CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
- is a small part of the brain that is mostly
- The central nervous system (CNS) controls
most function of the body and mind.
BRAIN
- is a complex organ that controls thought,
memory, emotion, touch, motor skills,
vision, breathing, temperature, hunger and
every process that regulates our body.
CEREBRUM
- the largest part of the brain.
MOTOR CORTEX
- located just in front of the central sulcus, is
the area that provides the most important
signal for the production of skilled
movements.
SENSORY CORTEX
- can refer informally to the primary
somatosensory cortex, or it can be used as
a term for the primary and secondary
cortices of the different senses.
FRONTAL LOBE
- are the largest lobes in the human brain and
they are also the most common region of
injury in traumatic brain injury
 
PARIETAL LOBE
- is one of the major lobes in the brain,
roughly located at the upper back area in
the skull.
OCCIPITAL LOBE
- is the smallest of the four lobes of the
cerebral hemisphere.
TEMPORAL LOBE
- are the second largest lobe, are also
believed to play an important role in
processing affect/emotions, language, and
certain aspects of visual perception.
DIENCEPHALON
hidden from view when you are looking at
the outside of the brain
THALAMUS
- is a paired gray matter structure of the
diencephalon located near the center of the
brain.
HYPOTHALAMUS
- is a part of the brain that has a vital role in
controlling many bodily functions including
the release of hormones from the pituitary
gland.
EPITHALAMUS
- is a small region of the diencephalon
consisting of the pineal gland, habenular
nuclei, and stria medullaris thalami.
BRAINSTEM
- -is the structure that connects the cerebrum
of the brain to the spinal cord and
cerebellum. It is composed of 3 sections in
descending order: the midbrain, pons, and
medulla oblongata.
MEDULLA OBLONGATA
- is located at the base of your brain, where
the brain stem connects the brain to your
spinal cord. It plays an essential role in
passing messages between your spinal
cord and brain.
PONS
- is involved in the regulation of functions
carried out by the cranial nerves it houses,
works together with the medulla oblongata
to serve an especially critical role in
generating the respiratory rhythm of
breathing.
MIDBRAIN
- is the topmost part of the brainstem, the
connection central between the brain and
the spinal cord.
SUPERIOR COLLICULUS
- (Latin for "upper hill") is a structure lying on the
roof of the mammalian midbrain.
INFERIOR COLLICULUS
-is a part of the midbrain that serves as a main
auditory (sound) center for the body.

SUBARACHNOID SPACE
- is the interval between the arachnoid
membrane and the pia mater. It is occupied
by delicate connective tissue trabeculae and
intercommunicating channels containing
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) as well as
branches of the arteries and veins of the
RETICULAR FORMATION brain. The cavity is small in the normal
- is a phylogenetically primitive network of brain.
small neurons extending throughout the
brainstem and into the spinal cord.the spinal
cord.

SPINAL CORD
- is a long, thin, tubular structure made up of
nervous tissue, which extends from the
medulla oblongata in the brainstem to the
lumbar region of the vertebral column.
SPINAL NERVE
- is a mixed nerve, which carries motor,
sensory, and autonomic signals between
the spinal cord and the body. In the human
body there are 31 pairs of spinal nerves,
one on each side of the vertebral column.
MOTOR NEURONES
- are cells in the brain and spinal cord that
allow us to move, speak, swallow and
breathe by sending commands from the
brain to the muscles that carry out these
functions. The lower motor neurons begin in
the spinal cord and go on to innervate
muscles and glands throughout the body.

