POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

College of Communication
Bachelor in Communication
NDC Campus Anonas St. Sta. Mesa Manila

ASSIGNMENT IN ECOLOGY

Submitted to:
Gary Antonio Lirio

Submitted by:
Malee N. Garcia

June 18, 2014

1.)Define Ecology.

ECOLOGY
-

Is the scientific study of interactions among organisms and their

environment, such as the interactions organisms have with each other and
with their abiotic environment. Topics of interest to ecologists include the
diversity, distribution, amount (biomass), number (population) of
organisms, as well as competition between them within and among
ecosystems. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology)
The scientific study of the processes influencing the distribution and
abundance of organisms, the interactions among organisms, and the
interactions between organisms and the transformation and flux of energy
and matter. (http://www.caryinstitute.org/discover-ecology/definitionecology)
A branch of science concerned with the interrelationship of organisms and
their environments. (http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ecology)

SUBDISCIPLINES OF ECOLOGY:
Ecology is a broad discipline comprising many sub-disciplines. The field of ecology
can be sub-divided according to several classification schemes:

By level of complexity or scope

Arranged from lowest to highest complexity:
o Ecophysiology/Behavioral ecology examine adaptations of the individual to
its environment.
o Population ecology studies the dynamics of populations of a single species.
o Community ecology (or synecology) focuses on the interactions between
species within an ecological community.
o Ecosystem ecology studies the flows of energy and matter through the biotic
and abiotic components of ecosystems.
o Systems ecology is an interdisciplinary field focusing on the study,
development, and organization of ecological systems from a holistic perspective.
o Landscape ecology examines processes and relationship across multiple
ecosystems or very large geographic areas.

By organisms under study

o Animal ecology A study of the relationships of animals to their environment.
o Biogeography the study of the geographic distributions of species ;
o Insect ecology study of how insects, individually or as a community, interact
with the surrounding environment or ecosystem.
o Microbial ecology the ecology of micro-organisms;
o Paleoecology which seeks to understand the relationships between species in
fossil assemblages;
o Plant ecology studies the distribution and abundance of plants, and the
interactions among and between plants and other organisms.

By biome under study

o Benthic ecology study of sea-floor organisms, and their interaction with each
other and with the environment
o Desert ecology includes the interactions of plant, animal, and bacterial
populations in a desert habitat, ecosystem, and community.
o Forest ecology study of the interrelated patterns, processes, flora, fauna and
ecosystems in forests.
o Grassland ecology study of all aspects of the ecology of grasslands, which
are regions dominated by grass species but containing other non-woody plants.
o Marine ecology and aquatic ecology, where the dominant environmental
milieu is water;
o Urban ecology the study of ecosystems in urban areas.

By geographic or climatic area under study

o Arctic ecology study of the relationships between biotic and abiotic
factors in the arctic
o Polar ecology relationship between plants and animals in a polar
environment.
o Tropical ecology study of the relationships between the biotic and abiotic
components of the tropics

By spatial scale under study

o Global ecology which examines ecological phenomena at the largest
possible scale, addressing macroecological questions;
o Landscape ecology which studies the interactions between discrete
elements of a landscape;
o Landscape limnology the spatially explicit study of aquatic ecosystems
(e.g., rivers, lakes, and wetlands) as they interact with the aquatic, terrestrial,
and human components of landscapes to determine the effects of pattern on
ecosystem processes across spatial scales;
o Spatial ecology which identifies spatial patterns and their relationships to
ecological events;
o Macroecology the study of large-scale phenomena;
o Microecology the study of small-scale phenomena;
o Microbial ecology their relationship with one another and with their
environment.
o Molecular ecology a field of evolutionary biology that is concerned with
applying molecular population genetics, molecular phylogenetic

By ecological aspects or phenomena under investigation

o Chemical ecology which deals with the ecological role of biological
chemicals used in a wide range of areas including defense against predators
and attraction of mates;
o Ecophysiology which studies the interaction of physiological traits with the
abiotic environment;

