Unit-I

Definition of Ecology:

Life processes of living organisms are affected by the environment in which they live. Similarly organisms
also affect their environment and cause changes in it. The scientific study of the interaction between the
organism and their environment is called ecology. It is a multi-disciplinary science and includes geology,
chemistry, physics along with the biological disciplines like physiology, genetics, morphology, etc.

The word ‘ecology’ has a greek origin. ‘Oikos’ means home, ‘logos’ means to study. Thus ecology is
concerned with organisms in their environment. Ernst Haeckel coined the term ‘ecology’ in 1869. The term
‘environment’ refers to the surrounding of the organism.

It includes non-living and living components that affect the life and development of the organism in its
natural surroundings. The natural surroundings of an organism is called ‘habitat’. The non-living
components are called abiotic factors; living components are called biotic factors.

The scope of ecology is wide and varied. Ecology is a basic division of biology and forms an integral part of
all the taxonomic divisions.

In a simple term ecology may be defined as that science which studies, interrelationships between abiotic
and biotic components of the biospheric ecosystem on one hand, and among biotic components on the other
hand.

Generally, ecology is divided into autecology and synecology wherein autecology is concerned with the
study of ecological relations of individual species in a given ecosystem whereas synecolgy is the study of
plant communities in relation to their habitats of given ecosystem.

Classification of Ecology:

1. On the basis of nature of study ecology can be subdivided as:

a. Autecology:

Autecology deals with the study of the individual organism or an individual species and its population. Here,
the focus on life-histories and behaviour, as means of adaptation to the environment, is made. Autecology is
also called “species ecology.”

b. Synecology:

Synecology deals with the study of groups of organisms which are associated together as a unit. In other
words it is study of communities, their composition, their behaviour and relation to the environment.

Synecology is also called “Ecology of communities.”

Synecology is further sub divided into:

(i) Population ecology:

It relates the organism with various groups of organisms and their inter-relationship.

(ii) Gene ecology:

It deals with the genetic make-up of species in relation to the environment.

(iii)Taxonomic ecology:

It includes ecology of taxonomic groups as microbial ecology. Vertebrate or invertebrate ecology.

For e.g., if a study is carried out of the relation of a Neem tree with the environment, then the approach is
said to be autecological in nature. But if the study is carried out of the forest (of which Neem tree is a part),
then the approach is said to be synecological in nature.

2. On the basis of the kind of environment or habitat, ecology has been sub divided into the following
branches:

3. With advancing trends in the fields of ecology present day ecologists decide ecology into the
following branches:

Levels of organization in Ecology:

Ecology can also be considered in terms of the concept of levels of organisation. In ascending order of
complexity, the hierarchy of organisation includes cells, organs, organisms, population, community,
ecosystem, landscape, biome and the biosphere.

Hierarchy includes ‘an arrangement into a graded series’. Ecology is concerned with levels beyond an
organism (Fig. 1).
The different levels are as follows:

a. Organism:

An organism is the basic unit of study in ecology. At the organism level we are concerned with taxonomic
position, morphological characters, reproduction, life cycle, geographical distribution, and behaviour in
relation to specific environmental conditions. Similar organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile
offspring form a species.

b. Population:

Population denotes a group of individuals of a particular kind capable of interbreeding with one another
inhabiting a particular place.

c. Community:

A Community includes all the populations occupying a given area.

d. Ecosystem:

The community and the non-living environment function together as an ecosystem.

e. Landscape:

It is defined as a heterogeneous area composed of a cluster of interacting ecosystems.

f. Biome:

Biome is a large regional or subcontinent system of characteristic vegetation type. Similar biomes share
similar climatic conditions. For example, the hot deserts in the world exhibit similarity in flora and fauna.

g. Biosphere or the Ecosphere:

It is the largest and nearly self-sufficient biological system which includes all the living organisms of the
earth interacting with the physical environment. Hierarchies in nature are nested, i.e. each level is made of
groups of lower level units. For example, population is made of groups of organisms that can interbreed. In
contrast, human organised hierarchies as seen in governments, military, etc., are non-nested.

Organisms interact with the environment at different time and spatial scales. For instance, a bacterium
interacts with its environment within a narrow fraction of a cubic cm. A tree on the other hand interacts with
its environment at a large time and spatial scale. Organisms, big or small, exchange matter and energy
continuously with the environment.

Subdivisions of Ecology:

Ecology can be commonly divided into animal ecology and plant ecology. However, two major subdivisions
are recognised by ecologists, i.e. autecology and synecology. Autecology is the study of individual species
in relation to their environment, while synecology is the study of the groups of organisms in relation to their
environment. It comprises population ecology, community ecology and the study of the ecosystems.

Useful subdivisions may also be made according to the habitat, taxonomic divisions and the level of
organisation.

Some important subdivisions are described below:

a. Population Ecology:

It deals with the growth, trophic structure, metabolism and regulation of a population.

b. Community Ecology:

It deals with the ecology of different populations in the same habitat and the same environmental conditions.

c. Habitat Ecology:

It includes the study of animals and plants in their habitat. According to the habitat it can be further divided
into freshwater ecology, marine ecology and terrestrial ecology.

d. Applied Ecology:

It deals with the application of ecological concepts to human needs and includes wildlife management,
biological control, forestry and conservation of natural resources.

e. Paleoecology:

It deals with the environmental conditions and the life of the past.

f. Human Ecology:

It deals with the effects of human activities on the environment and vice versa.
Other Branches of Ecology:

i. Behavioural Ecology:

It is concerned with explaining the patterns of behaviour in animals.

ii. Physiological Ecology or Eco-Physiology:

It deals with how organisms are adapted to respond to temperature, maintain proper water and salt balance,
balance levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide, or deals with other factors of their physical environment.
Studies of eco-physiology play an important role in agriculture since crop yield is very much dependent on
the performance of individual plants.

It also plays an important role in conservation studies. For example, the decline of migratory bird species
focuses on how changes in the environment affect the physiological mechanisms that prepare birds for long-
distance migration.

iii. Molecular Ecology:

The use of molecular biology to directly tackle ecological problems is the focus of molecular biology.

iv. Evolutionary Ecology:

Evolutionary ecology emphasises the impact of evolution on current patterns and human induced changes. It
relates to how animals choose mates, determine the sex of their offspring, forage for food and live in groups,
or how plants attract pollinators, disperse seeds, or allocate resources between growth and reproduction.
Evolutionary ecologists are particularly interested in how form and function adapt organisms to their
environment.

v. Ecosystem Ecology:

Organisms obtain energy either through photosynthesis or by consuming other organisms. These energy
transformations are associated with the movements of materials within and between organisms and the
physical environment.

Thus, the interaction between the biotic and abiotic components called an ecosystem is the sub-field of
ecology called ecosystem ecology. Issues of interest at this level is how human activities affect food webs,
energy flow and global cycling of nutrients.

vi. Population Ecology:

Population ecology constitutes organisms of the same species living in the same place and same time. It may
comprise of the dynamics of a single population of any living thing (earthworm, fox, whale, pine tree etc.) or
may focus on how two populations (predator and its prey or parasite and its host) interact with each other.

At the level of population, evolutionary changes take place. It is also related directly to the management of
fish and game populations, forestry and agriculture. Population ecology is also fundamental to our
understanding of the dynamics of disease.

vii. Community Ecology:

Populations of many different organisms in a particular place are tied to one another by feeding relationships
and other interactions. These relationships of interacting populations are called ecological communities and
their study is under the purview of community ecology.
Community studies are principally on how biotic interactions such as predation, herbivory and competition
influence the numbers and distributions of organisms. It has particular relevance in our understanding of the
nature of biological diversity.

viii. Landscape Ecology:

These are of ecological fields whose study requires the synthesis of several other sub-fields of ecology.
Landscape ecology is one that emphasizes the inter-connections among ecosystems of a region.

The values of landscape ecology are:

(a) It emphasises on larger land areas of interacting ecosystems, i.e., next higher level of organisation above
the local ecosystem, and

(b) Its tendency to compartmentalize. We study a lake or forest ecosystem but landscape ecology considers
the connections between them. For example, herons forage in the lake, nest in the forest and, thus, the
herons move nutrients from water to land.

ix. Conservation Biology:

This sub- field of ecology blends the concepts of genetics with population and community ecology. It takes a
landscape approach and is related to the maintenance of biodiversity and the preservation of endangered
species.

x. Restoration Ecology:

It relates to the re-establishing of the integrity of natural systems that have been damaged by human activity.

xi. Ecotoxicology:

It is the study of the fate and action of human-made substances, such as pesticides and detergents, in the
natural world. Ecotoxicology focuses on the way in which human-made substances affect human health.
Eco-toxicologists often use other animals, such as fish or small invertebrates, as models for the action of the
particular toxic substance under study.

Environmentalism, conservationism and preservationism are social or political movements and not branches
of ecology. Roadside trash pickups and city tree planting drives are well-intentioned public beautification
and cleanup activities, but such activities are not science. Although everyone applauds such civic
responsibilities, they however, do not increase our understanding of the natural world.

Scope of Ecology:

The solution of a particular ecological problem requires several lines of approach. None of this constitute an
end in itself but each one of these makes important contribution in making the picture complete.

These various lines of approach towards the ecological problem can be translated as:

(a) Biotic

(b) Quantitative

(c) Climatic (both physical and chemical)

(d) Taxonomic
(e) Genetic and evolutionary.

Biotic factors are the direct outcome of the various types of activities amongst the animals. A competition
for food and shelter always exists amongst the members of a community. This competition demands various
types of activity amongst the animals.

Quantitative study includes an assessment of the population density in a given area and also an estimation of
the number of members present in different communities. Information of this kind is of immense value in
solving many problems like food availability and movement within a particular colony.

Climatic factors include both physical and chemical conditions present in a habitat. These factors are ever
changing in nature. Physical factors include mainly temperature, light and humidity. Chemical factors
include acidity or salinity that are specially present in aquatic habitat. Some animals are so sensitive that a
minute climatic change becomes fatal to them. Climatic factors play an important role in the distribution of
animals.

Taxonomy means classification, naming and description of organisms. A mere naming of a large number of
animals of a given area, as was done earlier in ecological surveys, is meaningless without a consideration of
the circumstances that enable them to live there. Thus a complementary observation of the various eco-
logical factors together with taxonomy is emphasized in ecology.

The genetic and evolutionary aspects have taken a rightful place in ecological problems. In recent years the
knowledge of heredity and the mechanism of the operation of Natural Selection have increased to a
considerable extent.

Evolution is no longer regarded as a thing of the past and it has been proved that evolution is a dynamic
process though the progress is very slow. In certain circumstances it has become possible to detect and to
measure the rate of evolution in wild population.

The above subdivisions form the backbone of the study of ecology. The interrelationship existing between
these subdivisions can be best understood with the help of an example. Let us assume that we want to study
the ecology of a given species of edible fish inhabiting a large lake, with an object of establishing a new
colony of these fishes to be started elsewhere.

In so doing, the first information that we need is that whether the food available in the new place is to be
taken by these fishes. Our second enquiry would be to find out whether predators are present in the locality.

These two are included within the biotic factors. We will have to determine the number of fishes that are to
be let loose in the new locality and the number is to be determined in such a way that they can live there
without being overcrowded.

Herein lies the involvement of the quantitative aspect. We will have to study the water itself and to find out
the extent of the fluctuations in its constitution such as salt content, acidity or alkalinity in order to
determine the tolerance of the fishes in the changing factors.