DURA MATER
- is a fibrous, non-adherent, tough layer
surrounding the spinal cord. It is separated
from the wall of the vertebral canal by the
epidural space.
ARACHNOID MATER
- is one of the three meninges, the protective
membranes that cover the brain and spinal SENSORY NEURONS
cord. The arachnoid mater is a derivative of - system is to inform the central nervous
the neural crest mesectoderm in the system about stimuli impinging on us from
embryo. the outside or within us. By doing so, it
PIA MATER informs us about any changes in the internal
- is medieval Latin meaning "tender mother". and external environment.
The other two meningeal membranes are
the dura mater and the arachnoid mater.
EPIDURAL SPACE
- is the area between the dura mater (a
membrane) and the vertebral wall,
containing fat and small blood vessels
- the space is located just outside the dural
sac which surrounds the nerve roots and is
filled with cerebrospinal fluid.
AUTONOMIC NEURONS
- is the part of your nervous system that
controls involuntary actions, such as the
beating of your heart and the widening or
narrowing of your blood vessels. When
something goes wrong in this system, it can
cause serious problems, including. Blood
pressure problems.
There are two divisions of the autonomic
nervous system it is the sympathetic division and
the parasympathetic division.
AFFERENT NEURONS
-are sensory nerves
-these are sensory neurons carrying nerve
impulses from sensory stimuli toward the central
nervous system and brain. Afferent neurons carry
signals to the brain and spinal cord as sensory
data.
EFFERENT NEURONS
-are motor nerves
-these are motor neurons carrying neural impulses
away from the central nervous system and toward
muscles to cause movement. Efferent neurons
send signals from the brain to the muscles, glands,
and organs of the body in response to sensory
input.
In humans there are 31 pairs of spinal nerve
-8 cervical nerves
-12 thoracic nerves
-5 lumbar nerves
-5 sacral nerves
-1 coccygeal nerves
NERVE PLEXUS
- is a bundle of intersecting nerves, blood
vessels, or lymphatic vessels in the human
body. These bundles typically originate from
the same anatomical area and serve
specific areas of the body. Bundles of
nerves that form a plexus communicate
information to your brain about pain,
temperature, and pressure.
BRACHIAL PLEXUS
- is a network of nerves in the shoulder that
carries movement and sensory signals from
the spinal cord to the arms and hands.
Brachial plexus injuries typically stem from
trauma to the neck, and can cause pain,
weakness and numbness in the arm and
hand.
LUMBAR PLEXUS
- is a web of nerves (a nervous plexus) in the
lumbar region of the body which forms part
of the larger lumbosacral plexus. It is
formed by the divisions of the first four
lumbar nerves (L1-L4) and from
contributions of the subcostal nerve (T12),
which is the last thoracic nerve.
SACRAL PLEXUS
- is a nerve plexus which provides motor and
sensory nerves for the posterior thigh, most
of the lower leg and foot, and part of the
pelvis. It is part of the lumbosacral plexus
and emerges from the lumbar vertebrae and
sacral vertebrae (L4-S4).
COCCYGEAL PLEXUS
- is formed by the anterior rami of S4-S5 in
combination with the coccygeal nerve and is
described as supplying the skin of the post-
anal region.
PHRENIC NERVE
- is among the most important nerves in the
body due to its role in respiration. The
phrenic nerve provides the primary motor
supply to the diaphragm, the major
respiratory muscle. It passes motor
information to the diaphragm and receives
sensory information from it.
CRANIAL NERVES
- are pairs of nerves that connect your brain
to different parts of your head, neck, and
trunk. Sensory nerves are involved with
your senses, such as smell, hearing, and
touch. Motor nerves control the movement
and function of muscles or glands.
OLFACTORY NERVE
- is the first cranial nerve (CN I). It is a
sensory nerve that functions for the sense
of smell. Olfaction is phylogenetically
referred to as the oldest of the senses. It is
carried out through special visceral afferent
nerve.
OPTIC NERVE HYPOGLOSSAL NERVE
- is a bundle of more than 1 million nerve - enables tongue movement. It controls the
fibers. Also known as the second cranial hyoglossus, intrinsic, genioglossus and
nerve or cranial nerve II (CNII), it is the styloglossus muscles. These muscles help
second of several pairs of cranial nerves. It you speak, swallow and move substances
transmits sensory information for vision in around in your mouth
the form of electrical impulses from the eye
to the brain. NERVOUS SYSTEM
OCULOMOTOR NERVE - This system is responsible for sending,
- is the third cranial nerve (CN III). It enters receiving, and interpreting information from
the orbit through the superior orbital fissure all parts of the body.
and innervates extrinsic eye muscles that FUNCTIONS:
enable most movements of the eye and that 1. SENSORY INPUT – Sensory receptors
raise the eyelid. ... The oculomotor nerve is monitor numerous external and internal
dearived from the basal plate of the stimuli.
embryonic midbrain. 2. INTEGRATION– The brain and spinal cord
TROCHLEAR NERVES are the major organs for processing sensory
- is also motor, controlling eye movements. input and initiate responses
These nerves originate in the midbrain, 3. HOMEOSTASIS - nervous system detects,
passing through the superior orbital fissures interprets and responds to changes in
of the sphenoid bone, to reach the superior external and internal conditions
oblique muscles. The trochlear nerves are 4. MENTAL ACTIVITY – The brain is the
the smallest of the cranial nerves. center of mental activity. To include
TRIGEMINAL NERVE consciousness, memory and thinking
- is the part of the nervous system 5. CONTROL OF MUSCLES AND GLANDS –
responsible for sending pain, touch and it controls the skeletal muscles, it also
temperature sensations from your face to participates in controlling cardiac and
your brain. It's a large, three-part nerve in smooth muscles and many glands.
your head that provides sensation.
ABDUCENS NERVE DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
- its functions is to innervate the ipsilateral
lateral rectus muscle and partially innervate
the contralateral medial rectus muscle (at
the level of the nucleus - via the medial
longitudinal fasciculus).
FACIAL NERVE
- is the 7th cranial nerve and carries nerve
fibers that control facial movement and
expression. The facial nerve also carries
nerves that are involved in taste to the
anterior 2/3 of the tongue and producing
tears (lacrimal gland).
VESTIBULOCOCHLEAR NERVE
- is purely sensory. It has no motor function. It
communicate sound and equilibrium
information from the inner ear to the brain.
GLOSSOPHARYNGEAL NERVE 1. CNS
- is also called the ninth cranial nerve, has - The central nervous system consists of the
both sensory (sensation) functions and brain and spinal cord. It is referred to as
motor (movement) functions in the body, as "central" because it combines information
well as specialized sensory function and from the entire body and coordinates activity
parasympathetic function. across the whole organism.
VAGUS NERVE 2. PNS
- is responsible for the regulation of internal - Connect the brain and spinal cord to the
organ functions, such as digestion, heart rest of the body and the external
rate, and respiratory rate, as well as environment.
vasomotor activity, and certain reflex
actions, such as coughing, sneezing,
swallowing, and vomiting
ACCESSORY NERVE
- provides motor function (movement) to two
muscles essential to neck and shoulder
movement, the sternocleidomastoid (SCM)
and the trapezius, as well as to the larynx
(voice box) and other structures in the
throat. It's the 11th of the 12 cranial nerves
and is often referred to as CN XI