Ecotoxicology which looks at the ecological role of toxic chemicals (often

pollutants, but also naturally occurring compounds);
o Evolutionary ecology or ecoevolution which looks at evolutionary
changes in the context of the populations and communities in which the
organisms exist;
o Fire ecology which looks at the role of fire in the environment of plants
and animals and its effect on ecological communities;
o Functional ecology the study of the roles, or functions, that certain
species (or groups thereof) play in an ecosystem;
o Genetic ecology is the extension of our modern knowledge in molecular
genetics to studies of viability
o Soil ecology the ecology of the pedosphere;
By technique used for investigation
o Field ecology designed to teach students general scientific methods,
procedures, and thinking skills, as well as specific methods and procedures
used to study plants and animals in their natural setting.
o Quantitative ecology a small but growing subfield in ecology, reflecting
the demand among practicing ecologists to interpret ever larger and more
complex data sets using quantitative reasoning.
o Theoretical ecology the development of ecological theory, usually with
mathematical, statistical and/or computer modeling tools;
o

By philosophical approach
o Ecosophy Confusion as to the meaning (suggesting that such a meaning
should be singular and exact)
o Applied ecology the practice of employing ecological principles and
understanding to solve real world problems (includes agroecology and
conservation biology);
o Conservation ecology which studies how to reduce the risk of species
extinction;
o Deep ecology an environmental movement and philosophy that regards
human life as just one of many equal components of a global ecosystem.
o Restoration ecology which attempts to understand the ecological basis
needed to restore impaired or damaged ecosystems;

Ecology-involved interdisciplinary fields

o Agroecology provides an interdisciplinary framework with which to study
the activity of agriculture.
o Biogeochemistry effect of biota on global chemistry, and the cycles of
matter and energy that transport the Earth's chemical components in time
and space.
o Ecological design an integrative ecologically responsible design discipline.
o Ecological economics a growing Transdisciplinary field that aims to
improve and expand economic theory to integrate the earth's natural
systems, human values and human health and well-being.
o Ecological engineering the design of sustainable ecosystems that
integrate human society with its natural environment for the benefit of both.

o
o

Festive ecology explores the relationships between the symbolism and the
ecology of the plants, fungi and animals associated with cultural events such
as festivals, processions and special occasions.
Human ecology the interaction of human beings and their living and nonliving environments and the effects of human decisions on those
environments.
Ecological anthropology sub-field of anthropology and is defined as the
study of cultural adaptations to environments. The sub-field is also defined
as, "the study of relationships between a population of humans and their
biophysical environment".
Social ecology envisions a moral economy that moves beyond scarcity and
hierarchy, toward a world that reharmonizes human communities with the
natural world, while celebrating diversity, creativity and freedom.
Ecological health is a term that has been used in relation to both human
health and the condition of the environment.
Environmental psychology an interdisciplinary field focused on the
interplay between humans and their surroundings. The field defines the term
environment broadly, encompassing natural environments, social settings,
built environments, learning environments, and informational environments.
Industrial ecology the study of material and energy flows through
industrial systems. The global industrial economy can be modeled as a
network of industrial processes that extract resources from the Earth and
transform those resources into commodities which can be bought and sold to
meet the needs of humanity.
Paleoecology - study of past ecosystems

IMPORTANCE IN UNDERSTANDING ECOLOGY

Studying ecology is very important, because a simple change in the environment can have
a profound effect on all living things; the destruction of one species can mean the death of many
others. We cannot continue to harm our environment due to a poor understanding of ecology. So
the more we know, the better. For example, humans continue to destroy wildlife habitats in order
to build cities; we introduce contaminants such as pesticides and industrial wastes into the
environment; and we deplete nonrenewable natural resources such as fossil fuels. These
behaviors, if unchanged, could someday render the Earth uninhabitable. Thankfully, there is a
movement to better understand ecology and take necessary steps to reduce pollution and end
other destructive human activities.
One need only look at examples of ecological catastrophes to understand the need to
study the subject as much as possible. The fight against mosquitoes is a good example. Shortly
after World War II, a program was initiated by the World Health Organization to control malariaspreading mosquitoes in Borneo with the chemical DDT. The method drastically decreased the
mosquito population, just as advertised. However, the DDT caused unwanted side effects.
Rooftops in the area where it was used began to collapse. As it turns out, the DDT also was killing
off a type of wasp that kept roof-eating caterpillars under control. Goodbye wasps, hello
caterpillars. And goodbye roofs.
People also sprayed DDT inside their homes to kill flies, which caused geckos that normally
kept houseflies in check to die after eating DDT-laden houseflies. House cats, too, were poisoned

