The Integumentary System

What are the structures

and functions of the integumentary
system?
 Size of the Integument
• The integument is the largest system of the body:
– 16% of body weight
– 1.5 to 2 m2 in area

Parts of the Integument

• The integument is made up of
2 parts:
1. cutaneous membrane (skin)
2. accessory structures
 Parts of the
Integumentary System

Figure 5–1
 Accessory Structures

• Originate in the dermis

• Extend through the epidermis to skin
surface:
– hair
– nails
– multicellular exocrine glands
 Skin Color

• Skin color depends on:

– the pigments carotene and melanin
– blood circulation (red cells)
 Carotene

• Orange-yellow pigment
• Found in orange vegetables
• Accumulates in epidermal cells and
fatty tissues of the dermis
• Can be converted to vitamin A
 Melanin
• Yellow-brown or black pigment
• Produced by melanocytes in stratum germinativum
• Stored in transport vesicles (melanosomes)
• Transferred to keratinocytes

Function of Melanocytes
• Melanin protects skin from sun damage
• Ultraviolet (UV) radiation:
– causes DNA mutations and burns which lead to
cancer and wrinkles
Melanocytes

Figure 5–5
 Melanocytes

• Skin color depends on melanin

production, not number of melanocytes

Capillaries and Skin Color

• Oxygenated red blood contributes to
skin color:
– blood vessels dilate from heat, skin reddens
– blood flow decreases, skin pales
 Cyanosis

• Bluish skin tint

• Caused by severe reduction in blood
flow or oxygenation
 Connections
• Circulatory system:
– blood vessels in the dermis
• Nervous system:
– sensory receptors for pain, touch, and
temperature

What is the relationship between the

integument
and subcutaneous layer?
 The Subcutaneous Layer
• Subcutaneous layer (superficial fascia or hypodermis):
– loose connective tissue
– below the dermis
– location of hypodermic injections

Functions of Skin
• Protects underlying tissues and organs
• Excretes salts, water, and organic wastes (glands)
• Maintains body temperature (insulation and evaporation)
• Synthesizes vitamin D3
• Stores lipids
• Detects touch, pressure, pain, and temperature
 What are the main
structures and functions
of the epidermis?
 Epidermis

• Avascular stratified squamous

epithelium
• Nutrients and oxygen diffuse from
capillaries in the dermis
Organization of the Epidermis

Figure 5–2
 Cells of the Epidermis
• Keratinocytes:
– contain large amounts of keratin
– the most abundant cells in the epidermis

Thin Skin
• Covers most of the body
• Has 4 layers of keratinocytes

Thick Skin
• Covers the palms of the hands and soles of the feet
• Has 5 layers of keratinocytes
 Structures of the Epidermis

• The 5 strata of keratinocytes in thick

skin

Figure 5–3
 Layers of the Epidermis

• From basal lamina to free surface:

– stratum germinativum
– stratum spinosum
– stratum granulosum
– stratum lucidum
– stratum corneum
 Stratum Germinativum
• The “germinative layer”:
– has many germinative (stem) cells or basal cells
– is attached to basal lamina by hemidesmosomes
– forms a strong bond between epidermis and dermis

Structures of Stratum Germinativum

• Epidermal ridges (e.g., fingerprints)

• Dermal papillae (tiny mounds):
– increase the area of basal lamina
– strengthen attachment between epidermis and dermis
Ridges and Ducts

Figure 5–4
 Cells of Stratum Germinativum

• Merkel cells:
– found in hairless skin
– respond to touch (trigger nervous system)
• Melanocytes:
– contain the pigment melanin
– scattered throughout stratum
germinativum
 Stratum Spinosum
• The “spiny layer”:
– produced by division of stratum germinosum
– 8–10 layers of keratinocytes bound by desmosomes
– cells shrink until cytoskeletons stick out (spiny)

Cells of Stratum Spinosum

• Continue to divide, increasing thickness of
epithelium
• Contain Langerhans cells, active in immune
response
 Stratum Granulosum
• The “grainy layer”
• Stops dividing, starts producing:
– keratin:
• a tough, fibrous protein
• makes up hair and nails
– keratohyalin
• dense granules
• cross-link keratin fibers