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
SOMATIC
- The somatic nervous system (SoNS or
voluntary nervous system) is the part of the
peripheral nervous system associated with
skeletal muscle voluntary control of body
movements.
AUTONOMIC
- The autonomic nervous system is a control
system that acts largely unconsciously.
- The primary mechanism in control of the
fight-or-flight response.
ENTERIC
- Described as the ‘brain of the gut’.
- *This system is responsible for intestinal
motility including peristalsis
- *the secretory function of the intestine, *the
control of blood flow in the intestinal wall
- *the regulation of intestinal immune and
inflammatory reactions.
CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
1. Neurons- a highly specialized cell of the
nervous system that receives stimuli and
transmits action potential.
2. Neuroglia –or glial cells. types of cell
that function primarily to support neurons.
The term neuroglia means “nerve glue.”
NEURON
- A highly specialized cell of the nervous
system, having two characteristic
properties: irritability (ability to be
stimulated) and conductivity (ability to
conduct impulses).
PARTS OF NEURON
1. CELL BODY - contains a single nucleus
2. NUCLEUS – the source of information for
protein synthesis.
3. DENDRITES-It receives information from
other neurons or sensory receptors and
transmit the information toward the neuron
cell body.
4. AXON TERMINAL- Contains neuro
transmitter that release the messages to
other neurons
5. AXON- Single, long fiber which conducts
impulse away from the cell body and Send
information to the brain or target tissues.
6. MYELIN SHEET-It wrapped around the
axon of neurons, it accelerates nerve
impulses.
7. NODES OF RANVIER- Can be seen
between the Swan cells which increases the
speed of the message.
8. SCHWANN CELL, also called neurilemma
cell, any of the cells in the peripheral
nervous system that produce the myelin
sheath around neuronal axons.
TYPES OF NEURONS
#1. Multipolar Description:
Several dendrites and one
axon
Function:
Most motor and CNS
neurons

NEUROGLIA

#2. Bipolar #1. Astrocytes

Description:
Description: Star-shape, highly
One dendrite and one branched
axon
Function:
Provide structural support,
form a layer around blood
vessels, contribute to blood
brain barrier
#2. Ependymal
Function:
Description:
Found in special sense
organs such as the eye and
the nose

#3. Unipolar
Description:
A neuron with single axon

Function:
Most sensory neurons Squamous epithelial-like

Function:
Line ventricles of the brain, circulate cerebrospinal
fluid (CSF), some produces choroid plexuses,
which produces CSF

#3. Microglia
HOW DOES IT WORKS? Description:
Small Mobile cells

Function:
Protect CNS from
infection, become
phagocytic in
response to
inflammation