and died after eating the dead geckos, and eventually rats began raiding homes for food. Over
time, without cats to control the rats, they multiplied and were ultimately carriers of disease.
FUNDAMENTAL TERMS IN ECOLOGY:
Environment
The natural world, as a whole or in a particular geographical area, especially as affected
by human activity.The sum total of all surroundings of a living organism, including natural forces
and other living things, which provide conditions for development and growth as well as of
danger and damage.
Ecosystem
A biological community of interacting organisms and their physical environment. A
community of plants, animals and smaller organisms that live, feed, reproduce and interact in
the same area or environment.
As ecosystems are defined by the network of interactions among organisms, and between
organisms and their environment, they can be of any size but usually encompass specific, limited
spaces (although some scientists say that the entire planet is an ecosystem).
Abiotic
Abiotic is an ecological term that is anything chemical or physical that lacks life. In ecology
and biology, abiotic components or abiotic factors are those non-living chemical and physical
parts of the environment that affect ecosystems. They and phenomena associated with them
thus underpin all biology.
Biotic
Biotic describes a living or once living component of a community. Or produced by life or
living organisms (of an ecosystem). Pertains to a living thing (such as plant, animal, fungus, etc.)
as well as its products
Limiting factors
Limiting factors are things that prevent a population from growing any larger.
Trophic levels
A description of the position occupied by an organism in a food chain or food web. Simply
put, an organisms trophic level is defined by what it eats and what eats it.
The trophic level of an organism is the position it occupies in a food chain. A food chain
represents a succession of organisms that eat another organism and are, in turn, eaten
themselves. The number of steps an organism is from the start of the chain is a measure of its
trophic level.
Decomposers
Decomposers are the last stop on the food chain, they eat the things no one else wants to.
Decomposers many times eat dead things from the ground in order to get nutrients. The dead
things that are eaten by decomposers are called detritus which means "garbage". Some of the
most common decomposers are bacteria, worms, slugs, snails, and fungi like mushrooms.

Saprophytes
A plant, fungus, or micro- organism, more accurately called myco- heterotrophs because
they actually parasitize fungi, rather than dead organic matter directly. They live on dead or
decomposing matter.
ECOLOGICAL HEIRARCHY:

Biosphere. The region on, below, and above the Earth's surface where life exists. Living
things can be found well into the atmosphere, the deepest parts of the ocean, and at least
in some areas, microbes live in rock several kilometers below the surface of the earth.
Ecosystem. The Earth contains numerous ecosystems. Ecosystems are distingushable
groups of species and the abiotic(non-living) components of the environment with which
the living creatures interact. Examples of ecosystems include ponds, forests, and prairies.
Community. A community is all the populations of different species living and interacting
together in a distinct area. (e.g: all the species in a prarie) Abiotic means the nonliving
parts of this distinct area which interact with the community. These two make up the
ecosystem. For instance the particles of sand silt or clay in prairie soil are abiotic
components of the prairie ecosystem.
Species. The technical name given for a kind of organisms for example all people are
considered to be one species distinct from other primates based on common appearence
and more importantly that all races can and do interbreed with each other.
Population. A group of freely interacting and breeding individuals of the same species.
For example, all the bull frogs in a pond can be considered a population of bullfrogs.
Typically populations are subdivided into smaller groups: a pack of wolves, pride of lions,
colony of ants.
Organism. Or individual is that level of biological organisation that has its own distinct
existance as a complex, self reproducing unit. We are multicellular organisms in that we
are made of many highly specialized cells which cannot exist independently of other cells
in the organism. Many organisms are unicellular, that is consist of a single independent
cell.
Organ System.Multicellular organisms, especially animals typically are organized into
organ systems, groups of organs that function together to carry out broad sets of
functions. For instance an organ system in humans is the digestive system. Some of the
organs in the digestive system are the stomach, liver, small intestine, pancreas.
Organs. Groups of tissues organised together to carry out a particular set of functions.
Organs typically have several kinds of tissue. The stomach has an inner lining of tissue
that secretes digestive enzymes outside the stomach has several layers of muscle and
connective tissue.
Tissue. A group of distinct and similar cells that carry out a specific set of functions. For
example, muscle tissue is for contraction. Connective tissue is tissue consisting of cells
surrounded by a large amount of non living material. Nerve tissue is for the conduction of
nerve impulses and secretion of specialised chemicals called neurotransmitters.
Cell. The smallest unit of biological organisation that biologists consider alive. All true cells
are surrounded by a plasma membrane, carry out complex chemical reactions, and are at
least potentially capable of self reproduction. Cells come in a wide variety of shapes and
sizes. Not all cells have a nucleus, but again all true cells have genetic material in the form
of DNA.
Organelles("little organ"). Area specialised structures inside of a cell. Often organelles
are "membrane bound" (surrounded by a plasma membrane) but not always! Examples of
organelles you will become familiar with are the nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic
reticulum, chloroplast, cilium, vacuole. The line between organelles and molecular
assemblies is not clear. Sometimes the ribosome is not considered an organelle because
it's not a membrane bound structure. Molecular assemblies are large organised sets of
molecular units that make up parts of organelles. For example one common
macromolecular assembly is the microtubule which important in forming structures in the
cell related to maintaining the cell structure or related to cell movement. The cell (plasma)

