CHAPTER 1:
in a series of relationships that depends on
The science of ecology
-deals with the abiotic environment as well
as the biotic (living organisms). The
individual communities of organisms and
their abiotic environments are called
ecosystems. An ecosystem encompasses all
the interactions among organisms and their
abiotic environment. The Earth which
encompasses the biosphere (all of the
Earth’s communities) and its interactions
with the Earth’s water, soil, rocks, and
atmosphere is the largest ecosystem.
-To further understand and appreciate the
relationships between organisms and their
environment, and the external forces and
conditions acting on the community of
organisms, the following terms are defined.
Ecology (from Greek: oikos “household”;
and logos, “knowledge”) is the study of the
relationships between organisms and their
environment. The environment includes not
only physical but also the biol conditions
under which an organism lives while
relationships involved the interaction with
the physical world as well as the
interrelationships with the number of the
species and the individuals of the same
species.
Ecosystem - is an integrated unit consisting
of a community of organisms in the form of
bacteria, plants and animals and the
physical environment in the form of the
water, air, soil and climate that they inhabit.
Individual organisms interact with each
other and with their environment or habitat
the flow of energy and nutrients through
the system.
Environment - refers to the sum of the
external forces and conditions acting on an
organism or community of organisms. There
are two types of environment, namely:
natural or physical environment and
cultural or social environment. In the
physical environment, the surroundings are
mostly provided by nature such as
terrestrial (land) environment or marine
(water) environment. The cultural
environment, the surroundings are
primarily those that are the results of
human activities, such as urban centers, tall
structures or buildings, and complex
network of transport systems and shopping
malls.
Environmental Science - is the study of the
interactions among physical, chemical and
biological components of the environment.
It is an interdisciplinary science overlapping
the areas in natural sciences, engineering
sciences and social sciences. It uses
concepts and information from ecology,
chemistry, geology. Engineering,
economics, politics, and ethics. In the planet
Earth, environmental science primarily
deals on pollution and other conditions and
developments as a result of human
activities and their impact on biological
diversity (biodiversity) and sustainability. It
covers developments and issues concerning
climate change, biodiversity, conservation,
and desertification, use of energy resources
(both renewable and non-renewable),
waste management, pollution, and
sustainable development.
The Four Meaning of Science
In the most general sense, science means
“systematic theoretical inquiry”.
The First meaning of science as a form of
knowledge. Science refer to the organized,
well Founded body of knowledge of natural
phenomena contributions to which have
been Made by thousands of men and
women.
The second meaning of science is that
science Refers to a particular field of
systematic inquiry in which such knowledge
is sought.
The Third meaning of science is that
science refers to a distinctive form or kind
of human Cultural activity referred to as
scientists, natural philosophers and savants.
The fourth Meaning of science is that
science is the variety of knowledge, people,
skills, Organizations, facilities, technics,
physical resources, methods and
technologies that Taken together and
relation with one another are devoted to
the study and understanding Of the natural
world.
The Role of Environmental Education
-Our planet is currently experiencing
unprecedented stress, brought about by the
continuing loss of its vital natural
ecosystems and facing a scenario that
threatened the world’s ability to achieve
sustainable living and development. The
United Nations Conference on Environment
and Development held on June 3 to 14 1992
in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil and the Global
Forum in 1994 warned that unless there
were changes in the ways in which
development pursuits proceeded, there
would be a very significant increase of
human deprivation and suffering and
environmental damage. This unfavorable
scenario encompasses social, economic,
political and environmental dimensions and
concerns. These concerns must be
considered together in searching for
remedial measures in addressing the
problems of human suffering and
environmental damage.
-To date, the world’s environmental crises
have appreciably escalated and
approaching alarming stage. In the
Philippines, the onslaught of environmental
disturbances are repeatedly being
experienced. Air pollutants in the form of
gases and chemicals enter the atmosphere
and threatens human health. Toxic wastes
and industrial effluents flow and
contaminates rivers and shorelines. Illegal
fishing using chemicals significantly damage
our coral reefs Non-biodegradable
materials clogging esteros, canals and other
waterways causing severe floods in rural
and urban areas Contamination of oceans
due to frequent oil spills is evident. The The Concept of Earth Capital in Sustainable
demand for food, water, energy, housing, Living
transport and other basic necessities
continue to escalate. -Concept of Earth Capital means that all
other organisms are interdependent and
These environmental problems together
interconnected parts of nature and are
with the social, political, and technological
completely dependent on nature. Our
transition and innovations have created
survival and health, and the survival of all
urgent demands and challenges to the
living things depend on the Earth and its
education sector in the country and the
natural systems. The air you inhale, the
whole world. One strategic approach to
water you drink, the food you eat, and all
address these demands and challenges is to
your possessions are derived from the solar
incorporate social and environmental issues
energy and the Earth’s atmosphere, water,
concerns and awareness into the curricula
soil, plants and animals, minerals, energy
in the primary, secondary and collegiate
resources, and life sustaining processes.
