Chapter 23

The Reproductive Systems

LECTURE OUTLINE

I. Introduction
A. Sexual reproduction is the process by which organisms
produce offspring by making germ cells called gametes.
This allows genetic material to be passed on from one
generation to the next.
B. The organs of reproduction are classified as gonads,
ducts, accessory sex glands, and supporting
structures.

II. Male Reproductive System

A. The male structures of reproduction include the
testes, epididymis, ductus (vas) deferens, ejaculatory
duct, urethra, seminal vesicles, prostate,
bulbourethral glands, scrotum and penis.
B. Scrotum
1. The scrotum is a pouch that supports the testes.
2. The production and survival of the sperm requires
a temperature lower than body temperature.
a. The temperature of the testes is regulated
by skeletal muscles, which elevate them and
bring them closer to the pelvic cavity to
absorb heat, or relax them causing the
testes to move away from the pelvic cavity
to release excess heat.
C. Testes
1. The testes are paired, oval-shaped glands
(gonads) located in the scrotum.
a. The testes develop in the embryo’s
posterior abdominal wall and usually begin
their descent to the scrotum during the
seventh month of development.
2. The testes contain seminiferous tubules in which
sperm are produced by the process of
spermatogenesis.
3. The testes also contain sustentacular (Sertoli)
cells and interstitial (Leydig) cells.
a. Sustentacular cells support, protect, and
nourish sperm cells, secrete fluid for
sperm transport, and secrete inhibin.
b. Interstitial cells secrete the male hormone
testosterone.
4. Spermatogenesis produces haploid (n) sperm cells,
and involves meiosis and mitosis.
a. Somatic cells divide by mitosis. Each
daughter cell receives a full complement of
 chromosomes (46) and is said to be diploid
(2n).
b. Immature gametes divide by meiosis, in
which the pairs of chromosomes are split so
that the mature gamete (sperm in males; ova
in females) has only 23 chromosomes and is
said to be haploid (n).
c. Spermatogenesis occurs in the testes and
forms four haploid sperm cells from each
spermatogonium.
d. Spermatogenesis includes meiosis I, meiosis
II, and spermiogenesis.
1) In meiosis I, crossing over allows an
exchange of genes, resulting in
genetic recombination.
5. Mature sperm consists of a head, composed of a
nucleus and an acrosome, and tail. They are
produced at a rate of 300 million per day, and
once ejaculated, most do not survive more than 48
hours.
6. Hormones
a. Luteinizing hormone (LH) from the anterior
pituitary stimulates secretion of
testosterone.
b. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) from the
anterior pituitary and testosterone
stimulate spermatogenesis.
c. Testosterone also controls the growth,
development, and maintenance of sex organs,
stimulates bone growth and protein
anabolism, and stimulates the development
of the male secondary sex characteristics.
d. Inhibin is produced by the sustentacular
cells and helps to regulate the rate of
sperm production.
D. Ducts
1. Following spermatogenesis, the sperm move from
the seminiferous tubules, into the epididymis.
a. Sperm are stored in the epididymis, which
is the site for sperm maturation.
2. The ductus (vas) deferens stores sperm and
propels them toward the urethra during
ejaculation.
3. The spermatic cord is a supporting structure of
the male reproductive system and consists of the
ductus deferens, blood vessels, autonomic nerves,
and lymphatic vessels.
4. The ejaculatory ducts are formed by the union of
the ducts from the seminal vesicles and the
ductus deferens. Their function is to eject
sperm into the urethra, the terminal duct of the
male reproductive system.
 5. In the male, the urethra serves as a passageway
for both sperm and urine.
E. Accessory sex glands
1. The seminal vesicles secrete an alkaline, viscous
fluid that contains fructose, prostaglandins, and
clotting proteins. The fluid secreted
constitutes about 60% of the volume of semen and
contributes to sperm viability and motility.
2. The prostate secretes a milky, slightly acidic
fluid that contains citric acid, acid
phosphatase, and several protein-digesting
enzymes, including prostate-specific antigen
(PSA). These fluids constitute about 25% of the
volume of semen and contribute to sperm motility.
3. The bulbourethral glands secrete an alkaline
substance into the urethra to neutralize acids
from the urine, and mucus to lubricate the end of
the penis during sexual intercourse.
F. Semen
1. Semen is a mixture of sperm and the accessory sex
gland secretions that provides nutrients and the
fluid in which the sperm are transported.
2. Semen has a pH of 7.2 to 7.7 that neutralizes the
acidity of the male urethra and female vagina.
3. The volume of semen in a typical ejaculation is
2.5 to 5 milliliters, with 50 to 150 million
sperm per milliliter.
G. Penis
1. The penis consists of a root, body, and glans
penis. It contains the urethra and is used to
introduce sperm into the vagina.
2. Expansion of its blood sinuses (corpus spongiosum
and corpora cavernosa) under the influence of
sexual excitation causes an erection, an
enlargement and stiffening of the penis.
3. Circumcision is a surgical procedure in which
part of the prepuce (foreskin) is removed.