#4. Oligodendrocytes
Description:
Cell with processes
that can surround
CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM several axons
Neuroglia –or glial cells.
types of cell that function primarily to support Function:
neurons. Form myelin
sheaths around
axons,or enclose
unmyelinated axons
in the CNS
#5. Schwann Cells
Description:
Single cells surrounding axons
Function:
Form myelin sheaths around axons, or encloses
unmyelinated in the PNS
ACTION POTENTIAL
SYNAPSE
- Is a structure that permits a neuron (or
nerve cell) to pass an electrical or chemical
signal to another neuron or to the target
effector cell.
NEUROTRANSMITTER
- Are endogenous chemicals that enable
neurotransmission.
Classified as to their function:
*Excitatory neurotransmitters
*Inhibitory neurotransmitters
*Modulatory neurotransmitters
TYPES:
1. Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) acts
as the body's main inhibitory chemical
messenger. GABA contributes to vision,
motor control, and plays a role in the
regulation of anxiety.
2. Glutamate is the most plentiful
neurotransmitter found in the nervous
system where it plays a role in cognitive
functions such as memory and learning.
3. Oxytocin is both a hormone and a
neurotransmitter. Plays a role in social
recognition, bonding, and sexual
reproduction.
4. Endorphins are neurotransmitters than
inhibit the transmission of pain signals and
promote feelings of euphoria.
5. Epinephrine (adrenaline) is a stress
hormone.
6. Norepinephrine is a neurotransmitter that
plays an important role in alertness is
involved in the body's fight or flight response
7. Histamine acts as a neurotransmitter in the
brain and spinal cord. It plays a role in
allergic reactions
8. Dopamine plays an important role in the
coordination of body movements. Dopamine
is also involved in reward, motivation.
9. Serotonin plays an important role in
regulating and modulating mood, sleep,
anxiety, sexuality, and appetite.
10. Adenosine acts as a neuromodulator in the
brain and is involved in suppressing
arousing and improving sleep.
11. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) It plays a
role in autonomic control, sensory
transduction, and communication with glial
cells.
12. Nitric oxide plays a role in affecting smooth
muscles, relaxing them to allow blood
vessels to dilate and increase blood flow to
certain areas of the body.
13. Carbon monoxide
14. Acetylcholine Found in both the central
and peripheral nervous systems, It plays a
role in muscle movements as well as
memory and learning.
REFLEX ARC
A reflex arc is a neural pathway that controls a
reflex.
In vertebrates, most sensory neurons do not pass
directly into the brain, but synapse in the spinal
cord.
This allows for faster reflex actions to occur by
activating spinal motor neurons without the delay of
routing signals through the brain.
Reflex actions are automatic, unlearned,
involuntary, and inborn responses.
SPECIAL SENSES
PARTS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE EYE
Eyeball
hollow, fluid-filled sphere. The eye is 1 inch (2.5
cm) in diameter and is located in the anterior
portion of the orbit. The orbit is the bony structure
of the skull that surrounds the eye and offers
protection to the eye.
Function
to detect the visual stimuli (photoreception) and to
convey the gathered information to the brain via the
optic nerve (CN II).

THERE ARE 3 LAYERS THAT COMPRISE NERVOUS TUNIC

THE EYE WALL: - consists of the retina which is composed of two
layers.
1. FIBROUS TUNIC – OUTERMOST LAYER a. Pigmented retina
the outermost layer prevent reflection of light,
2. VASCULAR TUNIC – INTERMEDIATE LAYER function together with the choroid
b. Sensory retina
3. NERVOUS TUNIC – INNERMOST LAYER the innermost layer contains photoreceptor cells,
called rods and cones
Fibrous tunic - consist of sclera and cornea.
a. Sclera
-a connective tissue layer
-a.k.a. “the white of the eye”
-protect internal eye structures
b. Cornea
a transparent structure that bends, or refracts, the
entering light.

Vitamin A is important in the production of

VASCULAR TUNIC
-contains blood vessels of the eye. it has three
components.
a. Choroid
thin structure of vascular network that has melanin
to absorb light and prevent reflection.
b. Ciliary body
- a contains ciliary muscles, a group of smooth
muscles, that holds the lens (a flexible, biconvex,
transparent disc) in place through the suspensory
ligaments -produces the aqueous humor
c. Iris
the colored part of the eye control the diameter of
the pupil (the opening of the eye where light passes
through)
Rhodopsin, a protein that is sensitive to light and is
important in seeing in the dark.
OPTIC DISC
- is a creamy-pink to white depressed area in the
retina. The optic nerve enters and exits the eyeball
at this area.
-The optic disc is also
known as the “blind spot” because it contains only
nerve fibers, lacks photoreceptor cells, and is
insensitive to light.
Macula lutea
-is a small, oval, Yellowish pink area located
laterally and temporally to the optic disc.
-The central depressed part of the macula is the
fovea centralis, the area of sharpest and keenest
vision, where most acute vision occurs.
-The functions of macula lutea include: central
vision, night and color vision, and motion detection.
Vitreous humor
-vitreous alone, is a gel like substance that
maintains the shape of the eye.
-It provides additional physical support to the retina
Vitreous body or chamber
-contains a gelatinous substance that occupies the
vitreous chamber, the space between the lens and
the retina.
-It also transmits light and gives shape to the
posterior eye Canal of Schlemm
is the passageway that extends completely around
the eye; it permits fluid to drain out of the eye into
the systemic circulation so that a constant
intraocular pressure (IOP) is maintained.
Lens
-is a transparent convex structure behind the iris
and in front of the vitreous body.
-The lens bends rays of light so that the light falls
on the retina.
-The curve of the lens changes to focus on near or
distant objects