membrane that surrounds many organelles, and the cell, is a highly organised molecular
assembly.
Macro molecules.Are large molecules consisting of many subunits. Good examples are
starch molecules which consist of many glucose units,(Glucose is a simple sugar) and
proteins some of which consist of 1,000 or more amino acids. Amino acids and proteins.
Small molecules. Are the small building blocks from which larger molecules are made.
Some of the basic building blocks include; glucose, glycerol, amino acids, fatty acids,
nucleotides. Some of these smaller molecules have other functions than as building
blocks.
Atoms. The smallest unit of matter that has the chemical properties of a particular
chemical element. Atoms of an element have the same number of protons and electrons
but two atoms of the same element may differ in terms of the number of neutrons. Most of
the atom is empty space, in the center is the nucleus with the protons and neutrons,
"Orbiting" the nucleus are the electrons.
Sub-Atomic Particles. Neutrons and protons are in the atomic nucleus. Protons have a
positive electrical charge, neutrons have no charge. Electrons have a negative electrical
charge. Electrons occurr in only certain energy levels or shells and only so many electrons
can occupy each energy level. An important concept is that electrons can carry and
release energy. The last subatomic particle you need is the photon. A photon is a packet of
light energy. It has no mass moves at the speed of light and is associated with electrons in
that electrons can absorb and release photons.

2.) THE EARTH.

HISTORY/ FORMATION OF EARTH
In the very beginning of earth's history, this planet was a giant, red hot, roiling, boiling sea
of molten rock - a magma ocean. The heat had been generated by the repeated high speed
collisions of much smaller bodies of space rocks that continually clumped together as they
collided to form this planet. As the collisions tapered off, the earth began to cool forming a thin
crust on its surface. As the cooling continued, water vapor began to escape and condense in the
earth's early atmosphere. Clouds formed and storms raged, raining more and more water down
on the primitive earth, cooling the surface further until it was flooded with water, forming the
seas.
It is theorized that the true age of the earth is about 4.6 billion years old, formed at about
the same time as the rest of our solar system. The oldest rocks geologists have been able to find
are 3.9 billion years old. Using radiometric dating methods to determine the age of rocks means
scientists have to rely on when the rock was initially formed (as in - when its internal minerals
first cooled). In the infancy of our home planet the entire earth was molten rock - a magma
ocean.
Since we can only measure as far back in time as we had solid rock on this planet, we are
limited in how we can measure the real age of the earth. Due to the forces of plate tectonics, our
planet is also a very dynamic one; new mountains forming, old ones wearing down, volcanoes
melting and reshaping new crust. The continual changing and reshaping of the earth's surface
that involves the melting down and reconstructing of old rock has pretty much eliminated most
of the original rocks that came with earth when it was newly formed. So the age is a theoretical
age.