Cells of Stratum Granulosum

• Produce protein fibers
• Dehydrate and die
• Create tightly interlocked layer of keratin surrounded by
keratohyalin
 Stratum Lucidum
• The “clear layer”:
– found only in thick skin
– covers stratum granulosum

Cells of Stratum Lucida

• Flat
• Dense
• Filled with keratin
 Stratum Corneum

• The “horn layer”:

– exposed surface of skin
– 15 to 30 layers of keratinized cells
– water resistant
– shed and replaced every 2 weeks
 Keratinization

• The formation of a layer of dead,

protective cells filled with keratin
• Occurs on all exposed skin surfaces
except eyes

Skin Life Cycle

It takes 15–30 days for a cell to move from
stratum germinosum to stratum corneum
 Perspiration

• Insensible perspiration:
– interstitial fluid lost by evaporation
through the stratum corneum
• Sensible perspiration:
– water excreted by sweat glands
 Water Loss Through Skin
• Dehydration results:
– from damage to stratum corneum, e.g., burns and blisters
(insensible perspiration)
– from immersion in hypertonic solution, e.g., seawater
(osmosis)

Water Gain Through Skin

• Hydration:
– results from immersion in hypotonic solution, e.g.,
freshwater (osmosis)
– causes stretching and wrinkling skin
What causes different
skin colors?
 Illness and Skin Color
• Jaundice:
– buildup of bile produced by liver
– yellow color
• Addison’s disease:
– and other diseases of pituitary gland
– skin darkening
• Vitiglio:
– loss of melanocytes
– loss of color
 Vitamin D
• Epidermal cells produce cholecalciferol
(vitamin D3):
– in the presence of UV radiation
• Liver and kidneys convert vitamin D into
calcitriol:
– to aid absorption of calcium and phosphorus
• Insufficient vitamin D:
– can cause rickets
 Epidermal Growth Factor (EGF)
• Is a powerful peptide growth factor
• Is produced by glands (salivary and duodenum)
• Is used in laboratories to grow skin grafts

Functions of EGF
• Promotes division of germinative cells
• Accelerates keratin production
• Stimulates epidermal repair
• Stimulates glandular secretion
 KEY CONCEPT

• The epidermis:
– is a multilayered, flexible, self-repairing
barrier
– prevents fluid loss
– protects from UV radiation
– produces vitamin D3
– resists abrasion, chemicals, and pathogens
What are the structures and functions
of the dermis?
 The Dermis
• Is located between epidermis and subcutaneous layer
• Anchors epidermal accessory structures (hair follicles, sweat
glands)
• Has 2 components:
– outer papillary layer
– deep reticular layer

The Papillary Layer

• Consists of areolar tissue
• Contains smaller capillaries, lymphatics, and sensory neurons
• Has dermal papillae projecting between epidermal ridges
 The Reticular Layer
• Consists of dense irregular connective tissue
• Contains larger blood vessels, lymph vessels, and nerve
fibers
• Contains collagen and elastic fibers
• Contains connective tissue proper

Dermatitis
• An inflammation of the papillary layer
• Caused by infection, radiation, mechanical irritation, or
chemicals (e.g., poison ivy)
• Characterized by itch or pain
 Characteristics of Dermis
• Strong, due to collagen fibers
• Elastic, due to elastic fibers
• Flexible (skin turgor)

Skin Damage
• Sagging and wrinkles (reduced skin elasticity) are caused
by:
– dehydration
– age
– hormonal changes
– UV exposure
Skin Cancer

Figure 5–6
 Stretch Marks
• Thickened tissue resulting from:
– excessive stretching of skin due to:
• pregnancy
• weight gain

Lines of Cleavage
• Collagen and elastic fibers in the dermis:
– are arranged in parallel bundles
– resist force in a specific direction
 Clinical Importance

• Lines of cleavage establish important

patterns:
– a parallel cut remains shut, heals well
– a cut across (right angle) pulls open and
scars
Lines of Cleavage