The Aqueous chamber is divided into two

-the anterior chamber, which lies between the
cornea and the iris and
-the posterior chamber that lies between the iris
and the lens.
Aqueous humor
- is a clear, watery fluid that fills the anterior and
posterior chambers of the eye.
-It is produced by the ciliary bodies (processes),
and the fluid drains into the canal of Schlemm.
Conjunctivae
- Thin, transparent mucous membranes of the
eye that line the posterior surface of each
eyelid, located over the sclera.
Lacrimal gland
-Produces tears that are drained through the
punctum into the lacrimal duct and sac.
Eye muscles
-Do not work independently; each muscle
works with the muscle that produces the
opposite movement.
FUNCTIONS OF THE EYE
Light Refraction
-When light passes through a concave or
flattened lens, the light bends outward
(diverge)
-When light passes through a convex or
rounded lens, the light bends inward
(converge)
-Focusing causes the light rays to converge
toward the crossing point or the “Focal Point”
(FP).
-The focal point in the eye occurs just anterior
to the retina, and the tiny image that is focused
on the retina is inverted compared to the actual
object.
Focusing image on the retina
-Influenced by the shape of the lens
-Accommodation is the ability of the eye to
focus on an object irrelevant of its distance.
-When looking at a distant (>20 feet) object,
the ciliary muscles relaxes; thus, the
suspensory ligaments maintains its tension
against the lens, keeping it flat.
-When looking at a near (<20 feet) object, the
ciliary muscles contracts, pulling the ciliary
body towards the lens, reducing the tension at
the suspensory ligaments; hence, allowing the
lens to assume a rounded shape.
-The visual pathway explains how visual
signals reach the brain.
-Optic nerves provide output from the retina to
the brain.
-Optic chiasm (crossover) is where ‘some’ optic
nerves cross to the other side of the brain.
-After passing the chiasm, the optic nerve is
now part of the optic tract which enters the
brain and most of them terminate in the lateral
geniculate nucleus of the thalamus.
-At this point, the optic tract synapses with
neurons whose axons form the
-optic radiations, which project to the primary
visual areas in the occipital lobes of the
cerebral cortex, and visual perception begins.
HOW DO LIGHT TRAVELS (FROM THE EYE
TO THE BRAIN
Light enters the eye through the cornea. This
is the clear, dome-shaped surface that covers
the front of the eye.

From the cornea, the light passes through the

pupil. The iris, or the colored part of your eye,
controls the amount of light passing through.

From there, it then hits the lens. This is the

clear structure inside the eye that focuses light
rays onto the retina.
The Outer Ear
Next, light passes through the vitreous
humor. This is the clear, jelly-like substance A. PINNA
that fills the center of the eye. It helps to keep This is the outside part of the ear.
the eye round in shape.
FUNCTION
Finally, the light reaches the retina. This is the The function of the pinna is to capture sound
light-sensitive nerve layer that lines the back of waves.
the eye. Here the image is inverted.

The optic nerve is then responsible for

carrying the signals to the visual cortex of the
brain. The visual cortex turns the signals into
images (for example, our vision).

B. AUDITORY CANAL OR TUBE

This is tube that connects the outer ear to the
inside or middle ear.

FUNCTION
To send sound waves to the middle ear.
To keep the ear clean of debris.
OCCIPITAL LOBE a. Cilia: hair
b. Cerumen: earwax
-The occipital lobe, the vision center
-The occipital lobe is solely responsible for C.EARDRUM
observing and processing the raw image “data” The tympanic membrane divides the external
sent from the outside world through the eyes. ear from the middle ear.

FUNCTION
• Seals off the middle ear.
• Vibrates the ossicles ( ear bones).

PARTS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE

EAR
What is sounds?
Sounds is the vibration of air molecules.
Sounds waves refers to the “ripples” created as
a sound vibrations move out from the source.
MIDDLE EAR
The OSSICLES the small bone that are
connected and transmit the sound waves to the
inner ear. The bones are called

MALLEUS (hammer)
INCUS ( anvil) To transmit the vibration of the cochlea liquid
STAPES ( stirrup) and associated structure into a neural signal.

EUSTACHIAN TUBE
A canal that link the middle ear with the back of
the nose.

Has two functions

• Equalizes air pressure in the middle ear.
• Drains the middle ear.

VESTIBULE
This contains receptors for balance.

The Inner Ear

A.COCHLEA
This contains the nerves for hearing.
The cochlea change sounds vibration to nerve
impulses. FUNCTION
• Maintaining body balance and eye
FUNCTION movement.
Detect changes in gravity and linear
acceleration. • The olfactory nerve transmits information
to the brain from smell receptors in the
nose. The olfactory nerve is sometimes
referred to as the first cranial nerve, or CN1.
• The olfactory nerve is the shortest nerve in
the human head.