levels in the educational program of the
government. There is a timely appeal of
Some Environmental Historical Events
environmentalists to the Department of
Education to incorporate the “Zero waste”
BCE-1200 AD
approach in dealing with the day-to-day
-Cutting of trees for timber stripped the
activities of every Filipino in the curricula
forests of Babylon, Greece, Lebanon and
and extra-curricular activities in the three
Italy with rise of civilization.
levels of education in the country. The
schools provide the best venue and training
-Greeks and Romans kept important trees
ground to introduce, support, and promote
from being cut for timber.
ecological awareness, action and
commitment among students.
-Less water pollution in cities in Israel and
India due to strict religious codes about
The goal of Environmental Education is to
Cleanliness.
develop an environmentally literate
citizenry who will support and ensure the
-The prevention of soil erosion is already
protection, conservation and improvement
being practiced by some cultures in China,
of the environment, safeguard and promote
India, and Peru.
sustainable living and development, social
equity, and economic efficiency in the
1200-1750
utilization of our natural resources,
-Cutting of trees for timber in the forests of
England, France and Germany denuded
large tracts by around 1550 in England and
the 1600 in Europe.
-To prevent soil erosion, cultures in China,
India and Peru used and built terraces,
Practice crop rotation and use natural
fertilizer.
1750-1830
-Thomas Malthus predicts that eventually,
food and resources will run out as
populations explode and new technologies
create additional pollution. Town gas from
coal drips tar into the rivers. Vulcanizing
rubber plants discharge chemicals directly
into the streams. Smoke from coal chokes
the air in big cities.
1830-1890
-Living conditions in urban areas horrify
reform minded commissions in London in
the 1840’s and America in the 1850’s and
1860’s.
-Interest in pure drinking water and
sanitation is spurred by epidemics of
typhoid and cholera. Water pollution
carried disease, but no one exactly knew
why until 1880’s. John Snow, a London
physician traced a part of the cholera
epidemic to a contaminated water pump in
1855. Conservation of wilderness areas
begins with the felling of an enormous tree,
called the “Mother of the Forest” in 1851.
The outrage over the act leads to call for a
national park system.
1890-1920
-Teddy Roosevelt and his forester Gifford
Pinchot characterized the ideas about
-Conserving large tracts of land and putting
other forests to wise use.
John Muir opposes the “wise use” idea and
fights for outright preservation of unspoiled
wilderness.
-New organizations like the women’s clubs
helps champion natural preservation,
Conservation and municipal reform.
1920-1930
-National Coast Anti-Pollution League is
formed by municipal officials from Atlantic
City to Maine who are concerned about oil
and sewage pollution detracting from
tourism.
-Chemurgy movement is a Midwestern
populist and scientific phenomenon.
Demands include replacement of petroleum
with farm alcohol and other industrial Uses
for agricultural crops. The movement
suffers when leaders die and new. Leaders
with secret ties to the oil industry take over.
1940’s-1950’s
-Sand Country Almanac by forester Aldo
Leopold, published in 1948, expresses the
expanding sense of human responsibility
not only to each other but also for the
earth.
-Deadly smog episode in Donora Penn.
(1948), London (1952), (1956), New York
(1953), and Los Angeles (1954) create a
perception that an air pollution crisis is
underway. In 1955 the first air pollution
conference is held.
-Increasing CO: build up is one surprising
conclusion of Scripps Oceanographic
Institute scientists working on International
Geographical year projects 1957.