III. Female Reproductive System

A. The female organs of reproduction include the ovaries
(gonads), uterine (fallopian) tubes (or oviducts),
uterus, vagina, vulva, and mammary glands.
B. Ovaries
1. The ovaries are the female gonads which are
located in the upper pelvic cavity, on either
side of the uterus. They are maintained in
position by ligaments.
2. The ovaries produce secondary oocytes, discharge
secondary oocytes at ovulation, and secrete
estrogens, progesterone, relaxin, and inhibin.
 3. Oogenesis occurs in the ovaries and results in
the formation of a single haploid (n) secondary
oocyte.
a. The process of oogenesis includes a meiosis
I and meiosis II.
C. Uterine (fallopian) tubes
1. The uterine tubes transport the secondary oocytes
from the ovaries to the uterus and are the normal
site of fertilization.
2. Ciliated cells and peristaltic contractions help
move the secondary oocyte through the uterine
tube towards the uterus.
D. Uterus
1. The uterus (womb) is an inverted pear-shaped
organ that functions in transporting sperm,
menstruation, implantation of a fertilized ovum,
development of the fetus during pregnancy, and
labor.
2. Parts of the uterus include the fundus, body, and
cervix.
3. Two important layers of the uterus are the
myometrium, composed of smooth muscle and forming
the bulk of the uterine wall, and endometrium, a
mucous membrane shed during menstruation.
4. A hysterectomy is surgical removal of the uterus.
E. Vagina
1. The vagina is a tubular canal that extends from
the uterine cervix to the exterior of the body.
2. It acts as an outlet for menstrual flow, is the
receptacle for the penis during sexual
intercourse, and is the lower portion of the
birth canal.
3. The vagina may have a thin fold of mucous
membrane called the hymen partially covering the
vaginal orifice.
F. Perineum and vulva
1. The perineum is a diamond-shaped area between the
thighs and buttocks of both females and males.
a. In females, an episiotomy is the incision
of the perineum during vaginal deliveries
to accommodate the fetal head.
2. The vulva, or pudendum, is a collective term for
the external genitals of the female.
a. It consists of the mons pubis, labia majora
and minora, clitoris, vestibule, vaginal
and external urethral orifices,
paraurethral and greater vestibular glands.
G. Mammary glands
1. The mammary glands, located in the breasts, are
modified sweat glands that produce milk.
 2. Mammary gland development is dependent upon
estrogens and progesterone secreted by the
ovaries.
3. The essential function of the mammary glands is
lactation, which is the secretion and ejection of
milk.
a. Milk production is due to the anterior
pituitary hormone prolactin (PRL).
b. Milk ejection is triggered by oxytocin (OT)
that is released from the posterior
pituitary gland in response to sucking on
the mother’s nipple.

IV. Female Reproductive Cycle

A. The function of the uterine (menstrual) cycle is to
prepare the endometrium each month for the reception
of a fertilized egg.
B. The menstrual and ovarian cycles are controlled by
gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH), which
stimulates the release of follicle-stimulating hormone
(FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH).
1. FSH stimulates the initial development of the
ovarian follicles and the secretion of estrogens
by the ovaries.
2. LH stimulates further development of the ovarian
follicles, triggers ovulation, and promotes the
formation of the corpus lutuem which secretes
estrogens, progesterone, relaxin, and inhibin.
C. Estrogens stimulate growth, development, and
maintenance of female reproductive structures, and the
development of the feminine secondary sexual
characteristics. Estrogens also stimulate protein
synthesis and lower blood cholesterol levels.
D. Progesterone works with estrogens to prepare the
endometrium for implantation of a fertilized ovum and
the mammary glands for milk production.
E. Relaxin relaxes the pubic symphysis and helps dilate
the uterine cervix to facilitate delivery.
F. Inhibin decreases secretion of FSH toward the end of
the menstrual cycle.
G. Phases of the female reproductive cycle.
1. The events occurring during the menstrual cycle
are divided into four phases: the menstrual
phase, preovulatory phase, ovulation, and
postovulatory phase.
2. Menstrual phase
a. During the menstrual phase (or
menstruation), part of the endometrium is
shed with a discharge of blood, tissue
fluid, mucus, and epithelial cells.
b. During the menstrual phase, several ovarian
follicles grow and enlarge. Toward the end
 of the menstrual phase, one of the
follicles outgrows all the others to be the
dominant follicle.
3. Preovulatory Phase
a. The preovulatory phase is the time between
menstruation and ovulation.
b. Typically, this phase lasts from day 6 to
day 13 in a 28-day cycle. However this
phase is more variable in duration than
other phases and accounts for most
variability in the total length of
menstrual cycles.
c. During this phase, endometrial tissue
repairs itself and the dominant follicle
develops into a mature (graafian) follicle,
ready for ovulation. This follicle
produces a bulge on the surface of the
ovary.
d. Functionally, estrogens are the dominant
ovarian hormones during this phase of the
menstrual cycle.
4. Ovulation
a. Ovulation is the rupture of the mature
follicle with release of the secondary
oocyte into the pelvic cavity. This
generally occurs on or about the 14th day of
a 28-day cycle.
b. Ovulation is brought about by the
inhibition of FSH and a surge of LH.
5. Postovulatory phase
a. The postovulatory phase is the most
constant phase in the cycle and lasts from
day 15 to day 28 in a 28-day cycle (or the
last 14 days of cycles of varying
duration).
b. This phase represents the time between
ovulation and the onset of the next
menstruation.
c. During this phase, the endometrium thickens
in anticipation of implantation of a
fertilized ovum. Progesterone is the
dominant hormone.
d. Following ovulation, the mature follicle
collapses.
1) The remaining follicular cells enlarge
to form the corpus luteum. This
occurs under the influence of LH.
2) If fertilization and implantation do
not occur, the corpus luteum
degenerates and becomes the corpus
albicans.
 3) The decreased secretion of
progesterone and estrogen by the
degenerating corpus luteum then
initiates another menstrual cycle.
4) If fertilization does occur, the
corpus luteum is maintained by human
chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) from the
developing placenta. It also secretes
estrogens and progesterone to maintain
pregnancy and to allow for lactation.