When Did Life on Earth Begin?

Photo of Earth from space Scientists are still trying to unravel one of the greatest
mysteries of earth: When did "life" first appear and how did it happen? It is estimated that the
first life forms on earth were primitive, one-celled creatures that appeared about 3 billion years
ago. That's pretty much all there was for about the next two billion years. Then suddenly those
single celled organisms began to evolve into multicellular organisms. Then an unprecedented
profusion of life in incredibly complex forms began to fill the oceans. Some crawled from the seas
and took residence on land, perhaps to escape predators in the ocean. A cascading chain of new
and increasingly differentiated forms of life appeared all over the planet, only to be virtually
annihilated by an unexplained mass extinction. It would be the first of several mass extinctions in
Earth's history.
Scientists have been looking increasingly to space to explain these mass extinctions that
have been happening almost like clockwork since the beginning of "living" time. Perhaps we've
been getting periodically belted by more space rocks (ie. asteroids), or the collision of neutron
stars happening too close for comfort? Each time a mass extinction occurred, life found a way to
come back from the brink. Life has tenaciously clung to this small blue planet for the last three
billion years. Scientists are finding new clues as to how life first began on earth in some really
interesting places - the deep ocean.

Checking the Fossil Record

Scientists have studied rocks using radiometric dating methods to determine the age of
earth. Another really cool thing they've found in rocks that tells us more about the story of
earth's past are the remains of living creatures that have been embedded in the rocks for all
time. We call these fossils. It has been the careful study of earth's fossil record that has revealed
the exciting picture about the kinds of creatures that once roamed this planet. Fossilized
skeletons of enormous creatures with huge claws and teeth, ancient ancestors of modern day
species (such as sharks) that have remained virtually unchanged for millions of years, and
prehistoric jungles lush with plant life, all point to a profusion of life and a variety of species that
continues to populate the earth, even in the face of periodic mass extinctions.
By studying the fossil record scientists have determined that the earth has experienced
very different climates in the past. In fact, general climactic conditions, as well as existing
species, are used to define distinct geologic time periods in earth's history. For example, periodic
warming of the earth - during the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods - created a profusion of plant
and animal life that left behind generous organic materials from their decay. These layers of
organic material built up over millions of years undisturbed. They were eventually covered by
younger, overlying sediment and compressed, giving us fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum and
natural gas.
Alternately, the earth's climate has also experienced periods of extremely cold weather for
such prolonged periods that much of the surface was covered in thick sheets of ice. These
periods of geologic time are called ice ages and the earth has had several in its history. Entire
species of warmer-climate species died out during these time periods, giving rise to entirely new
species of living things which could tolerate and survive in the extremely cold climate. Believe it

or not, humans were around during the last ice age - the Holocene (about 11,500 years ago) and we managed to survive. Creatures like the Woolly Mammoth - a distant relative of modernday elephants - did not.
Source: (http://www.extremescience.com/earth.htm)

THEORIES ON THE FORMATION OF EARTH AND UNIVERSE:

1. DiluvialTheory.
Flood geology (also creation geology or diluvial geology) is the interpretation
of the geological history of the Earth in terms of the global flood described in Genesis
69. Similar views played a part in the early development of the science of geology,
even after the biblical chronology had been rejected by geologists in favour of an
ancient Earth. Flood geology is a field of study within creation science, which is a part
of young Earth creationism.
Proponents hold to a literal reading of Genesis 6-9 and view its passages to be
historically accurate, using the Bible's internal chronology to place the Flood and the
story of Noah's Ark within the last five thousand years.The scientific community
considers flood geology to be a myth or pseudoscience because it contradicts the
scientific consensus in geology, paleontology, physics, geophysics and stratigraphy.