1960’s-1970’s
-The truth about leaded gasoline emerges
dramatically 1965 Senate hearings as
scientist Clair Patterson testifies about the
obvious and apparently deliberate lacunae
and falsehoods in lead industry research. A
burning river ends the decade as a dramatic
symbol of an environment on the brink. On
June 22, 1969, oil and chemicals in the
Cuyahoga River in Cleveland, Ohio catch
fire. Flames top five stories.
1970’s-1980’s
-Water pollution is decreased through a
massive sewage treatment expansion
program. Rivers which were once sewers
now begin a gradual return from the grave.
Still the “national pollution discharge
elimination system” does not actually
eliminate discharges.
-Nuclear power safety is increasingly
suspect after the Three Mile Island
accident.
1980’s-1990’s
-Disasters show the tenuous and fragile side
of industrial technology. Among them are
Bhopal mass poisoning in India; the
Chernobyl nuclear reactor disaster in
Ukraine; and the challenger shuttle and the
Exxon Valdez oil spills in the U.S.A.
-Ozone depletion from fluorocarbons is
finally taken seriously which leads to the
signing of the Montreal Protocol in 1987.
Warnings about global climate change
become more convincing as evidence.
Mounts and are felt.
1990-2000
-Persian Gulf War creates environmental
disaster with thousands of burning oil wells.
A Gallup poll finds 76 percent of Americans
call themselves environmentalists.
2000 – Present
-President Hill Clinton sets aside 58 million
acres of forest and wilderness by the End of
his presidency, surpassing the previous
conservation record set in Teddy
Roosevelt’s administration.
-President George Bush begins with strong
support to traditional energy options, Such
as oil, gas, coal and nuclear
Global climate change report by the United
Nations and the National Academy of
Sciences firmly establishes scientific basis
for concern.
Poisoning from leaded gasoline is
acknowledged as severe in developing
countries by the World Bank and the World
Health Organization and a gradual switch to
other additives finally gets underway
Introduction to Environmental Science
This chapter will help you understand:
- The meaning of the term environment
- The importance of natural resources
- That environmental science is
interdisciplinary
- The scientific method and how science
operates
- Some pressures facing the global
environment
- Sustainability and sustainable
development
The environment includes everything
around living organisms.
- Climate
- Air and water quality
- Soil and landforms
Environment: the total of our surroundings
All the things around us with which we
interact:
- Animals, plants, forest, fungi, etc.
Non-living things
- Continents, oceans, clouds, soil, rocks
Our built environment
- Buildings, human-created living centers
- Social relationships and institutions
Humans exist within the environment
- Humans exist within the environment and
are part of nature. (Our survival depends on
a healthy, functioning planet)
- We are part of natural world
(Our interactions with its other parts matter
a great deal)
-This idea is fundamental to environmental
science and conservation biology.
Conservation biology- is the study of the
conservation of nature and of earth's
biodiversity with the aim of protecting
species, their habitats, and ecosystem from
excessive rates of extinction rates of
extinction and the erosion of biotic
interaction
Humans and the world around us
- Humans depend completely on the
environment for survival. (Enriched and
longer lives, increased wealth, health,
mobility, leisure time)
- But natural systems have been degraded
(Pollution, erosion, and species extinction.
Environmental changes threaten long-term
health and survival)
Environmental Science
- Is the study of the interaction of human
with natural environment
Environmental Science is the study of:
- How the natural worlds works
- How the environment affects humans and
vice versa
- With environmental problems come
opportunities for solutions
- Presence of other living organisms
Thomas Malthus and human population
Thomas Malthus
- Population growth must be controlled, or
it will outstrip food production
- Starvation, war disease
Neo-Malthusians
- Population growth has disastrous affects
Paul R. Ehrlich
- The Population Bomb (1968)
- Agricultural advances have only
postponed crises
In 1968, the best-seller "The Population
Bomb," written by Paul and Anne Ehrlich
(but credited solely to Paul) warned of the
perils of overpopulation: mass starvation,
societal upheaval, environmental
deterioration. The book was criticized at the
time for painting an overly dark picture of
the future. It predicted worldwide famine in
the 1970s and 1980s due to overpopulation,
as well as other major societal upheavals,
and advocated immediate action to limit
population growth.
Impacts
Garret Hardin's "tragedy of the commons"
(1968) Unregulated exploitation causes
resource depletion
- Grazing lands, forests, air, water
-No one has the incentive to care for a
resource.
-Everyone takes what he or she can until
the resource is depleted.