If the first lake is a very old one and the fish in question had been isolated there for a great period of time, it
is possible that a subspecies or local race might evolve there. In such cases the taxonomist might come
forward and help identifying the species. Such a situation opens up a case for the Geneticists and
Evolutionists to find out how and at what rate the new forms have evolved.
Relationship between Organisms and their Environment

Relationship between organisms and their environment are based on certain principles which are
summarized as follows:

1. Everything influencing the life processes of an organism constitutes its environment.

2. Environment in a habitat may be considered into biotic and abiotic components and the activities of the
organisms are influenced by the combined effects of various environmental factors.

3. An organism is a biotic component of the environment and the materials and energy required for the
maintenance of the body and sustenance of life of organisms constitute the abiotic environment.

4. An organism cannot exist in vacuum.

5. Life is the energy exchange process between the organism and environment and death means cessation of
the exchange process.

6. The environmental requirements of different organisms differ from individual to individual and also with
age and need.

7. Life activities are influenced by that environmental component which occurs in minimum quantity. This
is Liebig’s law of limiting factor. Liebig stated that the growth of a plant is dependent on the amount of the
food stuff which is presented to it in minimum quantity.

8. Life activities of an organism are influenced by the minimum or maximum quantity of the environmental
components or factors, as for example, nutrients, light, temperature, moisture Based on this principle
Shelford founded the law of tolerance.

9. Tolerance limits of an individual for different environmental factors may be different.

10. An organism may show different tolerance limit for a particular environmental factor in different
habitats and at different age and stage of life history.

11. Organisms having wide tolerance limits for many environmental factors are widely distributed.

12. An organism is a product of nature (genetic set-up) and nurture (environmental upbringing). The
inherited qualities are unfolded in proper environment.

13. Organisms react with the external stimuli caused by the environmental changes. The reactions may be
exhibited by movements (migration) or adaptational changes in the body or physiological activities. All such
adaptations have survival value.

14. Widely distributed species are adapted to various habitat conditions by evolving ecotypes.

15. Every habitat has potential to support a certain number of organisms. This is known as carrying capacity
of the habitat. Knowledge of carrying capacity is essential for proper management of the habitat.

16. The biotic and abiotic components of the environment are in constant flux in any habitat which induce
ecological succession with the passage of time and change in the environment.

17. Sun is the only source of energy in our earth’s environment and the life depends on solar energy.
Organisms live through exchange of energy.

18. Energy is neither created nor destroyed. It can be transformed from one form to the other.
19. During transformation of energy from one form to the other a large amount is dissipated into the
environment mainly as heat energy.

20. Every living thing that we see has potential energy in huge quantity. One gm. dry weight of body tissue
contains 4—5 kcal of energy stored in it.

21. Solar energy reaching the earth’s surface is not lost but only transformed from one form to the other. A
very small amount (1 to 3 per cent) of solar energy is trapped by green plants and converted into chemical
energy.

22. Energy flow from the sun to the plants, to the other organisms and then to the space is always
unidirectional.

23. Energy and space relationships of the organisms cause niche differentiation within the habitat which
brings about ecological stability in the community life. In any habitat a community is born, it grows with
passage of time and through succession it is stabilized to form a climax community.

24. Life on the earth exists in a thin mantle or layer around the earth. This layer forms the biosphere.

25. The biosphere is not uniform structure and it consists of several life supporting habitats called ecosms or
ecosystems.

26. An ecosystem has producers (plants), consumers (animals), and decomposers constituting the biotic
component, and life supporting matter and energy which constitute the abiotic component.

27. In any ecosystem the stability is conditioned by:

(i) Fixation and transfer of energy in the organisms at various levels.

(ii) Conversion of abiotic components (nutrients and energy) into organic structures which adds to the
biomass. The abiotic components are replenished through weathering of the lithosphere, atmospheric
movements and biogeochemical cycling’s of nutrients.

28. Energy flow, synthesis of matter and balanced relationship of biotic and abiotic components in an
ecosystem are regulated through ecological processes.

Responses of Organisms to Abiotic Factors

1. Light:

Light is the most important and indispensable physicochemical, abiotic ecological factor without which life
cannot exist. Organisms get light from the Sun, Moon, stars, lightning, volcanoes and bioluminescent
organisms. Among this light energy from the Sun is the most important in nearly all ecosystems. It is the
energy that is used by green plants (which contain chlorophyll) during the process of photosynthesis; a
process during which plants manufacture organic substances by combining inorganic substances.

The energy from the sun comprises of short, high-energy radiations to long, low energy radiations. The
amount of energy in the sunrays just before entering the atmosphere is about 2 cal/cm 2/min. It is called solar
constant. As the sunrays travel through the atmosphere a large amount of energy is absorbed.

Visible light is of greatest importance to plants because it is necessary for photosynthesis. It falls between
the ranges of 340 nm-700 nm. This part of the spectrum is also called the photosynthetically active radiation
or PAR. Factors such as quality of light, intensity of light and the length of the light period (day length) play
an important part in an ecosystem.
Light Intensity (‘Strength’ of Light):

The intensity of light that reaches the earth varies according to the latitude and season of the year. The
southern hemisphere receives less than 12 hours of sunlight during the period between 21st March and 23rd
of September, but receives more than 12 hours of sunlight during the following six months.

In frogs and lizards, bright light makes the skin colour light while dim light makes the skin colour darker.
Human skin responds to bright light by tanning.

Day Length (Length of the Light Period):

Certain plants flower only during certain times of the year. One of the reasons for this is that these plants are
able to ‘measure’ the length of the night (dark periods). However, it was thought earlier that it is the day
length (light periods) to which plants reacted and this phenomenon was termed photoperiodism.
Photoperiodism can be defined as the relative lengths of daylight and darkness that affect the physiology and
behaviour of an organism.

Accordingly plants are classified as follows:

a. Short-Day Plants:

These plants flower only if they experience nights, which are longer than a certain critical length.
Chrysanthemums (Chrysanthemum sp.), the Poinsettias (Euphorbia pulcherrima) and thorn apple (Datura
stramonium) are examples of short- day plants.

b. Long-Day Plants:

These plants flower if they experience nights, which are shorter than a certain critical length, Spinach,
wheat, barley and radish are examples of long-day plants.

c. Day-Neutral Plants:

The flowering of day- neutral plants is not influenced by night length. The tomato and the maize plant (Zea
mays) are examples of day-neutral plants.

Light requirements of plants differ and as a result distinct layers, or stratification, can be observed in an
ecosystem. Plants which grow well in bright sunlight are called heliophytes (Greek helios, Sun) and plants
which grow well in shady conditions are known as sciophytes (Greek skia, shade).

Zonation of Light in Aquatic Ecosystems (Fig. 4):

About 10% of light falling on water is reflected back to the atmosphere. The remaining 90% penetrate into
the water body. On the basis of penetration of light, the water column of the ocean is divided into three
zones supper euphotic zone, a middle disphotic zone and a lower aphotic zone.
The zonation is also categorised as follows:

a. Littoral Zone:

This zone includes the shallow coastal line where light is available up to the bottom. Rooted vegetation
occurs along this zone.

b. Limnetic Zone:

This zone includes the water body to a depth to which light can penetrate. This includes the euphotic zone
where abundant light penetration occurs and the disphotic zone where light is received but not sufficient for
photosynthesis.

c. Profundal Zone:

This zone includes the region where there is no light penetration and no producers are present in this region.

d. Benthic Zone:

The benthic zone includes the bottom of the ocean.

Adaptations of Plants to Changing Light Conditions:

Light requirements of plants differ and as a result distinct layers or stratification can be observed in an
ecosystem. Plants which grow well in bright sunlight are called heliophytes (Greek helios, sun) and plants
which grow well in shady conditions are known as sciophytes (Greek skia, shade).

Heliophytes have a high rate of respiration and are adapted to high light intensities, while sciophytes have
low rate of photosynthesis, respiration, metabolism and growth. The morphological features of heliophytes
and sciophytes are summarised in Table 2.

2. Temperature:

Temperature is an ecological abiotic factor. It is a form of energy and is called the thermal energy. It
penetrates into each and every region of the biosphere and affects all forms of life. It influences the various
stages of life activities such as growth, metabolism, reproduction, movement, distribution, behaviour, death,
etc.
Temperature is usually measured in Fahrenheit or Centigrade. The biosphere obtains its thermal energy from
the Sun in the form of solar radiation. It is a variable factor. It varies from place-to-place and time-to-time. It
is high in the day and at night it is low. It is high at the sea level and low at high altitudes. It is high at the
equator and low in the Polar Regions. It is more in the terrestrial habitat and low in the aquatic habitat. The
maximum temperature recorded on land is 85°C as in the desert and the lowest temperature is about – 70°C
as in Siberia.

Thermal Stratification:

In lakes and ponds a gradual decrease in temperature from the surface to the bottom is seen. This leads to
different layers of water with different temperatures. The arrangement of different layers based on
temperature differences is called thermal stratification.

Two types of stratification are observed:

a. Summer stratification and

b. Winter stratification.

a. Summer Stratification:

During summer there are three distinct layers:

i. Upper Layer or Epilimnion: The epilimnion is warm and the temperature fluctuates with the temperature
of the atmosphere.

ii. Lower Layer or Hypolimnion: The bottom layer is the hypolimnion. The temperature is about 5-7°C.

iii. Middle Layer or Thermocline or Metalimnion: The thermocline is characterised by a gradation of

temperature from top (at about 21°C) to bottom (at about 7°C). This zone is also called the transition zone.

b. Winter Stratification: During winter only two layers are seen, an upper layer of ice and a lower layer of
water column which is at 4°C.

Effect of Temperature on Plants:

a. The opening of the flowers of various plants during the day and night is often due to temperature
difference between the day and night.

b. The seed of some plants (biennials) normally germinate in the spring or summer. These seeds require a
cold treatment of winter. This is called vernalisation. Vernalisation can be induced in seeds artificially. This
adaptation ensures that seeds do not germinate during autumn, but only after winter, when the seedlings
have better chances to survive.

c. Deciduous trees lose their leaves in winter and enter into a state of dormancy, where the buds are covered
for protection against the cold.

d. In the desert due to great temperature variation between day and night organisms exhibit distinct periods
of activity, e.g. many cacti flower at night are pollinated by nocturnal insects. Cactus is among the most
drought-resistant plants on the planet.

Thermoperiodicity:

Regular change in temperature at specific intervals of time is called thermoperiodicity.

It is of two types:

a. Diurnal Thermoperiodicity: The change in temperature in a 24-hour period is called diurnal

thermoperiodicity. Animal’s active during the day is called diurnal and those active during the night is called
nocturnal.

b. Seasonal Thermoperiodicity: The variation in temperature in the different seasons of the year is called
seasonal thermoperiodicity. It controls important events such as seed germination, flowering, fruiting, leaf
shedding, etc. in plants. It also affects growth, development, morphology and coloration in animals.

3. Water:

Water covers 70% of the earth’s surface and is found as vapour in the atmosphere and in the soil as soil
water. 97% of the water is found in the oceans and 3% is found as freshwater. Approximately 70% of
freshwater is found as ice caps and glaciers, 20% as underground water while the remaining is found in
lakes, streams and rivers. Water is essential for life and all organisms depend on it to survive in especially
desert areas.