2. Uniformitarianism Theory.
In geology, the doctrine that existing processes acting in the same manner and with
essentially the same intensity as at present are sufficient to account for all geologic
change. Uniformitarianism posits that natural agents now at work on and within the Earth
have operated with general uniformity through immensely long periods of time. When
William Whewell, a University of Cambridge scholar, introduced the term in 1832, the
prevailing view (called catastrophism) was that the Earth had originated through
supernatural means and had been affected by a series of catastrophic events such as the
biblical Flood. In contrast to the catastrophic view of geology, the principle of uniformity
postulates that phenomena displayed in the rocks may be entirely accounted for by
geologic processes that continue to operate at the present dayin other words, the
present is the key to the past. This principle is fundamental to geologic thinking and
underlies the whole development of the science of geology. The expression
uniformitarianism, however, has passed into history, for the controversy between
catastrophists and uniformitarians has largely died. Geology as an applied science draws
on the other sciences, but in the early 19th century geologic discovery had outrun the
physics and chemistry of the day. As geologic phenomena became explicable in terms of
advancing physics, chemistry, and biology, the reality of the principle of uniformity as a
major philosophical tenet of geology became established and the controversy ended.
3. PlanetismalTheory.
The Planetesimal theory is a theory of global creation which assumes that solid
objects exist within protoplanetary disks and debris disks. The original theory, proposed by

Viktor Safronov, posits that cosmic dust grains, as they collide together, stick. This forms
the core, or center layer of planetary mass. As they accumulate they form larger and
larger bodies. Once the body of particles, located near the center of the protoplanetary
debris disk, they gain density and create a gravity pull. When the body reaches a breadth
of approximately a kilometer, they attract one another by mutual gravity, causing the
mass to grow further reaching a moon-sized mass, or protoplanet. The basic theory
introduced by Safronov has been applied to the formation of the known solar system which
contains Earth. It is believed that approximately 3.8 billion years ago a period of time
known as the Late Heavy Bombardment shot many of the larger planetesimal objects out
of the solar system, or forced them to collide with larger planetary objects, like Jupiter. This
was also likely the time when smaller planets, with high gravity pulls, captured moons. For
example, Mars captured the moons Phobos and Deimos. Planeteismal bodies that remain
are valuable to scientists because they contain information about how the solar system
formed, and what basic chemicals and solid compounds they are made up from. The
exterior layer of the phantasmal bodies are altered by the intense radiation of the sun, it is
believed the inner core remains largely unchanged from its moment of creation. The basic
translation of the word "planetesimal" is "infantismal fraction of a planet." It is derived
from the mathematical concept of infantismal numbers or infinity.

4. Nebular Hypothesis Capture Theory.

NEBULAR HYPOTHESISFor many years the nebular hypothesis was a leading
theory. According to it, the sun and its planets supposedly condensed out of swirling
eddies of cold, dark, interstellar clouds of gas and dust.

But there are serious problems to the concept:

[1] Before any condensation of gas and dust could occur, the nebula would have
diffused into outer space. According to *Gerald P. Kuiper, a leading
evolutionary astronomer, before gravitational attraction would become
significant, the particles would have to be as big as the moon.

[2] The theory requires that a complex system of roller-bearing eddies of gas and
dust had to develop, which in turn gradually whirled out into sun and planets
and moons. But this is an impossibility, since such vortices would have to
remain perfectly intact during essentially the entire period of planetary
formation. On this point, Kuiper doubted that the vortices could last long
enough to get the condensation building process of the planets underway.

[3] What stopped the entire process? If it were not stopped, the entire mass of
material would form one large bodywithout any planets and moons.

[4] Since the sun has 99.5 percent of the mass in the solar system, and all the
planets and moons only have 0.5 percent of it, what would have kept these
small bodies from falling into the main body?

[5] There is much interstellar material in the vicinity of our sun, but it is not
condensing.

[6] Our sun has an extremely small rotational motionthat is, it is turning slowly.
This "angular momentum" is far too small to have evolved from a gas cloud.
If our sun came from a gaseous protogalaxy, its angular momentum would
have to have been a billion times as much as it is now, in order for our
planets to be flung out and orbit it as fast as they do. How could it have lost
all of its rotational motion?