Solution?
-Voluntary organization to enforce
responsible use?
-Private ownership?
-Governmental regulations?
The tragedy of the commons is a problem
in economics that occurs when individuals
neglect the well-being of society in the
pursuit of personal gain
In economic science, the tragedy of the
commons is a situation in which individual
users, who have open access to a resource
unhampered by shared social structures or
formal rules that govern access and use, act
independently according to their own self-
interest and, contrary to the common good
of all users, cause depletion of the resource
through their uncoordinated action.
The "ecological footprint"
-The environmental impact of a person or
population
-Amount of biologically productive land +
water
-For resources and to dispose/recycle waste
Overshoot: humans have surpassed the
Earth's capacity to support us
We are using 30% more of the planet's
resources than is available on a sustainable
basis!
The ecological footprint (EF) estimates the
biologically productive land and sea area
needed to provide the renewable resources
that a population consumes and to absorb
the wastes it generates using prevailing
technology and resource-management
practices-rather than trying to determine
how many people a given land area
Renewable resources include biomass
energy (such as ethanol), hydropower,
geothermal power, wind energy, and solar
energy. Biomass refers to organic material
from plants or animals. This includes wood,
sewage, and ethanol (which comes from
corn or other plants)
Environmental science
-Can help us avoid mistakes made by past
civilizations
-Human survival depends on how we
interact with our environment.
-Our impacts are now global.
-Many great civilizations have fallen after
depleting their resources.
The lesson of Easter Island:
People annihilated their culture by
destroying their environment. Can we act
more wisely to conserve our resources?
Environmental Science Cont'd
-Environmental science and the issues that
it studies are complex and interdisciplinary.
Environmental science is not
environmentalism
Environmental science
-The pursuit of knowledge about the
natural world Scientists try to remain
objective
Environmentalism
-Environmental activism
-A social movement dedicated to protecting
the natural world
The nature of science
Science:
-A systematic process for learning about the
world and testing our understanding of it
-The accumulated body of knowledge that
results from a dynamic process of
observation, testing, and discovery
Science is essential:
-To sort fact from fiction
-Develop solutions to the problems we face
Scientists test ideas
-Scientists examine how the world works by
observing, measuring, and testing
-Involves critical thinking and skepticism
Observational (descriptive) science:
scientists gather information about
something not well known or that cannot
be manipulated in experiments
-Astronomy, paleontology, taxonomy,
molecular biology
Hypothesis-driven science: research that
proceeds in a structured manner using
experiments to test hypotheses through the
scientific method
The scientific method
-A technique for testing ideas
-A scientist makes an observation and asks
questions of some phenomenon.
-The scientist formulates a hypothesis, a
statement that attempts to answer the
question.
-The hypothesis is used to generate
predictions: specific statements that can be
tested.
-The results support or reject the
hypothesis.
Testing predictions
Experiment: an activity that tests the
validity of a hypothesis
Variables: conditions that can be
manipulated and/or measured
Independent variable: a condition that is
manipulated
Dependent variable: a variable that is
affected by the manipulation of the
independent variable
Controlled experiment: one in which all
variables are controlled
Control: the unmanipulated point of
comparison
Treatment: the manipulated point of
comparison
Data: information (more correctly facts)
that is (are) generally quantitative
(numerical)
Experiments test the validity of a
hypothesis
Manipulative experiments = strongest
evidence -Provides the strongest type of
evidence
-Reveal causal relationships: changes in
independent variables cause changes in
dependent variables
-But many things can't be manipulated:
long-term or large-scale questions (e.g.,
global climate change)
Natural experiments show real-world
complexity
-Only feasible approach for ecosystem or
planet-scale
-Results are not so neat and clean, so
answers aren't simply black and white
Theories and paradigms
-A consistently supported hypothesis
becomes a theory, a widely accepted
explanation of one or more cause-and-
effect relationships
-Has been extensively and rigorously tested,
so confidence in a theory is extremely
strong
Darwin's theory of evolution, atomic
theory, cell theory, big bang theory, plate
tectonics, general relativity
-Differs from the popular meaning of
theory, which suggests a speculative idea
without much substance
-With enough data, a paradigm shift - a
change in the dominant view - can occur. -
-A community decides to use coal for
electricity, as it is the cheapest source
available. (Economics)
-The coal must be mined from under the
soil. (Geology)
-The coal must be transported to the
population center by road or rail.