The Water Cycle in Nature:

Water cycles through the biosphere and is constantly exchanged between the physical and the biotic
environment. The circulation of water that does not involve living organism is the global water cycle and
that which involves living systems is the biological water cycle.

The water or hydrologic cycle is depicted in Fig. 6. Water evaporates from the oceans and bodies of
freshwater when the sun’s rays falls on it. Vaporized freshwater rises into the atmosphere, forms clouds,
cools and falls as rain over the oceans and the land.

When it rains, some of the water sinks or percolates into the ground and saturates the Earth to a certain level.
The top of the saturation level is called the ground water table or simply the water table. Ground water is
also sometimes located in a porous layer, called an aquifer, which lies between two sloping layers of
impervious rock.

Ground water comes back to the surface naturally as springs or mechanically by pumps or making wells.
Water also evaporates from these places to the atmosphere. This completes the global water cycle.
Organisms also use water and become part of the water cycle. Plants absorb water from the soil and return it
back to the atmosphere by respiration and transpiration. Animals drink water from water bodies and by
eating plants and return water back to the environment by respiration and excretion.

Death and decay of organisms also add water to the physical environment. Water returned to the physical
environment forms clouds that come down as rain for being utilised by the organisms. This comprises the
biological water cycle.

Adaptations of Plants in Water:

Water constitutes the hydrosphere and includes both fresh and seawater. Aquatic plants are called
hydrophytes. These plants possess specialised parenchyma called aerenchyma that possesses air filled spaces
in the leaves and stem. This enables the plants to float.

The different types of hydrophytes are summarised in Table 3:

4. Air:

Air or atmosphere is the gaseous envelope that surrounds the lithosphere and hydrosphere. The atmosphere
is a mixture of gases. Nitrogen makes up four-fifths of it and oxygen makes up a little more than one-fifth.
Small quantities of other gases like argon, neon, helium, krypton, xenon, carbon dioxide, hydrogen and
ozone are also found.

The most important gases used by plants and animals are oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen.

a. Oxygen:

Oxygen is used by all living organisms during respiration.

b. Carbon Dioxide:

Carbon dioxide is used by green plants during photo-synthesis.

c. Nitrogen:

Nitrogen is made available to the plants by certain bacteria and through the action of lightning.

Layers of the Atmosphere:

The atmosphere is made of five or more distinct layers that differ in density, temperature, composition and
properties (Fig. 7).

a. Troposphere – 0-10 kms

b. Stratosphere – 10-40 kms

c. Mesosphere – 40-70 kms

d. Thermosphere – 70-400 kms

e. Exosphere – 400 kms and beyond

a. Troposphere (0-10 kms):

The troposphere is the layer with which organisms have intimate contact and it is the seat of weather and
climate. It is the densest part of the atmosphere and air pressure drops with increasing altitude. It contains
more water vapour and carbon dioxide than any other layer. These two gases affect the heat balance of the
Earth.
The temperature at the ground is around 25°C and it drops to about 5°C every km of altitude gained, until it
reaches a low of around -60°C at about 10-11 kms. The upper limit of the troposphere is known as
tropopause. The branch of the atmospheric science that deals with the characteristics of the troposphere is
called ‘micrometeorology’.

b. Stratosphere (10-40 kms):

It is less dense than the troposphere. It contains much the same gases except that there is less water vapour.
At about 25 kms is a concentrated layer of ozone. This zone is known as the ozonosphere. This layer absorbs
most of the ultraviolet radiation of the Sun. From a low of 60°C at 10 kms, the temperature slowly rises to
about the base of the overlying mesosphere.

c. Mesosphere (40-70 kms):

The composition of gases are the same but less dense than the stratosphere. The mesosphere has a layer of
ionised or electrified air at 50- 70 kms above the Earth. It is caused by the action of the solar ultraviolet
radiation on the air molecules and is charged with electrons. Ozone is also found by the action of UV and X
rays on oxygen. The temperature drops to about -90°C at about 80 kms above the surface of the earth.

d. Thermosphere (70-400 kms):

The thermosphere is radically different from the other atmospheric layers. Ozone, carbon dioxide and water
are virtually absent. The density is very low, but is dense enough to burn up fast moving meteors. Most of
the gas atoms in this layer are electrically charged by the radiation of the Sun.

Three distinct ionised regions are found in this layer, E, F1 and F2 layers. The E layer is found at an altitude
of 90-120 kms and is made of nitrogen and oxygen. The F1 has oxygen atoms and in the F2 layer nitrogen
ions are predominantly found.

The thermospheric layers are important for communication. They reflect radio waves back to the Earth.
There is a wide range of temperature in the thermosphere from a low of about -90°C at 80 kms altitude to
several 1000°C at about 500 kms and higher. The motions of ionised gas generate electricity, which in turn
causes variations in the Earth’s magnetic field.

e. Exosphere (400 kms and Higher):

This layer extends into space. The gases in this layer are extremely thin. Hydrogen is the chief constituent of
this layer.

5. Wind:

Differential solar radiation in different regions of the Earth as well as rotation of the Earth causes air to
move and form wind. Depending upon the velocity of the wind it is called breeze, gale, storm or hurricane.
Dust storms and squall are also modified forms of wind; the former carries dust particles while the latter
carries rain or snow.

Winds or air currents arise on a world-wide scale as a result of a complex interaction between hot air
expanding and rising (convection) in the mid-latitudes. This has various effects on the rotation of the Earth
and results in a centrifugal force which tends to lift the air at the equator. This force is known as the Coriolis
force and tends to deflect winds to the left of the southern hemisphere and to the right in the northern
hemisphere. Winds carry water vapour, which may condense and fall in the form of rain, snow or hail.

Wind plays a role in pollination and seed dispersal of some plants, as well as the dispersal of some animals,
such as insects. Wind erosion can remove and redistribute topsoil, especially where vegetation has been
reduced. Warm berg wind results in desiccation, which creates a fire hazard. If plants are exposed to strong
prevailing winds are they usually smaller than those in less windy conditions.

Ecosystem:

The term Ecology (Greek Oikos-house, logos-study) was coined by German biologist Ernst Haeckel in
1869. Ecology deals with the study of interactions between living organisms and their physical environment.

Now ecology is defined as the study of ecosystems. The term ecosystem was proposed by A.C. Tansley in
1935 where eco implies the environment and system denotes an interacting, interdependent, integrated
complex.

Ecosystem may be defined as the system resulting from the integration of all living and non-living factors of
the environment. Thus any structural and functional unit of biosphere where the organisms interact with the
physical environment so that a flow of energy leads to clearly defined trophic structure, biotic diversity and
material cycle (i.e., exchange of materials between living and non-living components) within the system is
known as an ecological system or ecosystem.

Earth is a giant ecosystem where abiotic and biotic components are constantly acting and reacting with each
other bringing structural and functional changes in it. This vast ecosystem-biosphere is subdivided into units
of smaller ecosystems such as terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.

These systems may be freely exchanging energy and matter from outside—an open ecosystem or may be
isolated from outside—a closed ecosystem.

An ecosystem is normally an open system with a continuous but variable influx and loss of material and
energy. It is a basic, functional unit with no limits of boundaries.

Thus an ecosystem represents the highest level of ecological integration which is energy based and this
functional unit is capable of energy transformation, accumulation and circulation. Its main function in
ecological sense is to emphasize obligatory relationships, interdependence and casual relations.

Classification of Ecosystems

1. Natural Ecosystems (Self-operating):

These systems operate by themselves under natural conditions without any major interference by man.

These are further divided into following ecosystems:

(i) Terrestrial ecosystem includes forests, grasslands and deserts etc.

(ii) Aquatic ecosystem may be further distinguished as

(a) Fresh water which may be lotic (running water as springs, streams or rivers) or lentic (standing water as
lakes, ponds, pools, ditches, puddles, swamps etc.).

(b) Marine water such as oceans (deep bodies) or seas or estuaries (shallow ones).

2. Artificial (Man-engineered) Ecosystems:

These are maintained artificially by man where, by addition of energy and planned manipulations, natural
balance is disturbed regularly. Crop, urban, industrial, space and control of biotic community as well as the
physico-chemical environment are man-engineered ecosystems.
3. Space Ecosystem is also recognised as one of ecosystems and play a very important role in human life.

The common features of all ecosystems — terrestrial, aquatic and agricultural are the interactions of the
autotrophic and heterotrophic components.

Components of Ecosystem:

An ecosystem has two major components—biotic and abiotic.

(A) Biotic (Living) Components:

Plants, animals and micro-organisms having different nutritional behaviour constitute the biotic components
of an ecosystem.

1. Producers (or Autotrophs-Self nourishing):

Producers are mainly chlorophyll bearing green plants (photo autotrophs) which can synthesize their food in
presence of sunlight making use of CO2 and water through the process of photosynthesis. Since plants
convert solar energy into chemical energy so they must be better called converters or transducers.
Chemosynthetic organisms or chemo-autotrophs can also synthesize some organic matter by the oxidation of
certain chemicals in absence of sunlight.

2. Consumers (or Heterotrophs or Phagotrophs):

Consumers consume the matter built up by the producers. They utilise, rearrange and decompose complex
materials.

Consumers are of the following types:

(i) Herbivores:

They feed directly on producers and hence are known as primary consumers, e.g., rabbit, deer, cattle, insects
etc. Elton (1927) called herbivores as key industry animals because they convert plants into animal
materials.

(ii) Carnivores (Meat eaters):

They feed on other consumers. If they feed on herbivores, they are called secondary consumers (e.g., frog,
birds, cat) and if they prey on other carnivores (snake, peacock), they are known as tertiary
carnivores/consumers. Lion, tiger etc. which cannot be preyed are called top carnivores since they occupy
top position in the food chain.

(iii) Omnivores:

They feed both on plants and animals, e.g., rat, fox, birds and man.

(iv) Detritivores (Detritus feeders or saprotrophs):

They feed on partially decomposed matter such as termites, ants, crabs, earthworms etc.

3. Decomposers (or Micro-consumers):

Decomposers are saprophytic (osmotrophs) micro-organisms such as bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi.
They derive their nutrition by breaking down complex organic compounds and release inorganic nutrients
into environment, making them available again to producers.
The biotic components of any ecosystem may be thought of as the functional kingdom of nature, since they
are based on the type of nutrition and the energy source used. The entire earth is considered as an ecosystem
which is referred to as biosphere or ecosphere.

(B) Abiotic (Non-living) Components:

Structurally abiotic components include:

1. Climatic regime:

Precipitation, temperature, sunlight, intensity of solar flux, wind etc. have a strong influence on the
ecosystem.

2. Inorganic substances:

These are C, N, H, O, P, S involved in material cycles. The amount of these substances present in an
ecosystem is known as standing state or standing quality.

3. Organic Substances:

Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and humic substances link the abiotic components with the biotic
components. All the biotic and abiotic components of an ecosystem are influenced by each other and are
linked together through energy flow and matter cycling.

Homeostasis

Homeostasis, any self-regulating process by which biological systems tend to maintain stability while
adjusting to conditions those are optimal for survival. If homeostasis is successful, life continues; if
unsuccessful, disaster or death ensues. The stability attained is actually a dynamic equilibrium, in which
continuous change occurs yet relatively uniform conditions prevail.

Any system in dynamic equilibrium tends to reach a steady state, a balance that resists outside forces of
change. When such a system is disturbed, built-in regulatory devices respond to the departures to establish a
new balance; such a process is one of feedback control. All processes of integration and coordination of
function, whether mediated by electrical circuits or by nervous and hormonal systems, are examples of
homeostatic regulation.