5. Steady State Theories.

In cosmology, the Steady State theory is a now-obsolete theory and model
alternative to the Big Bang theory of the universe's origin. In steady state views, new
matter is continuously created as the universe expands, thus adhering to the perfect
cosmological principle. While the steady state model enjoyed some popularity in the first
half of the 20th century, it is now rejected by the vast majority of professional
cosmologists and other scientists, as the observational evidence points to a Big Bang-type
cosmology and a finite age of the universe.
Sir James Jeans, in the 1920s, was the first to conjecture a steady state cosmology
based on a hypothesized continuous creation of matter in the universe. The idea was then
revised in 1948 by Fred Hoyle, Thomas Gold, Hermann Bondi and others. The steady state
theory of Bondi and Gold was inspired by the circular plot of the film Dead of Night, which
they had watched together. Theoretical calculations showed that a static universe was
impossible under general relativity, and observations by Edwin Hubble had shown that the
universe was expanding. The steady state theory asserts that although the universe is
expanding, it nevertheless does not change its appearance over time (the perfect
cosmological principle); it has no beginning and no end.
Problems with the steady-state theory began to emerge in the late 1960s, when
observations apparently supported the idea that the universe was in fact changing:
quasars and radio galaxies were found only at large distances (therefore could have
existed only in the distant past), not in closer galaxies. Whereas the Big Bang theory
predicted as much, the Steady State theory predicted that such objects would be found
throughout the universe, including close to our own galaxy.

For most cosmologists, the refutation of the steady-state theory came with the
discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation in 1965, which was predicted by
the Big Bang theory. Stephen Hawking described this discovery as "the final nail in the
coffin of the steady-state theory". The steady-state theory explained microwave
background radiation as the result of light from ancient stars that has been scattered by
galactic dust. However, the cosmic microwave background level is very even in all
directions, making it difficult to explain how it could be generated by numerous point
sources and the microwave background radiation shows no evidence of characteristics
such as polarization that normally associated with scattering. Furthermore, its spectrum is
so close to that of an ideal black body that it could hardly be formed by the superposition
of contributions from a multitude of dust clumps at different temperatures as well as at
different redshifts. Steven Weinberg wrote in 1972,
The steady state model does not appear to agree with the observed dL versus z
relation or with source counts ... In a sense, the disagreement is a credit to the model;
alone among all cosmologies, the steady-state model makes such definite predictions that
it can be disproved even with the limited observational evidence at our disposal. The
steady-state model is so attractive that many of its adherents still retain hope that the
evidence against it will disappear as observations improve. However, if the cosmic
microwave background radiation ... is really black-body radiation, it will be difficult to
doubt that the universe has evolved from a hotter, denser early stage
6. Big-Bang Theory.
The Big Bang theory is the prevailing cosmological model for the early development
of the universe. The key idea is that the universe is expanding. Consequently, the universe
was denser and hotter in the past. In particular, the Big Bang model suggests that at some
moment all matter in the universe was contained in a single point, which is considered the
beginning of the universe. Modern measurements place this moment at approximately
13.82 billion years ago, thus considered the age of the universe. After the initial
expansion, the universe cooled sufficiently to allow the formation of subatomic particles,
including protons, neutrons, and electrons. Though simple atomic nuclei formed within the
first three minutes after the Big Bang, thousands of years passed before the first
electrically neutral atoms formed. The majority of atoms that were produced by the Big
Bang are hydrogen, along with helium and traces of lithium. Giant clouds of these
primordial elements later coalesced through gravity to form stars and galaxies, and the
heavier elements were synthesized either within stars or during supernovae.
Georges Lematre first proposed what became the Big Bang theory in 1927. Over
time, scientists built on his initial ideas of cosmic expansion and that this expansion could
be traced back to the cosmic origin to form the modern synthesis. The framework for the
Big Bang model relies on Albert Einstein's general relativity and on simplifying
assumptions such as homogeneity and isotropy of space. The governing equations were
first formulated by Alexander Friedmann and similar solutions were worked on by Willem
de Sitter. In 1929, Edwin Hubble discovered that the distances to far away galaxies were
strongly correlated with their redshifts. Hubble's observation was taken to indicate that all
distant galaxies and clusters have an apparent velocity directly away from our vantage
point: the farther away, the higher the apparent velocity, regardless of direction.Assuming
that we are not at the center of a giant explosion, the only remaining interpretation is that
all observable regions of the universe are receding from each other.