(Engineering)
-When it is burned at a power plant, air
pollution is released. Some of that pollution
is converted to acid in the atmosphere.
(Chemistry)
-This falls as acid rain somewhere
downwind. (Meteorology)
-The acid stresses plants by affecting their
nutrient absorption. (Ecology)
-Laws are passed requiring the plant to
install pollution scrubbers. (Politics)
Major Environmental Problems
Resource Depletion
-A great deal of resources are needed to
support the human population (~7 billion).
Renewable resources can be replenished
within a human lifetime.
Timber, water.
-The supply of nonrenewable resources is
replenished extremely slowly, if at all. These
can be used up.
-Coal, oil, minerals.
Coal is a nonrenewable resource. Over
time, it will become more difficult and
expensive to extract.
Major Environmental Problems
Pollution is an undesired change in air,
water, or soil that affects the health of living
things.
Pollution, whether in air or water, can
move and affect ecosystems far away from
the source.
Loss of Biodiversity
-The number of species on the Earth is
unknown, but estimated to be in the tens of
millions.
Biodiversity is the number of different
species present in one specific ecosystem.
Extinction, or the complete loss of a
species, is a natural event that can be
accelerated by human actions.
Loss of Biodiversity
-There are five known major extinction
events in Earth's history.
-The most recent major extinction, about 65
million years ago, caused 75% of all species
to disappear from the Earth.
-Believed to have been caused by a meteor
impact.
Environmental Ethics
Environmental ethics is the discipline that
studies the moral relationship of human
beings to the environment.
-What is the value of the environment?
-What moral responsibility do we have in
dealing with the major environmental
problems that result from our resource
consumption?
-Which needs should be given the highest
priority in our decision making?
-Two main categories of ethics have
emerged in human culture in modern
history.
Economics and the Environment
-Economics has a huge influence in
environmental decision-making.
-One of the most basic principles of
economics is supply and demand.
-The greater the demand for a limited
resource, the higher the price.
Ethics
Ethics: the study of good and bad, right and
wrong
-The set of moral principles or values held
by a person or society that tells us how we
ought to behave
-Will save most of this discussion for the
end of the semester
Three ethical perspectives or viewpoints
Anthropocentrism: only humans have
rights
-Costs and benefits are measured only
according to their impact on people
-Anything not providing benefit to people
has no value
Biocentrism: certain living things also have
value
-All life has ethical standing
-Development is opposed if it destroys life,
even if it creates jobs
Ecocentrism: whole ecological systems have
value
-Values the well-being of species,
communities, or ecosystems
-Holistic perspective, stresses preserving
connections
The preservation ethic
-Unspoiled nature should be protected for
its own inherent value.
-We should protect our environment in a
pristine state, because it promotes human
happiness and fulfillment.
John Muir (right, with President Roosevelt
at Yosemite National Park) had an
ecocentric viewpoint.
The conservation ethic
-Use natural resources wisely for the
greatest good for the most people
-A utilitarian standard that calls for prudent,
efficient, and sustainable resource
extraction and use
Gifford Pinchot had an anthropocentric
viewpoint.
The land ethic
-Healthy ecological systems depend on
protecting all parts.
Aldo Leopold believed that humans should
view themselves and the land as members
of the same community.
-We are obligated to treat the land
ethically.
-The land ethic will help guide decision
making.
Ecofeminism
Female worldview: interrelationships and
cooperation
Male worldview: hierarchies, competition,
domination, and conquest
- Perhaps males need to consider the
female perspective when attempting to
conserve nature
Environmental justice (EJ)
-The poor and minorities are exposed to
more pollution, hazards, and environmental
degradation.
-Despite progress, significant inequalities
remain.
The U.S. exports waste, particularly to poor
nations.
Sustainability
-A guiding principle of environmental
science
-Living within our planet's means
-The Earth can sustain humans AND other
organisms for the future
-Leaving our descendents with a rich, full
world -Developing solutions that work in
the long term
-Requires keeping fully functioning
ecological systems
Sustainability
-We are increasing our burden on the
planet each year.
