the cause of celiac disease? What are the symptoms? What foods do people with celiac disease
need to avoid?
70. Describe the basic function of the following accessory organs of digestion: pancreas, liver, gallbladder.
71. What is insulin? Where is it produced? What is the function of insulin?
72. What is diabetes?
73. Briefly describe the following liver disorders: hepatitis, cirrhosis, jaundice.
74. How are secretions of digestive juices controlled?
75. List the parts of the large intestine. What is the appendix?
76. What is the function of the large intestine? What is defecation?
77. Briefly define or describe the following disorders of the colon and rectum: diarrhea, constipation,
Hemorrhoids, diverticulosis, irritable bowel syndrome, inflammatory bowel disease, polyps and cancer.
78. With reference to body mass index (BMI), how is obesity defined?
79. Define nutrient. List the functions of the following classes of nutrients in the diet: carbohydrates,
proteins, lipids. Which types of these nutrients do dietitians recommend avoiding if you are following a
healthy diet?
80. What are functions and/or concerns about the following minerals in the diet? iron, calcium, sodium
81. What are vitamins? What are some of their functions?
82. What is the food pyramid?
83. Describe the following eating disorders/body image problems: obesity, anorexia nervosa, bulimia, muscle
dysmorphia.
Chapter 10
84. What is the function of the respiratory system?
85. Respiration or ventilation includes what two processes?
86. What is the function of the nose and nasal cavities?
87. Where are the auditory tubes located? What causes the popping sensation in your ears when you
change elevation?
88. What is the function of the pharynx?
89. What is the Heimlich maneuver?
90. What is the function of the larynx? What is the function of the epiglottis?
91. Describe the structure and function of the trachea.
92. Describe the relationship among bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli. What happens during an asthma
attack?
93. How many lobes does each lung have? What are the pleurae?
94. What type of epithelium lines the alveoli? What is the function of the alveoli? What is surfactant?
95. What are the two phases of ventilation or breathing?
96. Describe what happens with the diaphragm and intercostal muscles during inspiration. Explain what is
meant by the statement: “Humans inhale by negative pressure.”
97. Describe what happens during expiration.
98. What activities can occur when expiration is forced?
99. Define the following terms: tidal volume, vital capacity, inspiratory and expiratory reserve volume,
residual volume.
100. What part of the brain controls the rhythm of breathing?
101. Describe the chemical control of breathing.
102. Distinguish between external respiration and internal respiration.
103. Briefly describe the following upper respiratory tract infections: “strep throat”, sinusitis, otitis media,
tonsillitis, laryngitis.
104. Briefly describe the following lower respiratory infections: acute bronchitis, pneumonia, pulmonary
tuberculosis.
105. What are the symptoms of restrictive pulmonary disorders?
106. Briefly describe the following obstructive pulmonary disorders: chronic bronchitis, emphysema, asthma.
107. What are some of the symptoms of lung cancer?

Chapter 11
108. What is the function of the urinary system?
109. Define excretion. Through what process does excretion occur?
110. Identify the following metabolic wastes: urea, creatinine, uric acid. What disease is caused by too much
uric acid in the system?
111. Concerning maintenance of water-salt balance, what are the salts that kidneys regulate in the blood?
112. Kidneys keep the blood at what pH level?
113. What is the function of erythropoietin (EPO)?
114. What vitamin can the kidneys synthesize?
115. Describe the layout of the urinary system with regard to the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. Also,
what are the functions of these structures?
116. Describe the anatomy/parts of a nephron. Make sure to mention the structure and function of the:
glomerulus, glomerular capsule, proximal convolutes tubule, distal convoluted tubule, collecting ducts,
renal pelvis.
117. Describe the following stages of urine formation: glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, tubular
secretion.
118. What is the main type of metabolic waste removed by the kidneys?
119. What happens to most of the water found in the filtrate before urine leaves the body?
120. What are the functions of: aldosterone, antidiuretic hormone, atrial natriuretic hormone?
121. What is the function of diuretics?
122. What is the normal pH range of body fluids? What is alkalosis? What is acidosis?
123. If the hydrogen ion concentration increases in the blood, how does the respiratory system respond?
124. Briefly describe the following urinary system disorders: urethritis, cystitis, pyelonephritis, uremia.
125. What is hemodialysis?
 BIOL 1200: Human Biology
Study Guide for EXAM 4 - Chapters 12 through 16

NOTE: This study guide is a general guideline. It is not intended to be all-inclusive. You should study your
lecture notes, read the chapters in the text, and study the summary and exercises at the end of the chapter.