THE LAYERS OF THE EARTH:

There are multiple layers of the Earth. The Earth layers are: the crust, the mantle, the
outer core, and the inner core. Some of the layers are considered to parts of the lithosphere and
others are part of the asthenosphere. Each layer has its own properties, make-up, and
characteristics. This article would be many pages long if I included everything here, so what I will
do is give you an overview of each and a link at the end of each paragraph to more indepth
information on that particular layer.

Crust - This is not what we walk on. The layers of dirt and silt that cover the crust
are normally considered to be separate from it. The crust comprises the continents
and ocean basins. It has a variable thickness, anywhere from 35-70 km thick in the
continents and 5-10 km thick in the ocean basins. The crust is composed mainly of
alumino-silicates.
Mantle- Just under the crust is the mantle. It is composed mainly of ferromagnesium silicates. It is about 2900 km thick, and is separated into the upper and
lower mantle. This is where most of the internal heat of the Earth is located. Large
convective cells in the mantle circulate heat and may drive plate tectonic
processes.
Core- There are two very distinct parts of the core: the outer and the inner core.
The outer core is 2300 km thick and the inner core is 1200 km thick. The
outer core is composed mainly of a nickel-iron alloy, while the inner core is
almost entirely composed of iron. The outer core contains as much as 10%
lighter elements than iron alloy.
The inner core is thought to rotate at a different speed than the rest of the
Earth and this is thought to contribute to the presence of the Earths
magnetic field.

THE ATMOSPHERE LAYER:

The atmosphere is divided into five layers. It is thickest near the surface and thins out with
height until it eventually merges with space.
1) Troposphere is the first layer above the surface and contains half of the
Earth's atmosphere. Weather occurs in this layer.
2) Stratosphere- this is where many jet aircrafts fly in because it is very stable.
Also, the ozone layer absorbs harmful rays from the Sun.
3) Mesosphere- this is where meteors or rock fragments burn up.
4) Thermosphere - is a layer with auroras. It is also where the space shuttle orbits.
5) Exosphere- is an extremely thin layer where the atmosphere merges into space.
This is the upper limit of our atmosphere.

PHENOMENA ON EARTH
Aurora
A natural electrical phenomenon characterized by the appearance of streamers of reddish
or greenish light in the sky, usually near the northern or southern magnetic pole.
Auroras or aurorae are classified as diffuse and discrete. The diffuse aurora is a featureless
glow in the sky that may not be visible to the naked eye, even on a dark night. It defines the
extent of the auroral zone. The discrete auroras are sharply defined features within the diffuse
aurora that vary in brightness from just barely visible to the naked eye, to bright enough to read
a newspaper by at night
Earthquake
A sudden and violent shaking of the ground, sometimes causing great destruction, as a
result of movements within the earth's crust or volcanic action.
Volcanic Eruptions
Volcanic eruptions happen when lava and gas are discharged from a volcanic vent.
The most common consequences of this are population movements as large numbers of people
are often forced to flee the moving lava flow. Volcanic eruptions often cause temporary food
shortages and volcanic ash landslides called Lahar.
Gravitational Pull/ Gravitational Force
The attraction that one object has for another object due to the invisible force of
gravity. The mass of an object affects its gravitational pull. The gravitational pull of the Sun keeps
the planets in orbit around it. Any object on the Earth or at least close to Earth, will experience a
gravitational force . For example, when one shoots a basketball, the force of gravity acts to pull
the ball back to the floor.
The gravitational force on Earth is equal to the force the Earth exerts on you. At
rest, on or near the surface of the Earth, the gravitational force equals your weight. On a
different astronomical body like Venus or the Moon, the acceleration of gravity is different than
on Earth, so if you were to stand on a scale, it would show you that you weigh a different amount
than on Earth
Solar Eclipse
An eclipse in which the sun is obscured by the moon. The obscuring of the light of
the sun by the intervention of the moon between it and a point on the earth (solar eclipse).
Lunar Eclipse
The obscuring of the light of the moon by the intervention of the earth between it and the
sun (lunar eclipse).