• Population growth, affluence,
consumption
Natural capital: the accumulated wealth of
Earth
• We are withdrawing our planet's natural
capital 30% faster than it is being produced
Sustainable solutions abound
Sustainable development: using resources
to satisfy current needs without
compromising future availability of
resources
Sustainability involves:
-Renewable energy sources
-Soil conservation, high-efficiency irrigation,
organic agriculture
-Pollution reduction
-Habitat and species protection
-Recycling
-Fighting global climate change
Humanity's challenge is to develop solutions
that further our quality of life while
protecting and restoring the environment.
Will we develop in a sustainable way?
-This is the single most important question
we face.
Introduction to Ecological Principles
Biosphere- the portion of earth where life
occurs
Ecosystem- the basic functional unit of
nature. Living and nonliving elements
interact to process energy and cycle
materials.
Biotic community- a natural grouping of
different kinds of plants and animals within
any given habitat
Population- individuals of the same species
living together within a given are
Ecological dominants- those organisms
which exert a major modifying influence on
the biotic community
Keystone predators- dominant predators
that moderate competition among the
species upon which they prey, reducing the
density of strong competitors and thereby
allowing less aggressive competitors to
maintain their populations within the
community.
Biomes- areas that can be recognized by
the distinctive life forms of their dominant
species; in most cases, by the dominant
type of vegetation
Ecology
- The scientific analysis and study of
interactions among organisms and their
environment, such as the interactions
organisms have with each other and with
their abiotic environment.
Biosphere: Zone Where Life Exists
- Earth's Biosphere
- 10973m below sea level into 9144+m the
atmosphere
- May reach temperatures 250F (121C)
- Though to have first contained life forms
similar to bacteria 3.5 billion years ago
- Approximate 1.8 million named species
and more awaits to be discovered.
The environmental system- set of
interactions between the elements of the
biosphere, which includes the atmosphere,
the hydrosphere, the lithosphere and the
ecosphere
Ecosystems
- Broad definitions: Community of living
(biotic) and nonliving (abiotic) organisms
that occur within an environment linked
together through the processes of energy
collection and use.
- Can range from a drop of water to an
entire planet
Eco= the environment,
System= regularly interacting and
interdependent components forming a
unified whole
Biotic Communities
- A natural grouping of similar organisms
- Individuals of the same species collectively
called a population.
- Like ecosystem, can vary in size
- Again, an organizing concept rather than a
precise set of acts
- Example: Coral reef ecosystem
Ecological Dominants
- Life forms that exhibit a major, modifying
influence on their surrounding
- Plants are often the dominant species
- Species that control the flow of energy
through the community
- Keystone predators are play important
roles in maintaining biotic diversity
- In many examples of wet woodland in
Western Europe, the dominant tree is alder
(Alnus glutinosa)
- In temperature bogs, the dominant
vegetation is usually species of Sphagnum
moss
- Tidal swamps in the tropics are usually
dominated by species of mangrove
(Rhizophoraceae)
- Some sea floor communities are
dominated by brittle stars
- Exposed rocky shorelines are dominated
by sessile organisms such as barnacles and
limpets
- Rhizophoraceae dominate tropical tidal
swamps
Biomes
- Terrestrial groupings of ecosystem which
share broad environmental characteristics
- Key characteristics is most often the
dominant type of vegetation
- Vegetation is in turn controlled by climate,
rainfall, etc.
- Tundra, Taiga, Temperature Deciduous
Forest, Grasslands, Desert and Tropical Rain
Forest
Tundra
- Common characteristics: Permafrost
- Low temperatures, rare vegetation
- Animal life limited is species, but preset
Taiga
- Also called 'boreal forest"
- Occupies vast areas of Canada and Russia
and other areas of similar latitude
- The dominant plants are conifers,
including spruce, fir, and pine, ground
vegetation present
- Larger animals are less common, as they
require broad-leafed plants for food
- Sustains more life than tundras
Deciduous Forest
- Occupies milder climate zones with ample
rainfall
- Contains a great variety of organisms
- The canopy cover is less impenetrable, and
smaller trees and shrubs (the understory)
can grow
- Nuts, berries, and broad leaf plants
support a well-developed food pyramid
- Currently being used for multiple human
uses, sometimes without regard for the life
for soil in the forest
Grasslands
- Found where rainfall is insufficient to
support the deciduous forest
- Soil contains large amounts of biodiversity
- Can be used for agricultural land
- Overuse can lead to conditions such as the
US Dust Bowl of the 1930s (video)
Desert
- Regions with less than about 25 cm (10 in.)