Figure 5–7
Dermal Circulation

Figure 5–8
 Arteries
• Cutaneous plexus:
– a network of arteries along the reticular layer
• Papillary plexus:
– capillary network from small arteries in papillary layer

Veins
• Venous plexus:
– capillary return deep to the papillary plexus
• Contusion:
– damage to blood vessels resulting in “black and blue” bruising

Nerves
• Nerve fibers in skin control:
– blood flow
– gland secretions
– sensory receptors
• Tactile disks monitor Merkel cells
 KEY CONCEPT

• The dermis:
– provides mechanical strength, flexibility
and protection
– is highly vascularized
– contains many types of sensory receptors
 What are the structures
and functions of the subcutaneous
layer?
 The Hypodermis
• The subcutaneous layer or hypodermis:
– lies below the integument
– stabilizes the skin
– allows separate movement

Structure of the Hypodermis

• The subcutaneous layer is:
– made of elastic areolar and adipose tissues
– connected to the reticular layer of integument by
connective tissue fibers
 Clinical Importance
• Subcutaneous layer:
– has few capillaries and no vital organs
– is the site of subcutaneous injections using
hypodermic needles

Adipose Tissue
• Deposits of subcutaneous fat:
– have distribution pattern determined by hormones
– are reduced by cosmetic liposuction
 Integumentary
Accessory Structures
• Hair, hair follicles, sebaceous glands,
sweat glands, and nails:
– are derived from embryonic epidermis
– are located in dermis
– project through the skin surface
What determines hair growth,
texture, and color?
 Location of Hair

• The human body is covered with hair,

except:
– palms
– soles
– lips
– portions of external genitalia
 Functions of Hair

• Protects and insulates

• Guards openings against particles and
insects
• Is sensitive to very light touch
 The Hair Follicle

• Is located deep in dermis

• Produces nonliving hairs
• Is wrapped in a dense connective-tissue
sheath
• Base is surrounded by sensory nerves
(root hair plexus)
Structures of Hair and Follicles

Figure 5–9a
 Accessory Structures of Hair

• Arrector pili:
– involuntary smooth muscle
– causes hairs to stand up
– produces “goose bumps”
• Sebaceous glands:
– lubricate the hair
– control bacteria
 Regions of the Hair

• Hair root:
– lower part of the hair
– attached to the integument
• Hair shaft:
– upper part of the hair
– not attached to the integument
Inside the Follicle

Figure 5–9b
 Keratin

• As hair is produced, it is keratinized:

– medulla contains flexible soft keratin
– cortex and cuticle contain stiff hard
keratin
 Hair Growth Cycle

• Growing hair:
– is firmly attached to matrix
• Club hair:
– is not growing
– is attached to an inactive follicle
 Hair Growth Cycle

• New hair growth cycle:

– follicle becomes active
– produces new hair
– club hair is shed
 Types of Hairs

• Vellus hairs:
– soft, fine
– cover body surface
• Terminal hairs:
– heavy, pigmented
– head and eyebrows
– other parts of body after puberty
 Hair Color

• Produced by melanocytes at the hair

papilla
• Determined by genes
What are the skin glands
and secretions?
 Exocrine Glands

• Sebaceous glands (oil glands):

– holocrine glands
– secrete sebum
• Sweat glands:
– merocrine glands
– watery secretions
 Types of Sebaceous Glands

• Simple branched alveolar glands:

– associated with hair follicles
• Sebaceous follicles:
– discharge directly onto skin surface
Sebaceous Glands

Figure 5–10
 Sebum

• Contains lipids and other ingredients

• Lubricates and protects the epidermis
• Inhibits bacteria
What are the functions
of sweat glands?
 Types of Sweat Glands

• Apocrine:
– found in armpits, around nipples, and groin
• Merocrine:
– widely distributed on body surface
– especially on palms and soles
Apocrine Sweat Gland

Figure 5–11a
 Apocrine Sweat Glands

• Merocrine secretions, not apocrine

• Associated with hair follicles
• Produce sticky, cloudy secretions
• Break down and cause odors
 Merocrine Sweat Glands