A familiar example of homeostatic regulation in a mechanical system is the action of a room-temperature

regulator, or thermostat. The heart of the thermostat is a bimetallic strip that responds to temperature
changes by completing or disrupting an electric circuit. When the room cools, the circuit is completed, the
furnace operates, and the temperature rises. At a preset level the circuit breaks, the furnace stops, and the
temperature drops. Biological systems, of greater complexity, however, have regulators only very roughly
comparable to such mechanical devices. The two types of systems are alike, however, in their goals—to
sustain activity within prescribed ranges, whether to control the thickness of rolled steel or the pressure
within the circulatory system.

The control of body temperature in humans is a good example of homeostasis in a biological system. In
humans, normal body temperature fluctuates around the value of 37 °C (98.6 °F), but various factors can
affect this value, including exposure, hormones, metabolic rate, and disease, leading to excessively high or
low temperatures. The body’s temperature regulation is controlled by a region in the brain called the
hypothalamus. Feedback about body temperature is carried through the bloodstream to the brain and results
in compensatory adjustments in the breathing rate, the level of blood sugar, and the metabolic rate. Heat loss
in humans is aided by reduction of activity, by perspiration, and by heat-exchange mechanisms that permit
larger amounts of blood to circulate near the skin surface. Heat loss is reduced by insulation, decreased
circulation to the skin, and cultural modification such as the use of clothing, shelter, and external heat
sources. The range between high and low body temperature levels constitutes the homeostatic plateau—the
“normal” range that sustains life. As either of the two extremes is approached, corrective action (through
negative feedback) returns the system to the normal range.

The concept of homeostasis has also been applied to ecological settings. First proposed by Canadian-born
American ecologist Robert MacArthur in 1955, homeostasis in ecosystems is a product of the combination
of biodiversity and large numbers of ecological interactions that occur between species. It was thought of as
a concept that could help to explain an ecosystem’s stability—that is, its persistence as a particular
ecosystem type over time (see ecological resilience). Since then, the concept has changed slightly to
incorporate the ecosystem’s abiotic (nonliving) parts; the term has been used by many ecologists to describe
the reciprocation that occurs between an ecosystem’s living and nonliving parts to maintain the status quo.
The Gaia Hypothesis—the model of Earth posited by English scientist James Lovelock that considers its
various living and nonliving parts as components of a larger system or single organism—makes the
assumption that the collective effort of individual organisms contributes to homeostasis at the planetary
level.
 Unit-II
Soil:
The word soil is derived from a Latin word ‘solum’ meaning earthy material in which plants grow.

The study of soil is known as Soil science or Pedology (pedos = earth) or Edaphology (edaphos = soil).

The study of soil is important in many respects. Soil is natural habitat for Plants and animals. It provides
water and nutrients to the living organisms.

“Soil is a natural body developed by natural forces acting on natural materials. It is usually differentiated
into horizons of minerals and organic constituents of variable depths which differ from the parent materials
in morphology, physical constitutions, chemical properties, composition and biological characteristics”-
Joffe and Marbut.

Knowledge of soil is helpful in agricultural practices, such as cultivation, irrigation, artificial drainage and
use of fertilizers. It is also important from geological, petro-logical, mineralogical and paleobotamcal points
of view.

Soil may be defined as “the part of earth crust in which humus is present”.

According to R.F. Daubenmire, “soil is the upper part of earth crust in which plants are anchored.” He
defines soil as weathered superficial layer of earth crust with which are mingled living organisms and
products of their decay.

Components of Soil:

The soil is made up of the following components:

(1) Mineral particles,

(2) Dead organic matter or humus,

(3) Soil atmosphere,

(4) Soil water, and

(5) Biological system or soil micro-organisms.

1. Mineral Components:

The mineral constituents of the soil are derived from the parental rocks or regolith. They may be found in
the form of particles of different sizes; from clay (.0002 mm or less in diam) to large pebbles and gravels.
The minerals represent about 90% of the total weight of the soil. Important elements which are found in
compound state are Oxygen, Si, Fe, Al, N, P, K, Ca, Mg, C, H, etc. In soil, nitrogen comes from atmosphere
in the form of nitrogen salts.

2. Organic Matter or Humus:

Besides inorganic minerals, some organic residues derived either from dead remains of plants and animals or
through metabolic activities of living organisms are present in the soil. When the plants and animals die,
their dead remains are acted upon by a number of microorganisms and are finally degraded or decomposed
into simple organic compounds. A product of this microbial decomposition is humus which is a dark
coloured, jelly-like amorphous substance composed of residual organic matters not readily decomposed by
soil microorganisms. The process of humus formation is called humification.
The chief elements found in humus are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur and nitrogen. The important
compounds found in it (humus) are carbohydrates, phosphoric acid, some organic acids, fats, resins, urea,
etc. Tree litter (very little decomposed dead matter) also contains some inorganic substances as lime, potash,
Mn, Mg, silica, Cu, Al, Ga, Na, K, etc. Humus is a dynamic product and is constantly changing because of
its oxidation, reduction and hydrolysis. Hence, it has no definite chemical composition. It has much carbon
content and less nitrogen.

Humus is not soluble in water. It is present in soil in the form of organic colloids. The amounts of humus in
different soils vary greatly. Humus percentage in the soil is affected by climatic and biological factors. It is
less in arid soils and very high in humid soils. In the top layer of the soil, humus quantity is greater than in
the deep layers.

In dark humid areas which are thickly covered with vegetation, the humus may be found in the following
three stages of degradation:

(i) The top floor is covered with dead organic parts showing low degree of decomposition. These poorly
decayed dead parts of plants form litter.

(ii) Below the litter may be found a layer of partially decomposed organic matter which is known as duff
layer.

(iii) When the duff is decomposed completely into organic substances, the decomposition products,
generally called leaf moulds, are accumulated below duff layer.

Sometimes under anaerobic conditions, the dead remains are not at all acted upon by the microorganisms.
Accumulation of such un-decomposed organic remains is termed as peat.

Humus plays many important roles in the soil, such as:

(a) It makes the soil fertile.

(b) It provides nutrients to the plants and microorganisms.

(c) On complete decomposition, it forms several organic acids which serve as solvents for soil materials.
Thus humus increases the availability of minerals in dissolved state to plants.

(d) Because it is porous, it has got high capacity for retaining water.

(e) Humus makes the soil porous, thus increases the aeration and percolation which make the soil more
suitable for the plant growth.

(f) It also acts as weak cement thus binds the sand particles.

(g) Presence of humus in the soil increases the rate of absorption in plants.

The factors which influence the rate of humification are outlined below:

(i) Nature of plants, animals or soil organisms.

(ii) Rate of decomposition.

(iii) Temperature (increase in temperature up to a certain limit increases the rate of humification).

(iv) Aeration and moisture. These increase the rate of humification.

3. Soil Atmosphere:

Gases found in soil profiles are said to form the soil atmosphere which is one of the most important
components of the soil. The spaces between soil particles and soil organisms are called pore spaces. These
are filled with moisture and air in varying quantities which account for approximately half of the total
volume of soil. In dry soils, percentage of moisture is lesser than that in wet soils.

The soil atmosphere contains three main gases, namely oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen In soil
atmosphere, oxygen is 20%, nitrogen is approximately 79 per cent and carbon dioxide IS 0.15 to 0.65 per
cent by volume. In the cultivated land, percentage of CO2 is much higher than that of atmospheric CO2, but
oxygen content in such soil is poorer than the percentage of oxygen in atmospheric air.

Oxygen of soil is absorbed by plant roots and soil micro organisms in respiration and CO2 is given out
which accumulates in spaces. The amount of CO2 increases with the increase in depth of the soil due to
decomposition of accumulated organic matter and abundance of plant roots. Heavy accumulation of CO 2 in
the soil is harmful for the plant growth Presence of oxygen in the soil is important in the sense that it helps
in the process of breakdown of resoluble rocky mass into soluble minerals and also in the humification (a
process in which insoluble minerals and organic nutrients locked up in the dead remains of plants and
animals are converted into soluble forms).

The accumulation of soluble nutrients in the soil makes it more productive. If the soil is deficient in oxygen,
the rates of microbial activities are slowed down and may be eliminated. Under such conditions, several
undesirable processes, such as evolution of nitrogen, methane, accumulation of sulphides, ferrous,
manganous ions and organic inhibitors and so many other processes may come into play which may be
injurious to plants.

The important factors which bring about changes in the soil atmosphere are temperature atmospheric
pressure, wind and rainfall. Temperature and atmospheric pressure cause expansion and contraction of the
soil air. Wind helps the soil in sucking the air in and rain water displaces the soil air. Any considerable
change in the soil atmosphere affects the size and function of micro-flora and other biological populations.

4. Soil Water:

Soil water plays very important role in the plant growth. Plants absorb a small quantity of ram water and
dew directly from their surfaces but most of water absorbed by them comes from the soil. Soil water
maintains the soil texture, arrangement and compactness of soil particles. It is good solvent for minerals and
it makes the concentration of nutrients low so that nutrients may be absorbed by plants easily.

Water affects the plant growth and other physiological activities In plant growth, water forms a major part of
the plant itself It is essential for the process of photosynthesis, it maintains the turgidity of the plants and
acts as a medium by which mineral salts essential for plant growth enter the plants from the soil. In brief,
water regulates the physical, chemical and biological activities in the soil.

Water in the soil comes mainly through infiltration of precipitated water (rain, sleet, snow and hail) and
irrigation whereas it is lost from the soil chiefly through evaporation, percolation stream flow and
transpiration. ‘ The quantity of water available in the soil varies from place to place. The amount also
depends upon the quality of soil. In loamy, silty and clay soils, the amount of water is greater than that in
coarse sandy soil.

Water is held in the soil in the following forms:

(i) Gravitation water,

(ii) Capillary water,

(iii) Hygroscopic water,

(iv) Water vapour, and

(v) Combined water.

(i) Gravitational water:

After complete water saturation of soils the excess water displaces air from the pore spaces between soil
particles and percolates downwardly under gravitation influence and finally it is accumulated in the pore
spaces. This excess water is called gravitational water. The amount of water held in the soil, when all pores
are filled and when drainage is restricted is maximum water holding capacity.

When the gravitational water percolates down and reaches to the level of parental rock it is called ground
water.

(ii) Capillary water:

The amount of water present around the soil particles at saturation stage, when gravitational water has
drained away through capillaries or channels, is called capillary capacity or field capacity and the water
which is held by surface tension and attraction force of water molecules as thin film around soil particles in
the capillary spaces is called capillary water. It moves in the direction where capillary tension is more.

(iii) Hygroscopic water:

Water which is adsorbed on the soil particles and held on the surface of soil particles by forces of attraction
and cohesion of its molecules is called hygroscopic water.

(iv) Water vapour:

This is the water present in the soil atmosphere in the vapour form.

(v) Combined water:

It is water of chemical compounds held by chemical forces of molecules (as for example, CuSO 4.5H2O). It
can be driven out from the compounds only at bright red heating.

Water requirement of plants varies from individual to individual. Some absorb large quantity, while some
others require very small quantities of water for their normal growth. A major fraction of total water
absorbed from the soil is transpired by the plants and only a small quantity of it enters the composition of
protoplast.