Function:
Unlike many other nerves, the olfactory nerve
has one job, making you able to smell things.
When particles in the air enter your nasal
cavity, they interact with the receptors on the
olfactory nerve and a type of tissue called the
olfactory epithelium.
The nasal cavity lies above the bone that forms
the roof of the mouth and curves down at the
back to join the throat. It is divided into two
sections called nasal passages. Air moves
through these passages during breathing. The
nasal passages filter warm the air, and make it
moist before it goes into the lungs

Nasopharynx
The nasopharynx is the space above the soft
palate at the back of the nose and connects the
nose to the mouth, which allows a person to
breathe through the nose.

Function:
It plays an important role in transferring air from
the nose to the larynx.

PARTS AND FUNCTIONS OF OLFACTORY

SYSTEM
Olfactory System
Olfactory system, is the bodily structures that
serve the sense of smell Cribriform Plate of ethmoid bone
This bone, the cribriform plate, transmits the
olfactory nerves that carry the sense of smell.
Function: The cribriform plate is perforated by
olfactory foramina, which allow for the passage
of the olfactory nerves to the roof of the nasal
cavity. This conveys information from smell
receptors to the brain.
Olfactory Tract
The olfactory tract connects the olfactory bulb
to the remainder of the cerebral cortex. This
creates a direct connection between the
sensory output from the olfactory neurons and
the olfactory cortex
Function: The function of the olfactory tract is
to connect the olfactory bulb to multiple areas
within the center of the brain.
Olfactory Bulb
The olfactory bulb is a structure found on the
inferior (bottom) side of the cerebral
hemispheres, located near the front of the
brain.
Function: The olfactory bulb is an essential
structure in the olfactory system.
The olfactory bulb transmits smell information
from the nose to the brain, and is thus
necessary for a proper sense of smell. Scent
molecules activate olfactory receptors and
signals travel up the olfactory nerves to the
olfactory bulb, and then on to the rest of the
brain via the olfactory tract.
Frontal Bone
The frontal bone creates the smooth curvature
of the forehead and protects the frontal lobe of
the brain, especially the ethmoid bone's
horizontal plate known as the cribriform plate
which allows the olfactory nerve bundles to
pass through its perforated surface and bring
the ceiling of the nasal cavity its sense of smell.
The frontal bone is involved in the three
regions of the head, such are the forehead, the
orbit and the nose.
How does the sense of smell works?
The smells we are able to detect are particles
or chemical substances floating in the air these
particles travel through the air. and enter our
nose through the nostrils reaching the nasal
cavity.
in the nasal cavity there are small hairs that
clean and filter the air. this part of our nose is
covered by a mucous membrane that keeps
the nose moist. then filtered air reaches the
olfactory membrane.
this is where we find the cells in charge of
collecting the information and sending it to the
brain. the olfactory nerve takes the information
to the brain which is in charge of recognizing it
and reacting to what we're smelling. Once the
information has reached the brain this
transmits the necessary signals to react to the
different smells.
PARTS AND FUNCTION OF TONGUE
WHAT IS TONGUE
Tongue- The tongue is a mass of muscle
that can be divided into different parts
based on its landmarks. This differentiation is
helpful to connect its structure to specific
unique functions. The bumps on the tongue are
called papillae (from a Latin root meaning
“nipple”) and these vary in shape and location
and are associated with taste buds. The
muscles within and surrounding the tongue
control its movement.
GROSS PART OF TONGUE

5 general descriptions of the
gross parts of the tongue
Root: This is most often defined as the back
third of the tongue. It sits low in the mouth and
near the throat, and it is relatively fixed in
place. It is attached to the hyoid bone and
mandible (lower jaw). It is close in proximity to
two muscles: the geniohyoid and mylohyoid
muscles.
Body: The rest of the tongue, notably the
forward two-thirds that lie in front of the sulcus.
It is extremely mobile and serves multiple
functions.
Papillae Types
Vallate papillae: These large, flat-topped
bumps lie just in front of the terminal sulcus,
located about two-thirds back on the surface of
the tongue. They are surrounded by deep
trenches into which ducts open from fluid-
producing glands and their walls are covered in
taste
Folate papillae: Though poorly developed in
humans, these small folds of the mucosa
surface of the tongue are found to the sides.
They also have taste receptors located in taste
buds.
Muscles
Intrinsic muscles:
Superior longitudinal: Curls the tip and sides
of the tongue upward and shortens the tongue.
Inferior longitudinal: Curls the tip of the
tongue downward and shortens the tongue.
Transverse: Narrows and elongates the
tongue, increasing its height and causing it to
stick out (protrude).
Vertical: Flattens and broadens the tongue
within the mouth, causing it to protrude or push
against the front teeth.
Extrinsic muscles:
Genioglossus: A large fan-shaped muscle, it
contributes most of the bulk to the tongue. It
lowers the tongue and may pull it forward to
stick out or even to wag it back and forth.
Hyoglossus: A thin, four-sided muscle that
lowers the tongue and pulls it back into the
mouth.
Styloglossus: Another small, short muscle
with fibers that interdigitate with the hyoglossus
muscle. It can retract the tongue and draw it up
to create a trough for swallowing a bolus of
food.
Palatoglossus: In fact, more part of the soft
palate than the tongue proper, it works to
elevate the back portion of the tongue.
Function
The tongue is a mass of muscles covered by a
mucous membrane that is important for taste
sensation. Beyond its obvious role in eating
manipulating food into a bolus that can be
safely passed into the throat with swallowing it
also has a vital contribution to speech and may
even affect breathing, especially in sleep.
The tongue helps to identify what might be
palatable with the sense of taste as detected
by the taste buds. The basic taste sensations
include:
•Sweet
•Salty
•Sour
•Bitter
•Savory (umami)