• Also called eccrine glands:

– coiled, tubular glands
– discharge directly onto skin surface
– sensible perspiration
– water, salts, and organic compounds
Merocrine Sweat Gland

Figure 5–11b
 Functions of Merocrine Sweat

• Cools skin
• Excretes water and electrolytes
• Flushes microorganisms and harmful
chemicals from skin
 Other Integumentary Glands

• Mammary glands:
– produce milk
• Ceruminous glands:
– protect the eardrum
– produce cerumen (earwax)
 Homeostasis

• Thermoregulation:
– is the main function of sensible
perspiration
– works with cardiovascular system
– regulates body temperature
 KEY CONCEPT

• Skin plays a major role in controlling

body temperature:
– acts as a radiator
– removes heat from dermal circulation
– works by evaporation of sensible
perspiration
What is the structure of nails, and
how do they grow?
 Nail Functions

• Nails protect fingers and toes:

– made of dead cells packed with keratin
– metabolic disorders can change nail
structure
Structure of a Nail

Figure 5–12
 How does injured skin
respond and repair itself?
 Repair of Localized Injuries
to the Skin: Step 1
• Bleeding occurs
• Mast cells trigger
inflammatory
response

Figure 5–13 (Step 1)

 Repair of Localized Injuries
to the Skin: Step 2
• A scab stabilizes
and protects the
area

Figure 5–13 (Step 2)

 The Inflammatory Response

• Germinative cells migrate around the

wound
• Macrophages clean the area
• Fibroblasts and endothelial cells move
in, producing granulation tissue
 Repair of Localized Injuries
to the Skin: Step 3
• Fibroblasts produce
scar tissue
• Inflammation
decreases, clot
disintegrates

Figure 5–13 (Step 3)

 Repair of Localized Injuries
to the Skin: Step 4
• Fibroblasts strengthen
scar tissue
• A raised keloid forms

PLAY Integumentary Repair

Figure 5–13 (Step 4)
Rule of Nines
• To estimate burn
damage, surface
area is divided
into multiples of 9

Figure 5–14
What are the effects
of aging on the skin?
 Effects of Aging

• Epidermal thinning
• Decreased numbers of Langerhans cells
• Decreased vitamin D3 production
• Decreased melanocyte activity
• Decreased glandular activity (sweat and
oil glands)
 Effects of Aging

• Reduced blood supply

• Decreased function of hair follicles
• Reduction of elastic fibers
• Decreased hormone levels
• Slower repair rate
 How does the
integumentary system work with
other systems?
 Importance of the
Integumentary System
• Protects and interacts with all organ
systems
• Changes in skin appearance are used to
diagnose disorders in other systems
 Interactions with the
Integumentary System

Figure 5–15
 SUMMARY (1 of 12)

• Division of:
– integument into epidermis and dermis
– epidermis into thin skin and thick skin
 SUMMARY (2 of 12)

• Layers of the epidermis:

– stratum germinosum
– stratum spinosum
– stratum lucidum
– stratum corneum
 SUMMARY (3 of 12)

• Roles of epidermal ridges and dermal

papillae
 SUMMARY (4 of 12)

• Functions of specialized cells:

– Langerhans cells
– Merkel cells
 SUMMARY (5 of 12)

• Skin pigments:
– carotene
– melanin
 SUMMARY (6 of 12)

• Metabolic functions of epidermis:

– vitamin D3
– epidermal growth factor
 SUMMARY (7 of 12)

• Divisions of the dermis:

– papillary layer
– reticular layer
 SUMMARY (8 of 12)

• Mobility of the dermis:

– stretch marks
– lines of cleavage
 SUMMARY (9 of 12)

• Blood supply of the dermis:

– cutaneous plexus
– papillary plexus
 SUMMARY (10 of 12)

• Role of the subcutaneous layer

• Structure of hair and hair follicles
 SUMMARY (11 of 12)

• Glands of the skin:

– sebaceous
– sweat
– ceruminous
 SUMMARY (12 of 12)

• Structure of nails
• Processes of inflammation and
regeneration
• Effects of aging on the integument