The availability of soil water to plants depends primarily on its diffusion pressure deficit, often termed the
soil moisture stress. The total of all the forces which the plants must overcome to take up water from soil is
called soil moisture stress. Water lost from the soil surface by evaporation and through absorption by plants
is replaced by rise of capillary water from root zone.

The continuous loss of water may finally result in a stage at which water content of the soil becomes so poor
as it (soil) cannot supply water to growing plants rapidly enough to maintain them turgid. Under such
conditions, permanent wilting occurs in the plants. At permanent wilting stage, the percentage of moisture in
the soil is termed as wilting coefficient or permanent wilting percentage (Fig. 21.3 C, G).

The difference between field capacity and wilting coefficient is termed as maximum available water and the
water content of the soil at any time over and above the wilting coefficient is referred to as available water
The amount of water to be added to a soil at the wilting point to reach the field capacity is called the
available water capacity.

It need not be emphasized here that the actual moisture content of a soil has little meaning in respect
to plant growth unless:

(i) The field capacity and

(ii) The permanent wilting percentage of the soil are also known.

Water contents above field capacity displace so much of the soil air that the plant roots usually suffer from
inadequate aeration and serve to be detrimental. Although plants usually continue to absorb water in the soil
drier than at permanent wilting stage, absorption is too slow to replace water losses and the resulting water
deficit causes cessation of growth and finally results in death from dehydration. The moisture at the field
capacity is held with a force of one-third atmosphere and that at permanent wilting stage is held with a force
of 1.5 atmosphere.

5. Biological System of the Soil or Soil Microorganisms:

Organisms present in the soils are called soil organisms. Important group of soil organisms are given below

Many of these soil organisms are stable, many are mobile, but some are held in the colloidal films of the soil
particles. Protozoa, mites and insects are example of moving organisms. They move in or on the surface of
soil in search of food. Earthworms by the burrowing habit make the soil loose and fertile. They are found in
abundance. In some forests their number may reach up to 10,000 per square foot. These soil organisms feed
on the organic matter of the soil.

The majority of soil fungi are found in acidic soils. Actinomycetes prefer saline soils and soil bacteria grow
fairly well in the neutral soils richly supplied with organic nutrients. These microorganisms are found in the
soil at variable depths. Algae are found in the top layer of soil under the conditions of constant shade and
moisture.

It is estimated that in soil micro flora bacteria form about 90 per cent of the total microbe population. Fungi
and algae together represent only one per cent and actinomycetes cover 9 per cent. Density of microbial
population is actually governed and influenced by climatic conditions, physical and chemical nature of soil
and vegetation cover. The greatest amount of microbe (10, 00 000 per cubic cm) is found in the top layer of
soil at a depth of 5 to 15 cm.

In deeper layer (1.5 to 5 m) individual microbes are found. However, they have been discovered at a depth
of 17.5inin coal, oil and artesian water. It has been calculated that in the ploughed layer of cultivated soil
over an area of one hectare there may be from 5 to 6 tons of microbial mass and one gram of ploughed soil
contains 1-10 thousand million bacteria

Role of Soil Organisms:

Soil organisms take part in a number of processes in the soils. Some of their important roles are as
follows:
(1) Decompose the dead organic matter and increase plant nutrients in available forms,

(2) Production of toxins,

(3) Production of growth stimulating substances,

(4) Nitrogen fixation in the soil,

(5) Mixing of soil,

(6) Improvement in soil aeration,

(7) Improvement in the aggregation of soil particles or soil binding, and

(8) Cause injury to the plants.

Origin of Soil:
The development of soil is initiated by the physical and chemical disintegration of rocks that is exposed to
the earth's surface that is under the action of the atmospheric elements and the action of water percolating
down the surface. The basic result of weathering is the weakening and breakdown of solid rock, the
fragmentation of coherent rock masses forming regolith. Normally regolith has a crude gradation of particle
sizes with the largest and least fragmented pieces at the bottom. Usually above the regolith lies the soil. Soil
normally consists of an abundance of living· plant roots, a variety of death and rotting plant parts in varying
stages of decomposition, an unbelievable quantity of microscopic plants and animals both living and dead,
and variable amount of air and water.
Thus soils are formed from hard (soil) rock masses, loose unconsolidated transported materials and organic
residue. The weathering of rock masses forms the earth's loose materials such as stones, gravels, sands, silts,
clay and soluble ions. The term soil is derived from the Latin word "solum". According to soil scientists, soil
means that part of the earth's crust that have been changed as a result of soil forming processes.
As such, soils can be defined in a number of ways depending on the type of study it relates with. However,
the two most common and simple definitions of soil are as follows:
(i) It is derived as the consolidated mineral material as the immediate surface of the earth that
serves as a natural medium for the growth of plants.
(ii) It is a body subjected to a natural and historical development, which came into being on the
surface of the earth as a result of a complex combination of the interaction of rocks, the
organic macro and micro organisms, flora and fauna, climate, local relief and the production
activities of man.

Soil-Forming Processes:

The fundamental soil-forming processes involved in the development of soil profile are described
below:

(i) Gleization:

This process takes place in wet and cold Tundra regions where saline conditions do not exist. In this process
there develops a compact structure less and sticky surface layer.

This layer is blue-green in colour, poorly aerated and has reduced content of iron compounds. It favours
surface accumulation of peat materials and undergoes a series of chemical, physical and biological changes
which produce a characteristic soil.
(ii) Podzolisation:

In temperate zones where climate is cold and moist, the rate of decomposition is slow and in the
decomposition process acids are produced which make the soil acidic. The acidic unproductive soil is called
podzol and the process is called podzolisation. In the process of podzolisation humus and some minerals
including dissolved Si, Fe and Al salts from A horizon move downwardly with percolating water and
accumulate in the lower horizons. This process is more effective in sandy base-poor parent materials under
intense leaching and thick vegetational cover.

(iii) Laterisation:

In tropical and subtropical regions, when rainfall occurs the organic matter and minerals are leached away
and hydroxides of aluminium and iron are precipitated in the form of residue which is called laterite. This
process is termed as laterisation. In this process, silica is completely removed. Laterites usually do not show
well differentiated horizons. Podzol and laterites are collectively described as pedalfer group’ (iron
accumulating group).

(iv) Calcification:

In subhumid and dry regions, due to lack of excessive moisture the soil accumulates considerable amount of
soluble materials, and carbonates of calcium and magnesium are deposited in B horizon. The soil having
such features is called pedocal (calcium accumulating soil). Pedocals are not acidic and calcium content in
them is very high. This process is common in grasslands.

Hydromorphic profile development:

Such soil-forming processes result in swamp, bog, marsh and peat soils and occur under conditions when
percolation is restricted and certain horizons become saturated with water. These two conditions result in the
development of anaerobic conditions, as well as beginning of more chemical reduction processes.

Soil Forming Factors:

Soil formation can be said to take place when horizons develop with the soil profile. Soil horizons over a
period of time acquire certain characteristics of colour, texture, pH, etc. Each environment has its own
combination of soil-forming factors such as climate, parent material, topography (terrain), organisms and
time. These soil-forming factors control the conditions under which the soil-forming processes operate and
thus determine the state of any soil and soil response in any given location.
(i) Geologic Factor: Almost all soils are largely composed of weathered fragments of rocks
where the source is the parent material composed of solid bedrock or of loose sediments.
Various agents resulting into disintegration and decomposition of the parent rock material
provides the foundation for soil formation. However, the nature of the parent material often
has a prominent influence on the characteristics of the soil that develop from it.
(ii) Climatic Factor: Rainfall, temperature, radiation, humidity winds are among the climatic
factors which affect soil formation. Climate is one of the dominant factors in soil formation
where temperature and moisture has the greatest significance. Usually both chemical and
biological processes in the soil are accelerated by high temperature and abundant moisture
and are slowed down by low temperature and lack of moisture.
(iii) Topographic Factor: Primarily the aspects of slope and drainage manifest topography as a
factor in soil formation. It is found that where the land is flat, soil tends to develop at the
bottom more rapidly. Thus, the deepest soils are usually on flat land. Areas where slopes are
relatively steep, surface erosion progresses more rapidly than soil deepening resulting that
such soils are normally thin and immaturely developed. Usually most soils are well drained,
so moisture relationships are relatively unremarkable in their development. However, most
poor drained soils are in valley bottoms or in some other flat locale as soil and drainage are
usually related to the slope of the land.
 (iv) Biological Factor: Vegetation of all kind grows in the soil and performs certain vital
functions. Plants root provides passage for drainage and aeration, as it is a vital link between
soil nutrients and growing plants. Detached plants parts such as leaves, twigs, flowers, stems
etc and the entire dead plants are frequently added to the soil as they accumulate and decay.
Animals also largely contribute to soil development especially through the dropping of
excreta. Some animals like the elephants, bisons and other large animals affect soil formation
by compaction of their hooves, rolling on the ground and through grazing. Smaller animals
such as ants, worms, etc spend their lives in the soil layer, tunnelling here and there, moving
soil particles upward and downward thus creating passage for water and air to penetrate.
Microbes on the other hand help to release nutrients from dead organisms by decomposing
organic matter into humus. Algae, fungi, protozoan and other minuscule organisms all play a
role in soil development but bacteria probably make the greatest contribution as bacteria is
responsible for the decomposition and decay of dead plants and animals along with the
release of nutrients into the soil.

Soil Profile:

Weathering of parental rocks results in the development of several loose layers or horizons of weathered
materials. Biological system, addition of organic matter (humus) and interaction between organic and
mineral compounds make the horizons more distinct. The complete succession of horizons down to the level
of undifferentiated parent materials is called soil profile. In other words, it is vertical section of earth crust
showing different layers or horizons of soil.

The soil profile may be divided into the following three zones or horizons (Fig. 22.3):

(1) A horizon (Top soil or the zone of extraction),

(2) B horizon (Subsoil or subsurface zone), and

(3) C horizon (Regolith).

Some workers have recognized D horizon below C horizon:

1. A horizon:

It is the top soil which consists of mineral matter and organic residues. The soluble chemicals are leached
away by water. Upper zone or A horizon is very loose and it supports vegetation. Because it is full of
organic elements and minerals, the top soil is very fertile. The thickness of A horizon varies from one to ten
feet. A horizon is differentiated into several sub layers which are Aoo, Ao, A 1, A2, A3. These can be
distinguished by their distinct colours and textures.

2. B horizon:

A zone of soil present below the top soil or A horizon is called B horizon. It is also known as subsoil. In this
zone, the weathered substances or minerals are deposited and organic residues are present in very small
quantities. This horizon is lighter in colour than A horizon. B horizon can also be differentiated into several
subzones, as B1, B2, B3 and so on, on the basis of colour and texture. Upper subzone of B horizon, which is
just below the top soil (A horizon), is looser than lower subzones.

3. C horizon (regolith):

Below B horizon and above the surface of weathered rock, there is a third horizon, the C horizon or zone of
regolith. It is formed of freshly weathered parental materials.

4. D horizon:
It is also called R. horizon (rock in active weathering state). Below the C horizon, there may be found rock
in active weathering state. This is recognized as a fourth zone or D horizon by some workers.
Water:

Water covers about 73 per cent of the earth’s surface entirely, and it is a major constituent of the lithosphere
and the atmosphere.

Water is also the most abundant component of the protoplasm, and therefore it is the major requirement of
all living organisms.