How does the sense of taste works?
Sweet, sour, salty, bitter – and savory
Savory dishes that taste of broth evoke
pleasant emotions in most people. They are a
signal that the food is rich in protein. This flavor
has been recognized as the fifth basic taste in
addition to the four better known tastes of
sweet, sour, bitter and salty. The fact that there
are sensory cells specifically for this fifth taste
was discovered by a Japanese researcher
around 1910, which is why the common
Japanese term umami is used for “savory.”
Sweet
What we perceive as sweetness is usually
caused by sugar and its derivatives such as
fructose or lactose. But other types of
substances can also activate the sensory cells
that respond to sweetness. These include, for
example, some protein building blocks like
amino acids, and also alcohols in fruit juices or
alcoholic drinks.
Sour
It is mostly acidic solutions like lemon juice or
organic acids that taste sour. This sensation is
caused by hydrogen ions, chemical symbol:
H+, split off by an acid dissolved in a watery
solution.
Salty
Food containing table salt is mainly what we
taste as salty. The chemical basis of this taste
is salt crystal, which consists of sodium and
chloride. Mineral salts like the salts of
potassium or magnesium can also cause a
sensation of saltiness.
Bitter
Bitter taste is brought about by many
fundamentally different substances. In total
there are about 35 different proteins in the
sensory cells that respond to bitter substances.
From an evolutionary standpoint, this can be
explained by the many different bitter species
of plants, some of which were poisonous.
Recognizing which ones were indeed
poisonous was a matter of survival.
Savory
The “umami” taste, which is somewhat similar
to the taste of a meat broth, is usually caused
by glutamic acid or aspartic acid. These two
amino acids are part of many different proteins
found in food, and also in some plants. Ripe
tomatoes, meat and cheese all contain a lot of
glutamic acid. Asparagus, for example,
contains aspartic acid. Chinese cuisine uses
glutamate, the glutamic acid salt, as flavor
enhancers. This is done to make the savory
taste of foods more intense.
TASTE
The gustatory system or sense of taste is
the sensory system that is partially responsible
for the perception of taste (flavor). Taste is the
perception produced or stimulated when a
substance in the mouth reacts chemically with
taste receptor cells located on taste buds in the
oral cavity, mostly on the tongue. Taste, along
with olfaction and trigeminal nerve stimulation
(registering texture, pain, and temperature),
determines flavors of food and other
substances. Humans have taste receptors on
taste buds and other areas including the upper
surface of the tongue and the epiglottis. The
gustatory cortex is responsible for the
perception of taste
How does the brain and the sense of taste
work together?
When taste receptor cells are stimulated, they
send signals through three cranial nerves to
taste regions in the brainstem — the facial,
glossopharyngeal, and vagus nerves. These
impulses get routed through the thalamus,
which relays sensory information to other brain
regions.
Circulatory system
Is a network consisting of blood, blood vessel, and
the heart. This network supplies the tissues in our
body with oxygen, other nutrients, transport
hormones, and removes unnecessary waste
products.
What is blood?
- it is the only fluid tissue in the body
- it is sticky
- approximately 8% of the body weight
- body fluid in humans and other animals that
delivers necessary substances such as nutrients
and oxygen to the cells and transports waste
product away those same cells.
Function of the blood
- It transport gases, waste,
nutrients,hormones.
- Prevent blood loss during injury
- Defense against pathogens and toxins.
- Regulating blood temperature
Components of blood
• Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)
• White Blood Cells ( Leukocytes)
• Platelets
• Plasma
Red Blood Cells ( Erythrocytes)
- Carry O2 from the lungs to the body tissue
and CO2 (waste) away from the tissue and back to
the lungs.
- They are made in bone marrow
- They have a biconcave disc shape
- They have no nucleus and contains a very
few organelles.
Hemoglobin – is a protein inside the red blood
cells. It carries oxygen.
Oxyhemoglibin – is what gives the characteristic
of red color to the RBC.
Platelets
- Small colorless disk- shaped cell fragment
without a nucleus, found in large number in blood
and involved in clotting.
- It is made in our bone marrow, the sponge-
like tissue inside our bones.
Plasma
- Yellowish or straw- colored
- It makes out of 55% of the volume body
- Approximately 90% water
- Plasma carries water, salt and enymes. The
main role of plasma is to take nutrients, hormones,
and proteins to the parts of the body that need it.
Cells also put their waste product to plasma.
White Blood Cell (Leukoctes)
- Less numerous than RBC
- Less than 1% of total blood volume
- Are the cells of the immune system that are
involved in protecting the body against both
infectious disease and foreign invaders.
- It form a protective, movable army that
helps defend the body against damage by bacteria,
viruses, parasites and tumor cells.
PRODUCTION OF RED BLOOD CELLS
Red blood cell (RBC) production (erythropoiesis)
takes place in the bone marrow under the control of
the hormone erythropoietin (EPO).
ERETHROPOIESIS- A scientific term for the
production of red blood cells.
FUNCTION OF RBC
ERYTHROCYTES- Carry almost all oxygen.
-produced energy
-release waste and carbon dioxide
How Erythrocytes develop?
Bone- factor of producing cells.
Bone Marrow- A tissue that responsible for
producing stem cells.
Stem Cells- This cells that can be developed into
specialized cells called CMP (common myeloid
progenitors)
CMP- Have the ability to mature into all different
blood cells types including:
1. RBC or Red Blood Cells/ erythrocytes
2. White Blood Cells/ leukocytes
3. Platelets
Function of cells
1. RBC- carry oxygen
2. WBC- Fight for infection.
3. Platelets- Help stop bleeding after injury
ERYTHROCYTE LIFE CYCLE
STEM CELL- Commits to becoming a red blood
cells
CMP- Has the ability to mature all different types
of cell.
Erythroblast- becomes more developed blood cell
turn to reticulocyte.
Reticulocyte- will enters to blood stream and takes
after a week for a healthy reticulocyte to become a
mature red blood cell.
NOTE:
The development of RBC depend on healthy stem
cells in the bone marrow , if the bone marrows is
not healthy It producesa defective stem cells.
APOPROSIS- IS a programme cell death
-responsible for removing death cell.
Anemia- Anemia occurs when there are not enough
healthy red blood cells to carry oxygen to your
body's organs. As a result, it's common to feel cold
and symptoms of tiredness or weakness. There are
many different types of anemia, but the most
common type is iron-deficiency anemia.
Formation of white blood Cell
What is white blood cells?
White blood cells are part of the body's immune
system. White blood cells begin in the bone marrow
in a process called hematopoiesis.They help the
body fight infection and other diseases.
Our blood is made up of red blood cells, white
blood cells, platelets, and plasma. Our
white blood cells account for only about 1% of our
blood, but their impact is big. White blood
cellsarealso called leukocytes.