V. Birth Control Methods and Abortion

A. Several methods of birth control are currently
available, including surgical sterilization, hormonal
methods, intrauterine devices, spermicides, barrier
methods, and periodic abstinence.
B. Sterilization involves a vasectomy in males or tubal
ligation in females.
1. Vasectomy is the removal of a portion of the vas
deferens.
2. Tubal ligation involves cutting of uterine
(fallopian) tubes.
3. The result is that neither sperm nor egg will be
able to reach their normal destinations.
C. Hormonal methods, including oral contraceptives (such
as “the pill”), contain enough estrogens and possibly
progestin to inhibit FSH and LH, thereby prevent
ovulation and fertilization.
1. Skin patches, injections, or a vaginal ring
provide alternative hormone delivery routes.
2. The same hormones found in oral contraceptives
are used for emergency contraceptive (EC), the
so-called morning-after pill. The high levels of
estrogen and progestin provide negative feedback
that interrupts hormonal changes taking place in
early pregnancy.
D. An intrauterine device (IUD) is a small plastic,
copper, or stainless steel object inserted into the
uterine cavity. The IUD works by blocking sperm from
entering the uterine tubes.
E. Spermicides include foams, creams, jellies,
suppositories, and douches that contain sperm-killing
agents.
F. Barrier methods are designed to prevent sperm from
gaining access to the uterine cavity and uterine
tubes. They include condoms, cervical diaphragms, and
the vaginal pouch.
G. Periodic abstinence (during the most fertile portions
of the menstrual cycle) relies on the natural
menstrual cycle of the female. This is also known as
the rhythm method or symptom-thermal method.
 H. Abortion is the premature expulsion from the uterus of
the products of conception, usually before the 20th
week of pregnancy.
1. Abortion may be spontaneous (naturally occurring)
or induced (intentionally performed).
I. A summary of contraceptive methods and their success
rates are given in Table 23.1.

VI. Aging and the Reproductive Systems

A. The female reproductive system has a limited span of
fertility from menarche (the first menses) to
menopause (the cessation of menses).
B. Approximately 33% of all males over age 60 develop an
enlargement of the prostate gland called benign
prostatic hyperplasia (BPH).

VII. Common Disorders

A. Testicular cancer is the most common cancer (and one
of the most curable) among young men (ages 20 to 35).
Early identification of cancer increases survival
rate.
B. Prostate cancer is the leading cause of death from
cancer in U.S. males. Measuring the levels of
prostate-specific antigen (PSA) in the blood and
regular digital rectal exams can help diagnose
prostate cancer.
C. Breast cancer is the second-leading cause of cancer
deaths among females. Early detection (by breast
self-examination, mammograms, and regular breast
checkups by a health care provider) provides the best
way to increase the chance of survival. Smoking
cessation and avoidance of excessive alcohol decreases
the risk of breast cancer.
D. Cervical cancer can be detected in its earliest stages
by a Pap smear. Ovarian cancer is the 6th leading cause
of cancer in females, especially among older women.
E. Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are spread by
sexual contact and include chlamydia, gonorrhea,
syphilis, genital herpes, and genital warts.