In metabolism, water is the only source of hydrogen and one of the several sources of oxygen. The major
pools of water occur in the oceans – 97.3% of the total for the biosphere (Bener and Bemer, 1987), the ice of
the polar ice – caps and glaciers (2.06%), groundwater (0.67%) and in rivers and lakes (0.01%).

Three states of water:

Water can exist in three states—as a solid (ice), as a liquid (water), or as an invisible gas (water vapor), as
shown in Figure 4.2. If we want to change the state of water from solid to liquid, liquid to gas, or solid to
gas, we must put in heat energy. This energy, which is drawn in from the surroundings and stored within the
water molecules, is called latent heat. When the change goes the other way, from liquid to solid, gas to
liquid, or gas to solid, this latent heat is released to the surroundings. Sublimation is the direct transition
from solid to vapor. Perhaps you have noticed that old ice cubes left in the freezer shrink away from the
sides of the ice cube tray and get smaller.

They shrink through sublimation—never melting, but losing mass directly as vapor. In this book, we use the
term deposition to describe the reverse process, when water vapor crystallizes directly as ice. Frost forming
on a cold winter night is a common example of deposition.
The Hydrosphere

The realm of water in all its forms, and the flows of water among ocean, land, and atmosphere, are known as
the hydrosphere, shown in Figure 4.3. About 97.2 percent of the hydrosphere consists of ocean salt water.
The remaining 2.8 percent is fresh water. The next largest reservoir is fresh water stored as ice in the
world's ice sheets and mountain glaciers, which accounts for 2.15 percent of total global water.

Fresh liquid water is found above and below the Earth's land surfaces. Subsurface water lurks in openings in
soil and rock. Most of it is held in deep storage as ground water, where plant roots cannot reach.
Ground water makes up 0.63 percent of the hydrosphere. The small remaining proportion of the Earth's
water includes the water available for plants, animals, and human use. Plant roots can access soil water.
Surface water is held in streams, lakes, marshes, and swamps.

Most of this surface water is about evenly divided between freshwater lakes and saline (salty) lakes.
An extremely small proportion makes up the streams and rivers that flow toward the sea or inland
lakes. Only a very small quantity of water is held as vapor and cloud water droplets in the atmosphere—
just 0.001 percent of the hydrosphere. However, this small reservoir of water is enormously important.
Through precipitation, it supplies water and ice to replenish all freshwater stocks on land. In addition, this
water, and its conversion from one form to another in the atmosphere, is an essential part of weather events
across the globe. Finally, the flow of water vapor from warm tropical oceans to cooler regions provides a
global flow of heat from low to high latitudes.

Hydrological Cycle:

Water or Hydrological cycle is defined as the movement of water from ocean, by evaporation, to atmosphere
and by precipitation to land and back via river flow, to ocean (Begon et al, 1996). It is a balanced continuous
process of evaporation, transpiration, precipitation, surface runoff and ground water movements. Each year
about 507 Tm3 (one tetra cubic metre = one million cubic metres) are evaporated and the same quantity of
water is precipitated over the whole surface of the earth, including the land and oceans.

The amount of water, which flows from the land to the sea in rivers and streams is about 44.5 Tm3 per year
and is available for the needs of man. Solar energy evaporates water from the soil, ground surface,
vegetation, water surfaces and oceans into the atmosphere (Fig. 6.8).
Subsequent cooling and condensation of water vapour at higher altitudes produces clouds; and precipitation
as rain, hail or snow returns the water to the hydrosphere. Natural evaporation from the seas exceeds
precipitation by rain into the oceans by about 9%. The latter is eventually moved as water vapour over to the
land surface, and so balances the hydrological cycle and provides additional water for man’s needs. Thus
water as rain, hail or snow is precipitated over land and water surfaces (Fig. 6.8).

Water on land surfaces eventually percolates into the soil as soil or ground water. Within the ground there is
always a natural water table or water level. The soil below the water table level is saturated, and water is
sustained by the underlying clay and rock strata. However, ground water does not remain static but moves in
various directions. It can move up above the water table by capillary, thus providing a continuous supply of
water to the surface layers of soil, where it is absorbed by plant roots during the dry season.

Some ground water moves by filtering through the interstices of the soil or substratum in any direction.
Water also emerges from the ground at lower altitude levels, and flows into streams, rivers and lakes, and
helps to provide man’s water supplies.

In some regions of the earth water percolates through the porous rocks and forms underground reservoirs.
These underground water bearing layers of porous rock, situated above impermeable rock strata, are called
aquifers. They are important source of water, which can be extracted by sinking wells or boreholes and
pumping it to the surface.

All the water precipitated on land does not percolate into the soil. Surface water or run-off flows into
streams, rivers, lakes and catchment storage areas or reservoirs. Some of the ground water that is absorbed
by plants passes out the leaf surfaces as water vapour by transpiration. This is an important process helping
in conduction of water and dissolved minerals throughout the plant. Thus, through the natural process of
hydrological cycle, water is exchanged between die atmosphere (troposphere), land, sea, all living plants and
animals, and industrial plants.

Water is an indispensable part of land and soil productivity. The misuse of water leads to soil degradation
and erosion. Proper management of water is highly necessary for better production. Water is also
indispensable for human beings.

Thus, it goes without saying that water is the most important substance necessary for life. All the
physiological processes take place in the medium of water. Protoplasm, the very basis of life, is made up
mostly of water. Plants and animals show considerable variation in their requirements of water.
On the basis of nature of soil, the water requirement of different plants and animals are as follows:

(a) Hydrophytes:

Plants living in water require large quantities of water.

(b) Xerophytes:

Terrestrial plants which cannot tolerate extremely dry conditions and pass through long periods without-
water.

(c) Mesophytes:

Terrestrial plants require moderate quantity of water.

Similarly, animals also belong to three important ecological groups depending on the requirement of
water:

(a) Hydrocoles:

Aquatic animals which live in water and require large quantity of water.

(b) Xerocoles:

Terrestrial animals which can tolerate extremely dry conditions and pass long periods without water.

(c) Mesocoles:

Terrestrial animals requiring moderate quantity of water.

Precipitation:

Precipitation is the fall of liquid or solid water from the atmosphere that reaches the Earth's land or ocean
surface. It forms when moist air is cooled, causing water vapor to form liquid droplets or solid ice particles.
If cooling is sufficient, liquid and solid water particles will grow to a size too large to be held aloft by the
motion of the atmosphere. They can then fall to the Earth.

 Precipitation in the form of drops of water is called rainfall, when the drop size is more than 5 mm.
 It is called virage when raindrops evaporate before reaching the earth while passing through dry air.
 Drizzle is light rainfall with drop size being less than 0.5 mm, and when evaporation occurs before
reaching the ground, it is referred to as
 When the temperature is lower than the 0° C, precipitation takes place in the form of fine flakes of
snow and is called snowfall. Moisture is released in the form of hexagonal crystals. These crystals
form flakes of snow. Besides rain and snow, other forms of precipitation are sleet and hail (more
about hail while studying thunderstorms), though the latter are limited in occurrence and are sporadic
in both time and space.
 Sleet is frozen raindrops and refrozen melted snow-water. When a layer of air with the temperature
above freezing point overlies a subfreezing layer near the ground, precipitation takes place in the
form of sleet.
 Raindrops, which leave the warmer air, encounter the colder air below. As a result, they solidify and
reach the ground as small pellets of ice not bigger than the raindrops from which they are formed.
Sometimes, drops of rain after being released by the clouds become solidified into small rounded
solid pieces of ice and which reach the surface of the earth are called hailstones. These are formed
by the rainwater passing through the colder layers. Hailstones have several concentric layers of ice
one over the other.
Types of Rainfall or Precipitation

 On the basis of origin, rainfall may be classified into three main types – the convectional,
orographic or relief and the cyclonic or frontal.

Conventional Rainfall

 The, air on being heated, becomes light and rises up in convection currents. As it rises, it expands
and loses heat and consequently, condensation takes place and cumulous clouds are formed. This
process releases latent heat of condensation which further heats the air and forces the air to go
further up.
 Convectional precipitation is heavy but of short duration, highly localised and is associated with
minimum amount of cloudiness. It occurs mainly during summer and is common over equatorial
doldrums in the Congo basin, the Amazon basin and the islands of south-east Asia.

 Adiabatic Lapse Rate – Latent Heat of Condensation

Orographic Rainfall

 When the saturated air mass comes across a mountain, it is forced to ascend and as it rises, it expands
(because of fall in pressure); the temperature falls, and the moisture is condensed.
 This type of precipitation occurs when warm, humid air strikes an orographic barrier (a mountain
range) head on. Because of the initial momentum, the air is forced to rise. As the moisture laden air
gains height, condensation sets in, and soon saturation is reached. The surplus moisture falls down as
orographic precipitation along the windward slopes.
 The chief characteristic of this sort of rain is that the windward slopes receive greater rainfall. After
giving rain on the windward side, when these winds reach the other slope, they descend, and their
temperature rises. Then their capacity to take in moisture increases and hence, these leeward slopes
remain rainless and dry. The area situated on the leeward side, which gets less rainfall is known as
the rain-shadow area (Some arid and semi-arid regions are a direct consequence of rain-shadow
effect. Example: Patagonian desert in Argentina, Eastern slopes of Western Ghats). It is also
known as the relief rain.
 Example: Mahabaleshwar, situated on the Western Ghats, receives more than 600 cm of rainfall,
whereas Pune, lying in the rain shadow area, has only about 70 cm.

The Wind Descending on the Leeward Side is heated adiabatically and is called Katabatic Wind.

Frontal Precipitation

 When two air masses with different temperatures meet, turbulent conditions are produced. Along the
front convection occurs and causes precipitation (we studied this in Fronts). For instance, in north-
west Europe, cold continental air and warm oceanic air converge to produce heavy rainfall in
adjacent areas.

Cyclonic Rain

 Cyclonic Rainfall is convectional rainfall on a large scale. (we will see this in detail later)
 The precipitation in a tropical cyclone is of convectional type while that in a temperate cyclone is
because of frontal activity.

Monsoonal Rainfall

 This type of precipitation is characterized by seasonal reversal of winds which carry oceanic
moisture (especially the south-west monsoon) with them and cause extensive rainfall in south and
southeast Asia. (More while studying Indian Monsoons).
Water table:

The water table is the upper surface of the zone of saturation. The zone of saturation is where the pores and
fractures of the ground are saturated with water.

The water table is the surface where the water pressure head is equal to the atmospheric pressure (where
gauge pressure = 0). It may be visualized as the "surface" of the subsurface materials that are saturated with
groundwater in a given vicinity.

The groundwater may be from precipitation or from groundwater flowing into the aquifer. In areas with
sufficient precipitation, water infiltrates through pore spaces in the soil, passing through the unsaturated
zone. At increasing depths, water fills in more of the pore spaces in the soils, until a zone of saturation is
reached. Below the water table, in the phreatic zone (zone of saturation), layers of permeable rock that yield
groundwater are called aquifers. In less permeable soils, such as tight bedrock formations and historic
lakebed deposits, the water table may be more difficult to define.

The water table should not be confused with the water level in a deeper well. If a deeper aquifer has a lower
permeable unit that confines the upward flow, then the water level in this aquifer may rise to a level that is
greater or less than the elevation of the actual water table. The elevation of the water in this deeper well is
dependent upon the pressure in the deeper aquifer and is referred to as the potentiometric surface, not the
water table.

