Capitol University

College of Arts and Sciences

Mathematics and Science Department

The Field of Environmental Science

Environmental science is an interdisciplinary area of study that includes both applied and
theoretical aspects of human impact on the world. Since humans are generally organized into groups,
environmental science must deal with politics, social
organization, economics, ethics, and philosophy.

Thus, environmental science is a mixture of

traditional science, individual and societal values, and
political awareness. (See figure 1.1.) Although
environmental science as a field of study is evolving, it is
rooted in the early history of civilization. Many ancient
cultures expressed a reverence for the plants, animals,
and geographic features that provided them with food,
water, and transportation. These features are still
appreciated by many modern people. Although the
following quote from Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862)
is over a century old, it is consistent with current
environmental philosophy:

I wish to speak a word for Nature, for absolute

freedom and wildness, as contrasted with a freedom and
culture merely civil . . to regard man as an inhabitant, or Figure 1.1 Environmental Science
a part and parcel of Nature, rather than a member of
society.

The current interest in the state of the environment began with philosophers like Thoreau and
scientists like Rachel Carson and received emphasis from the organization of the first Earth Day on April
22, 1970. Subsequent Earth Days reaffirmed this commitment. As a result of this continuing interest in
the state of the world and how people both affect it and are affected by it, environmental science is now
a standard course or program at many colleges. It is also included in the curriculum of high schools. Most
of the concepts covered by environmental science courses had previously been taught in ecology,
conservation, biology, or geography courses. Environmental science incorporates the scientific aspects of
these course with input from the social sciences, such as economics, sociology, and political science,
creating a new interdisciplinary field.

The Interrelated Nature of Environmental Problems

Environmental science is by nature an interdisciplinary field. The word environmental is usually

understood to mean the surrounding conditions that affect people and other organisms. In a broader
definition, environment is everything that affects an organism during its lifetime. In turn, all organisms
including people affect many components in their environment. (See figure 1.1.) From a human
perspective, environmental issues involve concerns about science, nature, health, employment, profits,

enviscireyes2020
 Capitol University
College of Arts and Sciences
Mathematics and Science Department

politics, ethics, and economics. Most social and political decisions are made with respect to political
jurisdictions, but environmental problems do not necessarily coincide with these artificial political
boundaries. For example, air pollution may involve several local units of government, several states or
provinces, and even in different nation.

The issue of declining salmon stocks

in the Pacific Northwest of the United States
and British Columbia, Canada, is another
example of political friction over a shared
natural resource. It has been calculated that
on the U.S. side of the salmon issue alone,
there are five federal cabinet-level
departments, two federal agencies, and five
federal laws in question as well as numerous
tribal treaties, commissions,
and court decisions. All of this is in addition
to many state-level departments,
commissions, and rulings. If all of this were
not sufficient, international bodies such as
the United Nations and international
treaties impact the fate of the salmon.
Considering all this complexity, it is not
surprising that the salmon is in such a
dangerous status. (See figure 1.2.)
Figure 1.2 The Four H’s: Human Activities that
Affect Wild Salmon Survival

An Ecosystem Approach

The natural world is organized into interrelated units called ecosystems. An ecosystem is a region
in which the organisms and the physical environment form an interacting unit. Weather affects plants,
plants use minerals in the soil and affect animals, animals spread plant seeds, plants secure the soil, and
plants evaporate water, which affects weather.

One of the first individuals to provide a formalized, contemporary description of ecosystems was
A. G. Tansley in 1935, when he stated that an ecosystem is a unit of vegetation which includes not only
the plants of which it is composed but the animals habitually associated with them, and also all the
physical and chemical components of the immediate environment or habitat which together form a
recognizable self-contained entity.

While accepting that every living thing and all processes on Earth are interrelated and somehow
interact, some naturally occurring demarcations in the real world can justifiably be considered as
boundaries for the purposes of ecosystem-based management projects. Examples are lakes, deltas,
islands, flood plains, watersheds separated by mountains, and many others. Such "natural" ecosystems

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 Capitol University
College of Arts and Sciences
Mathematics and Science Department

occur on many scales. Examples of domesticated ecosystems include small towns, urban areas, and agro-
ecosystems.