Chapter 12
1. What two types of connective tissue are found in the skeletal system?
2. What are ligaments?
3. List five functions of the skeleton.
4. Define these structures associated with long bones: diaphysis, epiphysis, periosteum, articular cartilage.
5. Compare compact bone with spongy bone.
6. Compare cartilage with bone. Explain the reason that cartilage heals more slowly than bone.
7. Where would the following types of cartilage be found? hyaline cartilage, fibrocartilage, elastic cartilage
8. What bones make up the axial skeleton?
9. What bones make up the skull?
10. What are fontanels? What causes them to form?
11. What are sinuses? How are they important?
12. What are the major bones of the cranium?
13. Describe the following facial bones: frontal bone, mandible, zygomatic bones, maxillae, nasal bones.
14. Where is the hyoid bone located and what is its function? What is unique about the hyoid bone?
15. What is the function of the vertebral column?
16. What causes scoliosis?
17. Describe the location of the following types of vertebrae: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, coccygeal.
18. What is the function of intervertebral disks?
19. How many pairs of ribs are there? What are floating ribs?
20. What is the sternum? What is its function?
21. What bones make up the appendicular skeleton?
22. Describe the following bones of the pectoral girdle and upper limbs. Know the locations of these bones.
scapula, clavicle, humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals, phalanges
23. What is an opposable thumb?
24. Describe the following bones/structures of the pelvic girdle and lower limbs. Know the locations of these
bones/structures. ilium, ishium, pubis, acetabulum, femur, tibia, fibula, patella, tarsals, metatarsals,
phalanges.
25. How is the female pelvis different from the male pelvis?
26. Describe the following articulations (joints) and give example of each: fibrous joints, cartilaginous joints
synovial joints.
27. Define the following terms related to movement: flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, supination,
pronation, rotation, circumduction, inversion, eversion.
28. When does the skeleton start to form? Bones continue to grow in length and width through what period?
29. What are the functions of the following bone cells? osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts
30. Define: ossification.
31. What are epiphyseal plates or growth plates? Where are they found? When do they close in women and
in men?
32. How do Vitamin D and growth hormone affect bone growth? How do sex hormones affect bone growth?
33. How is bone recycling important? How is bone remodeling important?
34. What is the action of parathyroid hormone? What is the action of calcitonin?
35. What is the main cause of osteoporosis in older women?
36. Describe the process of bone repair.
37. Compare yellow bone marrow with red bone marrow. What are their functions?

Chapter 13
38. Describe the characteristics and locations of the following types of muscles: smooth, cardiac, skeletal.
39. List six different functions of skeletal muscles.
40. What is a fascicle? What is fascia?
41. What is the difference between the origin of a muscle and the insertion of a muscle?
42. What are synergists? What is their relationship to muscles known as agonists? (p. 262 in text)
43. What are antagonists? (p. 262 in text)
44. How are muscles named? (examples on p. 263 in text)
45. What gives skeletal muscle a striated (striped) appearance?
46. Define: sarcolemma, sarcoplasmic reticulum. What is the function of the sarcoplasmic reticulum?
47. What type of ions are needed for muscle contraction?
48. Describe the structure of a skeletal muscle fiber. Know the relationship among the sarcolemma,
sarcoplasmic reticulum, sarcoplasm, T tubules, myoglobin, myofibrils, and myofilaments of actin and
myosin. (See Table 13.1 on p. 265 and Figure 13.6 on p. 266 in text)
49. Briefly describe the sliding filament model of muscle contraction.
50. What is a neuromuscular junction?
51. What is a motor unit? How do they operate?
52. Compare muscle twitch with tetanus. What is recruitment?
53. What is occurring with a muscle when it has good muscle tone?
54. What are the four possible energy sources for muscles?
55. What are the three sources for ATP for muscle contraction?
56. What are the characteristics of fast-twitch fibers?
57. What are the characteristics of slow twitch fibers?
58. Define the following common muscle conditions: spasm, cramp, strain, sprain, tendonitis, bursitis.
59. Compare myalgia with fibromyalgia.
60. What are the basic characteristics of the following muscular diseases? muscular dystrophy, myasthenia
gravis, muscle cancer
61. How do the muscular system and skeletal system contribute to homeostasis?