Form: The water table may vary due to seasonal changes such as precipitation and evapotranspiration. In
undeveloped regions with permeable soils that receive sufficient amounts of precipitation, the water table
typically slopes toward rivers that act to drain the groundwater away and release the pressure in the aquifer.
Springs, rivers, lakes and oases occur when the water table reaches the surface. Groundwater entering rivers
and lakes accounts for the base-flow water levels in water bodies.

Surface topography: Within an aquifer, the water table is rarely horizontal, but reflects the surface relief
due to the capillary effect (capillary fringe) in soils, sediments and other porous media. In the aquifer,
groundwater flows from points of higher pressure to points of lower pressure, and the direction of
groundwater flow typically has both a horizontal and a vertical component. The slope of the water table is
known as the hydraulic gradient, which depends on the rate at which water is added to and removed from the
aquifer and the permeability of the material. The water table does not always mimic the topography due to
variations in the underlying geological structure (e.g., folded, faulted, fractured bedrock).

Perched water tables

A perched water table (or perched aquifer) is an aquifer that occurs above the regional water table, in the
vadose zone. This occurs when there is an impermeable layer of rock or sediment (aquiclude) or relatively
impermeable layer (aquitard) above the main water table/aquifer but below the land surface. If a perched
aquifer's flow intersects the surface, at a valley wall, for example, the water is discharged as a spring.

Fluctuations
Seasonal fluctuations in the water table-during the dry season, river beds may dry up.

Tidal fluctuations

On low-lying oceanic islands with porous soil, freshwater tends to collect in lenticular pools on top of the
denser seawater intruding from the sides of the islands. Such an island's freshwater lens, and thus the water
table, rises and falls with the tides.
Seasonal fluctuations

In some regions, for example, Great Britain or California, winter precipitation is often higher than summer
precipitation and so the groundwater storage is not fully recharged in summer. Consequently, the water table
is lower during the summer. This disparity between the level of the winter and summer water table is known
as the "zone of intermittent saturation", wherein the water table will fluctuate in response to climatic
conditions.

Long-term fluctuations
Fossil water is groundwater that has remained in an aquifer for several millennia and occurs mainly in
deserts. It is non-renewable by present-day rainfall due to its depth below the surface, and any extraction
causes a permanent change in the water table in such regions.
 Unit-III
Biotic Interactions:

In the great web of life, which exists in nature, living organisms not only live in an environment, but are also
themselves a part of the dynamic environment for other organisms.

The relationship between one species and another within a community has evolved through their
interactions, based on the requirement and the mode of nutrition and shelter and also on the habits of
species. The relationships between members of different populations are termed interspecific relations.

The interactions between populations of species in a community are broadly divided into two
categories:

(i) Positive (beneficial) and

(ii) Negative (inhibition) interactions.

This depends upon the nature of effect on the interacting organisms of different species.

The five main forms of interaction between populationare: 1. Predation 2. Competition 3. Parasitism
4. Commensalism 5. Mutualism.

1. Predation:

It is an interspecific interaction, where an animal called predator kills and consumes the other weaker animal
called prey. This is a biological control method.

It is the nature’s way of transferring energy to the higher trophic levels, which is fixed by plants. For
example, tiger and the deer.

Important roles of predators are as follows:

(i) They keep prey population under control.

(ii) They help in maintaining species diversity in a community by reducing the intensity of competition
among prey species.

(iii) In absence of predators, prey species could achieve very high population densities and cause instability.
So, besides acting as ‘conduits’ for energy transfer across trophic levels, predators play very important role
to provide population stability.

(iv) When certain exotic species are introduced into a geographical area, they become invasive and start
spreading fast because the invaded land does not have natural predators.
(v) If a predator is too efficient and exploits its prey, then the prey might become extinct. Following it, the
predator will also become extinct because of the lack of food.

(vi) Prey species have evolved various defence mechanisms to lessen the impact of predation.

These are as follows:

(a) Some species of insects and frogs are cryptically coloured (camouflage) to avoid being detected easily by
the predator. Some are poisonous and therefore, avoided by the predators.

(b) Monarch butterfly is highly distasteful to its predators (birds) because of a special chemical present in its
body. The butterfly acquires this chemical during its caterpillar stage by feeding on a poisonous weed.

(c) Some plants have thorns or spines for defence from herbivores as predators. Nearly 25% of all insects are
known to be phytophagous (feeding on plant sap and other parts of plants).

(d) Thorns of Acacia and cactus are the most common morphological means of defence.

(e) Some plants produce highly poisonous chemicals like cardiac glycosides, nicotine, caffeine, quinine,
strychnine, opium, etc. These are actually defence mechanisms against grazers and browsers.

2. Competition:

Competition occurs when closely related species compete for the same resources that are limited:

a. It can be best defined as a process in which the fitness of one species (measured in terms of its ‘r’ the
intrinsic rate of increase) is significantly lower in the presence of another species.

b. It is a type of interaction, where both the species suffer.

c. Competition occurs when closely related species compete for the same resources that are limited.

d. Some totally unrelated species could also compete for the same resources. For example, in some shallow
South American lakes, visiting flamingoes and resident fishes compete for their common food, i.e.,
zooplanktons.

e. In interspecific competition, the feeding efficiency of one species might be reduced due to the interfering
and inhibitory presence of the other species, although the resources are plenty.

f. For example, when goats were introduced in Galapagos Islands, the Abingdon to noise became extinct
within a decade due to greater browsing efficiency of the goats.

g. Competitive release is a phenomenon, in which a species whose distribution is restricted to a small

geographical area is found to expand its distributional range dramatically, when the competing species is
experimentally removed.

h. Connel’s elegant field experiments showed that on the rocky sea coasts of Scotland, the larger and
competitively superior barnacle Baranus dominates the intertidal area and excludes the smaller barnacle
Chathamalus from that zone.

Gause ‘s competitive exclusion principle states that the two closely related species competing for the same
resources cannot co-exist indefinitely and the competitively inferior one will be eliminated eventually.

i. Resource partitioning states that if two species compete for the same resource, they could avoid
competition by choosing. For instance, different times of feeding or different foraging patterns. In this
relation, McArthur showed that five closely related species of warblers living on the same tree were able to
avoid competition and co-exist due to behavioural differences in their foraging activities.

3. Parasitism:

It is the mode of interaction between the two species in which one species (parasite) depends on the other
species (host) for food and shelter and damages the host.

In this process, one organism is benefitted (parasite), while the other being harmed (host).

(i) Adaptation Methods of a Parasite:

(a) Parasite is host-specific in a way that both host and parasite tend to co-evolve.

(b) Loss of unnecessary sense organs.

(c) Presence of adhesive organs or suckers.

(d) Loss of digestive system.

(e) High reproductive capacity.

(ii) The life cycles of parasites are often complex, involving one or two intermediate hosts or vectors to
facilitate parasitisation of its primary host.

For example,

(a) Human liver fluke (a trematode parasite) depends on two intermediate hosts (a snail and a fish) to
complete its life cycle.

(b) Malarial parasite {Plasmodium) needs a vector (mosquito) to spread disease to other hosts.

(iii) Majority of parasites harm the host. They reduce the survival, growth and reproduction of the host. They
reduce its population density by making it physically weak.

Types of Parasites:

Parasites are broadly divided as:

(a) Ectoparasites feed on the external surface of the host organism for food and shelter. Examples are lice on
humans, ticks on dogs, copepods in marine fishes and Cuscuta, a parasitic plant that grow on hedge plants.

(b) Endoparasites live inside the host’s body at different sites like liver, kidney, lungs, etc., for food and
shelter. Examples are tapeworm, liver fluke, Plasmodium, etc. The life cycles of endoparasites are more
complex because of their extreme specialisation.

(c) Brood parasitism is a phenomenon in which one organism (parasite) lays its eggs in the nest of another
organism. For example, eggs of cuckoo (koel) and the crow resemble in size and colour, to reduce the
chances of the crow (host) detecting the foreign eggs (cuckoo’s) and ejecting them out from the nest.

4. Commensalism:

It is the interaction between two species, where one species is benefitted and the other is neither harmed nor
benefitted.
Some examples of commensalism are:

a. An Orchid growing as an epiphyte on a mango tree gets shelter and nutrition from mango tree, while the
mango tree is neither benefitted nor harmed.

b. Barnacles growing on the back of whale gets benefitted to move to different locations for food as well as
shelter, while the whales are neither benefitted nor harmed.

c. Egrets always forage close to where the cattle are grazing. Because, the cattle egrets are benefitted by the
cattle to detect insects as the cattle stir up the bushes and insects are flushed out from the vegetation to be
catched by cattle egrets.

d. Sea anemone has stinging tentacles and the clown fish lives among them. The fish gets protection from
predators, which stay away from the stinging tentacles. The anemone does not appear to derive any benefit
by hosting the clown fish.

5. Mutualism:

It is an interaction that confers benefits to both the interacting species.

Some examples of mutualism are:

a. Lichens represent an intimate mutualistic relationship between a fungus and photosynthesizing algae or
cyanobacteria. Here, the fungus helps in the absorption of nutrients and provides protection, while algae
prepare the food.

b. Mycorrhizae are close mutual association between fungi and the roots of higher plants. Fungi help the
plant for absorption of nutrients, while the plant provides food for the fungus.

c. Plants need help from animals for pollination and dispersal of seeds. In return, plants provide nectar,
pollens and fruits to the pollinators.

For example, the female wasp uses the fruit not only as an oviposition (egg-laying) site but uses the
developing seeds within the fruit for nourishing its larvae. The wasp pollinates the fig inflorescence, while
searching for suitable egg-laying sites. In return, fig provides the wasp some seeds as food for the
developing wasp larvae.

d. Mediterranean Orchid, Ophrys employs ‘sexual deceit’ to get pollinated by a species of bee. One petal of
its flower bears an uncanny resemblance to the female of the bee in size, colour and markings.

e. The male bee is attracted to what it perceives as a female and ‘pseudo-copulates’ with the flower. During
that process, pollen is dusted from the flower. When the same bee pseudo-copulates with another flower, it
transfers pollen to it and pollinates another flower.
Source of energy

Main source of energy is sun. Approximately 57% of sun energy is absorbed in the atmosphere and scattered
in the space. Some 35% is spent to heat water and land areas and to evaporate water. Of the approximately
8% of light energy striking plant surface, 10% to 15% is reflected, 5% is transmitted and 80 to 85% is
absorbed; and an average of only 2% (0.5 to 3.5%) of the total light energy striking on a leaf is used in
photosynthesis and rest is transformed into heat energy.

Energy flow in Ecosystems:

Living organisms can use energy in two forms radiant and fixed energy. Radiant energy is in the form of
electromagnetic waves, such as light. Fixed energy is potential chemical energy bound in various organic
substances which can be broken down in order to release their energy content.

Organisms that can fix radiant energy utilizing inorganic substances to produce organic molecules are called
autotrophs. Organisms that cannot obtain energy from abiotic source but depend on energy-rich organic
molecules synthesized by autotrophs are called heterotrophs. Those which obtain energy from living
organisms are called consumers and those which obtain energy from dead organisms are called decomposers
(Fig. 3.7).

When the light energy falls on the green surfaces of plants, a part of it is transformed into chemical energy
which is stored in various organic products in the plants. When the herbivores consume plants as food and
convert chemical energy accumulated in plant products into kinetic energy, degradation of energy will occur
through its conversion into heat. When herbivores are consumed by carnivores of the first order (secondary
consumers) further degradation will occur. Similarly, when primary carnivores are consumed by top
carnivores, again energy will be degraded.
Autotrophy and Heterotrophy

Autotrophy is generally defined as a mode of nutrition whereby solar radiation serves as the source of
energy for generating ATP, and inorganic carbon (e.g., CO2 or HCO3−) is assimilated by the organism to
produce organic carbon.