of rain per year
- The dominant plants are either rapid-
growing annuals, cacti or specially adapted
desert shrubs
- Coldest desert: Antarctica
- Animals present, but commonly smaller
- Desert animals are specially adapted to
conserve water
Tropical Rain Forest
- Tropical biodiversity, heavy growth
- occur where is more than 200 cm of rain
per year, distributed throughout the year
- Typically found at low elevations near the
equator
- Tend to be very rich in both plant and
animal species
- Most often, poor soil from heavy rainfall
makes land agriculturally unfit
Ecological Niche
- Like opening a business, each species must
find a 'use" in its biome that only it can
currently fulfill in order to survive
- A unique specialization or behavior that
helps a species exploit its environment,
especially for limited resources
- Describe how an organism/population
responds to the distributor of resources and
competitors
- The Principle of Competitive Exclusion
when two species compete for the same
limited resource, only one will survive. (Be
careful-not always true)
- Examples of ecological niche is coral reef
Limiting factor
- Environmental conditions that limit
growth of a species
- Life can depends on many conditions, so
changing a single factor can affect many
other
- Vegetation Examples: soil, water, pH, light,
oxygen, nitrogen, etc.
Limits of Tolerance
- The variable tolerances of a species for the
variety of conditions on the planet
- Fish examples: Based on things such as the
following: Age, health, growth, genetics,
etc.
- Can manifest itself as a tolerance for: Salt
vs brackish or fresh water, diet,
temperature, oxygen requirements, etc.
- Coral reef and CO2 in oceans
Energy flow through the biosphere
- Laws of Thermodynamics
- The 1st Law: Entropy
- The sun is earth's energy source
- It's energy is used by the earth itself as
well its organisms
Food chains
- The transfer of food energy from a given
source through a series of organisms
Producers- plants
Consumers- animals
Decomposers- bacteria and fungi
Grazing food chain- starts with green plants
which are the producers. The green plants
or producers are grazed by herbivorous
animals which are further eaten by
carnivores
Primary producers (Autotrophs) ->Primary
consumers (Herbivores) -> Secondary
consumers (Camivores)
1. The chain begins with green plants
(producers) at the first trophic level
2. Energy for this food chain comes from
the sun
3. Food chain adds energy into the
ecosystem
4. The food chain fixes inorganic nutrients
5. It consists of all macroscopic organisms
Detritus food chain- starts with deed
organic matter which is eaten by animals
which in turn are eaten by other animals in
the soil a large amount of energy flows
through the detritus food chain ultimately
the organic matter is decomposed.
1. The chain begins with detritivores
(decomposers) at the first trophic level
2. Energy for this food chain comes from
remains of detritus
3. This food chain take up energy from the
detritus, ensuring maximum utilization and
minimum wastage
4. The food chain helps in fixing inorganic
nutrients
5. It consists of sub soil organisms
Trophic levels- stages of food chain defined
by what various organisms do
Ecological pyramid- formed by members of
various trophic levels in a food chain
Pyramid of energy- gives best picture of
energy flow through a food chain
-Sun
-Green plants
-Animals
-Predators
-Super predators
-Energy is lost at each stage of transfer
-More usable energy is available to
organisms at lower positions in the food
chain
Biochemical Cycling
-The cycling of earth materials through
living systems and back to earth
Gaseous cycles
Sedimentary cycles
Nutrients- approximately 40 of the 92
naturally occurring chemical elements are
essential to the existence of living
organisms

Macronutrients- carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,

nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium,
magnesium, sulfur

Trace elements- iron, copper, manganese,

zinc, chlorine, iodine

Biochemical Cycling
-The Gaseous Cycle
-Moves primarily through the atmosphere
-Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen

Two important cycles are the following:

The carbon cycle
The nitrogen cycle

Change in Ecosystems
-Atmospheric forces such as wind,
temperature change and precipitation
erode land mass
-Volcanoes uplift molten solids to earth's
surface
-Climate changes can disrupt large, stable
ecosystems
-Ice sheets shift and carry solids over earth's
surface

Ecological succession- gradual changes over

time in the relative abundance of dominant
species within a biotic community following
a disturbance

Climax community- a relatively stable, self-

perpetuating stage