Types of white blood cells

Monocytes- help to break down bacteria. They

have a longer lifespan than many white blood cells.
Lymphocytes- They create antibodies to fight
against bacteria, viruses, and other potentially
harmful invaders.
Neutrophils- They kill and digest bacteria and
fungi. They are the most numerous type of white
blood cell and your first line of defense when
infection strikes.
Basophils- These small cells seem to sound an
alarm when infectious agents invade your blood.
They secrete chemicals such as histamine, a
marker of allergic disease, that help control the
body's immune response.
Eosinophils- They attack and kill parasites and
cancer cells, and help with allergic responses.
Problems affecting white blood cells
Your white blood cell count can be low for a
number of reasons. This includes when something
is destroying the cells more quickly than the body
can replenish them. Or when the bone marrow
stops making enough white blood cells to keep you
healthy. When your white blood cell count is low,
you are at great risk for any illness or infection,

Weak immune system- This is often caused by

illnesses such as HIV/AIDS or by cancer treatment.
Cancer treatments such as chemotherapy or
radiation therapy can destroy white blood cells and
leave you at risk for infection.
Infection- A higher-than-normal white blood cell
count usually means you have some type of
infection. White blood cells are multiplying to
destroy the bacteria or virus.
Myelodysplastic syndrome- This condition
causes abnormal production of blood cells. This
includes white blood cells in the bone marrow.
Cancer of the blood- Cancers including leukemia
and lymphoma can cause uncontrolled growth of an
abnormal type of blood cell in the bone marrow.
This results in a greatly increased risk for infection
Myeloproliferative disorder- This disorder refers
to various conditions that trigger the excessive
production of immature blood cells. This can result
in an unhealthy balance of all types of blood cells in
the bone marrow and too many or too few white
blood cells in the blood.
Medicines- Some medicines can raise or lower the
body's white blood cell count.