Chapter 14
62. What are the two major divisions of the nervous system?
63. What are the three specific functions of the nervous system?
64. Compare the function of neurons with that of neuroglia.
65. Compare: sensory neuron, interneuron, and motor neuron. What are their functions and where are they
located?
66. What are the three parts of a neuron?
67. What is the myelin sheath? What cells form it? What is its function? What disease is associated with the
breakdown of the myelin sheath?
68. During a resting potential, what is the electrical charge on the inside of the axon?
69. What is an action potential? Briefly describe what happens during an action potential.
70. What is the importance of the refractory period in an action potential?
71. What is salutatory conduction? How is it important?
72. What is a synapse? What is the function of a neurotransmitter? What happens to the neurotransmitters
once they have done their job?
73. Name two well-known neurotransmitters.
74. What are the parts of the central nervous system? What are the functions of: meninges, cerebrospinal
fluid, ventricles of the brain? (See p. 289 in text)
75. Where is the spinal cord located? Describe its structure.
76. What is the function of the spinal cord? What is a reflex arc?
77. What is the cerebrum of the brain? What type of functions are associated with the cerebral hemispheres?
78. With regard to processing centers of the brain, what is the significance of Broca’s area and Wernicke’s
area?
79. Describe the white matter of the brain. (p. 294 in text)
80. What is the function of the basal nuclei? (p. 294 in text)
81. What are the functions of the hypothalamus, the thalamus, and the pineal gland? (p. 294 in text)
82. Where is the cerebellum located? What is its function? (p. 294 in text)
83. What are the parts of the brain stem? What are the basic functions of each part?
84. What is the function of the RAS (reticular activating system)? (pp. 294-295 in text)
85. What is the function of the limbic system?
86. Compare the following types of memory: short-term, semantic, episodic, skill memory. (p. 296 in text)
87. What is included in the peripheral nervous system? How many pairs of cranial nerves are there? How
many pairs of spinal nerves are there?
88. Describe the somatic system of the peripheral nervous system. What areas of the body are served?
89. Describe a reflex arc. (See Fig. 14.16 on p. 299 in text)
90. Describe the autonomic system of the peripheral nervous system. What is the function of the sympathetic
division and what is the function of the parasympathetic division of the autonomic system?
91. What are the actions of: dopamine, endorphins?
92. What type of drug (i.e. depressant, stimulant, etc.) are the following? alcohol, nicotine, cocaine and
crack, methamphetamine and ecstasy, heroin, marijuana and K2

Chapter 15
93. Compare exteroceptors with interoceptors.
94. What types of stimuli are detected or responded to by each of the following types of receptors?
chemoreceptors, pain receptors or nociceptors, photoreceptors, mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors
95. How does sensation (the conscious perception of stimuli) occur?
96. What are somatic senses?
97. Describe the function of the following general sensory receptors: proprioceptors, cutaneous receptors,
and pain receptors.
98. What type of senses are taste and smell?
99. What are the five different taste sensations?
100. Where are the olfactory cells located that have to do with our sense of smell? How are the senses of
smell and taste related?
101. Identify the location, structure, and function of each of the following parts of the eye: sclera, choroid,
retina, cornea, rod cells, cone cells, fovea centralis, lens, aqueous humor, vitreous humor.
102. What parts of the eye are involved in focusing light rays on the retina?
103. What is the function of the optic nerve?
104. What is the blind spot?
105. What is the general cause of the following abnormalities of the eyes? color blindness, nearsightedness,
farsightedness, astigmatism.
106. What are the two sensory functions of the eye?
107. Describe the three parts of the ear: outer ear, middle ear, inner ear.
108. Trace the auditory pathway to the brain from the auditory canal.
109. Compare rotational equilibrium with gravitational equilibrium.

Chapter 16
110. What is the function of endocrine glands?
111. Compare exocrine glands with endocrine glands. Give examples of each. What are target cells?
112. Compare the endocrine system to the nervous system with regard to the time it takes to respond to
stimuli.
113. What are hormones? From what substance are steroid hormones derived?
114. What is the function of the hypothalamus?
115. What two hormones are secreted by the posterior pituitary? What are the functions of these two
hormones?
116. The anterior pituitary produces six types of hormones. What are they and what are their functions?
117. What is the cause of the following disorders? pituitary dwarfism, gigantism, acromegaly
118. What is the function of thyroid hormones? What is the function of calcitonin?
119. What is the function of parathyroid hormone?
120. Where are the adrenal glands located? What hormones are produced by the adrenal medulla and what is
their function? What hormones are produced by the adrenal cortex and what is their function?
121. What two hormones are produced and secreted by the pancreas? What are their functions?
122. What causes diabetes mellitus? Compare Type 1 diabetes with Type 2 diabetes.
123. What hormones are produced by the testes? What hormones are produced by the ovaries?
124. What is the function of thymosins produced by the thymus gland?
125. What is the function of melatonin produced by the pineal gland?
126. What are the functions of the following hormones? erythropoietin, leptin, prostaglandins