Large ecosystems always include smaller ones. A large watershed, for example, may include a
number of lakes that can be locally managed within the context of the overall watershed. Isolated coral
reefs may also form part of a much larger atoll system. Thus, defining an ecosystem boundary is more a
matter of practical convenience and is usually related to easily identifiable demarcations. Nonetheless, it
is important not to forget that a large quantity of materials moves back and forth across natural
demarcations. In the case of mountain divides, for example, wildlife, seeds, hunters, slash-and-burn
farmers, refugees, atmospheric pollutants, and other elements may be transitory parts of the ecosystem.

Global Perspective

Biodiversity, Human Welfare and Economic Development

Biodiversity is fundamental to human welfare and economic development, and plays a critical role
in meeting human needs by maintaining the ecological processes on which our survival depends. Broad
scale ecological systems provide benefits such as clean air and fresh water that are needed by everyone,
whether in urban or rural settings.

Biodiversity includes the full range of living organisms that people depend on for both direct and
indirect uses. Direct benefits from biodiversity come from the supply of goods or products—such as food,
timber, clothing materials, and medicine—that can be consumed or traded in exchange for other required
or desired assets. Although all people depend on biodiversity to some extent, the poorest, especially the
rural poor, most directly depend on the products of healthy ecosystems, harvesting wild plants and
animals for their food, fuel, clothing, medicine, and shelter. Conserving biodiversity is therefore part of
protecting the critical ecosystems that are essential for both environmental and economic sustainability.

Biodiversity also provides less tangible, indirect benefits that cannot be traded but underpin the
natural and production systems central to human survival. Watershed protection, carbon storage,
pollination, and nutrient recycling are all necessary environmental services. Genetic diversity and its
associated information are used to create new crops or animal varieties and pharmaceuticals; modern
agriculture, which depends on new genetic stock from natural ecological systems, is now a US$ 3 trillion
global business.

Biodiversity allows adaptation to take place through natural and artificial selection. Many benefits
of biodiversity do not rely on use. Biodiversity is closely linked with human cultural and spiritual values,
nonuse benefits that are nonetheless powerful forces in many traditional cultures as well as in urbanized
lives. For example, unique species and special landscapes provide aesthetic benefits that are important
sources of revenue through economic activities such as tourism. Tourism based on an intact natural
environment is rapidly becoming one of the leading sources of foreign exchange earnings in countries
with high biodiversity. Finally, other nonuse benefits of biodiversity, such as the capacity to adapt to future
changes, risks, and uncertainties, cannot be captured by individuals, but are "owned" by society at local,
regional, and global levels.

enviscireyes2020
 Capitol University
College of Arts and Sciences
Mathematics and Science Department

Artificial political boundaries create difficulties in managing environmental problems because

most environmental units, or ecosystems, do not coincide with political boundaries. Therefore, a regional
approach to solving environmental problems, one that incorporates natural geographic units, is ideal.
Each region of the world has certain environmental issues that are of primary concern because of the mix
of population, resource use patterns, and culture.

Environmental problems become issues when there is disagreement. This inevitably leads to a
confrontation between groups that have different views on the consequences of an environmental
problem. Many social, economic, ethical, and scientific issues shape a person's opinions. The process of
environmental decision making must account for all of these issues when seeking an acceptable
compromise.

Environmental problems are people problems. They occur because the uses of natural resources,
which some people feel are justified, result in a diminished environment for others in the region.
Environmental problems are defined by the person who perceives the problem. When perceptions differ,
conflict occurs. Environmental decisions inevitably involve economic consequences because someone is
receiving value from the resources being used or someone perceives an economic loss because a use has
been withdrawn.

 Some argue that economic consequences should not be important when making environmental
decisions; others argue that economic considerations can resolve all environmental issues.
 Some argue that regulation is necessary to protect resources; others argue that regulation hinders
valuable use of resources.
 Some consider nonhuman organisms as important as humans; others feel that humans have a
primary place in nature.
 Some are against change; others recognize that change must occur if negative consequences are
to be prevented.
 Some believe that environmental responsibility rests on each decision maker, whether at home,
in the workplace, or in the community. Each hour and dollar the consumer spends involves
environmental consequences. How do you feel about this statement?

With all these differing opinions, compromise is the only way to resolve the conflicts. The social
institution of government must play a role. Economic evaluation is important. Recognition of the validity
of opposing points of view is essential. The field of environmental science seeks to find that middle
ground.

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