Autotrophs are organisms that can produce their own food from the substances available in their
surroundings using light (photosynthesis) or chemical energy (chemosynthesis). Heterotrophs cannot
synthesize their own food and rely on other organisms — both plants and animals — for nutrition.
Technically, the definition is that autotrophs obtain carbon from inorganic sources like carbon dioxide
(CO2) while heterotrophs get their reduced carbon from other organisms. Autotrophs are usually plants; they
are also called "self feeders" or "primary producers".

Autotrophs produce their own energy by one of the following two methods:

 Photosynthesis - Photoautotrophs use energy from sun to convert water from the soil and carbon
dioxide from the air into glucose. Glucose provides energy to plants and is used to make cellulose
which is used to build cell walls. E.g. Plants, algae, phytoplankton and some bacteria. Carnivorous
plants like pitcher plant use photosynthesis for energy production but depend on other organisms for
other nutrients like nitrogen, potassium and phosphorous. Hence, these plants are basically
autotrophs.

 Chemosynthesis - Chemoautotrophs use energy from chemical reactions to make food. The chemical
reactions are usually between hydrogen sulfide/methane with oxygen. Carbon dioxide is the main
source of carbon for Chemoautotrophs. E.g. Bacteria found inside active volcano, hydrothermal
vents in sea floor, hot water springs.

Heterotrophs survive by feeding on organic matter produced by or available in other organisms. There are
two types of heterotrophs:

 Photoheterotroph – These heterotrophs use light for energy but cannot use carbon dioxide as their
carbon source. They get their carbon from compounds such as carbohydrates, fatty acids and alcohol.
E.g. purple non-sulfur bacteria, green-non sulfur bacteria and heliobacteria.

 Chemoheterotroph – Heterotrophs that get their energy by oxidation of preformed organic

compounds, i.e. by eating other organisms either dead or alive. E.g. animals, fungi, bacteria and
almost all pathogens.

Type of organism Energy source Carbon source

Photoautotroph Light Carbon dioxide

Chemoautotroph Chemicals Carbon dioxide

Photoheterotroph Light Carbon from other organisms

Chemoheterotroph Other organisms Other organisms

Biomass

Biomass is the total weight of living organisms, including plants and animals, for a given area usually
expressed as kg/ha, lbs/acre, g/m2, etc. For most ecological investigations and for the purposes of this
course, "biomass" is a vegetation attribute that refers to the weight of plant material within a given area.
Another commonly used term for biomass is "production" which refers to how much vegetation is
produced on an area.

The biomass on a site can be estimated by species (i.e., weight of each individual plant species) or biomass
can be estimated in groups such as growth form (grass, forb, shrubs, or trees), plant longevity (annual or
perennial), or degree of woodiness (herbaceous or woody).

Difference between biomass and standing crops are given below:

Biomass:
1. The total weight or amount of living matter or organisms in an ecosystem is biomass.
2. Biomass is species dependent. It is the count of total living matter.
3. Biomass is a small scale representation of the living matter content.

Standing crop:
1. The total biomass present at a given place at a given time is standing crop. It is the total biomass of an
ecosystem.
2. Standing crop can be species specific. It also determines the total living matter of a particular species.
3. Standing crop is a large scale representation that encompasses biomass.
Variations:

Variations mean the differences (morphological, physiological, cytological and behaviouristic) amongst the
individuals of the same species and the offspring of the same parents.

They are found in all the characters and in every conceivable direction. Therefore, no two individuals are
similar.

Types of Variations:

Variations are classified variously according to:

(i) Affected Trait:

Morphological, physiological, cytological and behaviouristic.

(ii) Impact:

Useful, harmful and neutral or indifferent

(iii) Parts:

Meristic (number of parts and their geometrical relations) and substantive (appearance),

(iv) Degree:

Continuous and discontinuous,

(v) Cells Affected:

Somatic and germinal,

(vi) Phenotypic (observable) and genotypic (constitutional).

I. Somatic or Somatogenic Variations:

The variations affect the somatic or body cells of the organisms. They are also called modifications or
acquired-characters because they are acquired by an individual during its life time. Lamarck (1801, 1809)
based his theory of evolution on the inheritance of acquired characters. However, as proved by Weismann
(1892), somatic variations die with the death of the individual and are hence non-inheritable. They are
caused by three factors—environment, use and disuse of organs and conscious efforts.

(a) Environmental Factors:

The environmental factors are medium, light, temperature, nutrition, wind, water supply, etc. The
environmental factors bring about only slight modifications in animals but in plants the modifications are
much more conspicuous. This is due to the environmental effect on the meristems of various parts. A slight
change in the meristematic activity can have permanent effect on the plant. Environment can also change the
amount of flowering and bring about non- inheritable changes in the floral parts.

Some of the more important environmental factors are:

1. Medium:
It is common knowledge that some amphibious plants show heterophilly with dissected leaves inside water
and entire leaves outside, e.g., Ranunculus aquatilis. Stockard placed eggs of fish Fundulus in sea water
containing magnesium chloride. The young ones reared in such medium possessed one median eye instead
of the two usual lateral eyes. Hydrangea bears blue flowers in acidic soil arid pinkish flowers in alkaline
soil.

2. Light:

In the absence of light the plants remain etiolated. Shade produces elongated internodes and thinner and
broader leaves. It increases the succulence of many vegetables. Strong light, on the contrary, helps in the
production of more mechanical tissue and smaller and thicker leaves. Palisade parenchyma becomes
multilayered under strong light but remains single layered under moderate intensities of light (e.g.. Peach).

The effect of light has also been observed by Cunningham in flat fish Solea. The fish habitually rests on left
side. It develops pigmentation and eyes on right side, the side exposed to sun. If left side is exposed to
sunlight in the young fish, both eyes and pigmentation develop on that side.

3. Temperature:

Temperature directly affects the metabolic activity of the organisms and rate of transpiration in plants. Plants
growing in hot area show stunted growth of the aerial parts and greater growth of the root system. Strong
sunlight and high temperature bring about sun-tanning of human skin by production of more melanin for
protection against excessive insulation and ultraviolet radiations.

4. Nutrition:

The individual provided with optimum nutrition grows best while the under nourished shows stunted
growth. The abundance or deficiency of a mineral salt produces various types of deformities in plants. A
larva of honey bee fed on royal jelly grows into queen while the one fed on the bee bread develops into
worker.

5. Water:

Plants growing in soils deficient in water or in areas with little rainfall show modifications in order to reduce
transpiration and retain water, e.g., succulence, spines, reduced leaves, thick coating, sunken stomata, etc.
Those growing in humid and moist area show luxuriant growth.

(b) Use and Disuse of Organs:

This is mostly observed in higher animals. The organ which is put to continuous use develops more while
the organ less used develops little. A wrestler or a player who performs daily exercise develops a stronger
and more muscular body than another man who does not do any exercise. A lion, tiger or bear kept in a zoo
is weaker than the one living in jungle.

(c) Conscious Efforts:

Modifications due to conscious efforts are observed only in those animals which have intelligence.
Receiving education, training of some pets, slim bodies, boring of pinna, long neck, small feet, mutilations
in pets, bonsai, etc. are some of the examples of conscious efforts.

II. Germinal or Blastogenic Variations:

They are produced in the germ cells of an organism and are inheritable. They may be already present in
ancestors or may be formed suddenly. Accordingly, the germinal variations are of two types, continuous and
discontinuous.
1. Continuous Variations:

They are also called fluctuating variations because they fluctuate on either side (both plus and minus) of a
mean or average for the species. Continuous variations are typical of quantitative characteristics. They show
differences from the average which are connected with it through small intermediate forms.

If plotted as a graph, the mean or normal characteristic will be found to be possessed by maximum number
of individuals. The number of individuals will decrease with the increase in degree of fluctuation. The graph
will appear to be bell shaped (Fig. 5.9). The variations are already present in different organisms or races of
a species.

They are produced by:

(i) Chance separation or segregation of chromosomes at the time of gamete or spore formation.

(ii) Crossing over or exchange of segments between homologous chromosomes during meiosis.

(iii) Chance combination of chromosomes during fertilization.

Therefore, these variations are also known by the name of re-combinations. They make an organism better
fitted to struggle for existence in a particular environment. They also enable human beings to improve the
races of important plants and animals. However, they are unable to form a new species though Darwin
(1859) based his evolution theory of natural selection on continuous variations.

Continuous variations are of two types:

(a) Substantive:

They influence appearance including shape, size, weight and colour of a part or whole of the organism, e.g.,
height, shape of nose, skin colour, colour of eyes, hair, length of fingers or toes, yield of milk, eggs, etc.

(b) Meristic:

They influence the number of parts, e.g., number of grains in an ear of wheat, number of epicalyx segments
in Althaea, tentacles in Hydra or segments in earthworm, etc.

2. Discontinuous Variations:
They are also called sports, saltation’s or mutations. They are sudden unpredictable inheritable departures
from the normal without any intermediate stage. The organism in which a mutation occurs is called a
mutant. Discontinuous variations form the basis of mutation theory of evolution proposed by de Vries
(1902).

Discontinuous variations or mutations are caused by:

(a) Chromosomal aberrations like deletion, duplication, inversion and translocation,

(b) Change in chromosome number through aneuploidy and polyploidy,

(c) Change in gene structure and expression due to addition, deletion or change in nucleotides.

The discontinuous variations are of two types:

(a) Substantive:

They affect the shape, size and colour, e.g., short legged Ancon Sheep, Hornless cattle, Hairless cats.
Piebald patching in man, etc.

(b) Meristic:

They affect the number of parts, e.g., Polydactyly (six or more digits) in humans.

Importance of Variations:

1. Variations make some individuals better fitted in the struggle for existence.

2. They help the individuals to adapt themselves according to the changing environment.

3. Discontinuous variations produce new traits in the organisms.

4. Variations allow breeders to improve races of useful plants and animals for increased resistance, better
yield, quicker growth and lesser input.

5. They constitute the raw material for evolution.

6. Variations give each organism a distinct individuality.

7. Because of variations, species do not remain static. Instead, they are slowly getting modified forming new
species with time.

8. Pre-adaptations caused by the presence of neutral variations are extremely useful for survival against
sudden changes in environment, e.g., resistance against a new pesticide or antibiotic.

Plant Adaptations:

The living organisms react with their environments and they bear full impression of the environments in
which they grow.

In order to withstand adverse conditions of the environment and utilize to their maximum benefit the
nutrients and other conditions prevailing therein, the organisms develop certain morphological, anatomical,
physiological and reproductive features.
Any feature of an organism or its part which enables it to exist under conditions of its habitat is called
adaptation. Every organism develops certain adaptations and so does the population or a community. The
completion of life cycle of an organism or stabilization of a community results through a series of
adaptations which have survival value.

Adaptations of survival value comprise such features as prevent destruction of vital vegetative tissues and
help in large production and efficient dissemination of reproductive bodies. Warming (1895) had realized
for the first time the influence of controlling or limiting factors upon the vegetation in ecology. He classified
plants into several ecological groups on the basis of their requirements of water and also on the basis of
nature of substratum on which they grow.

Warming classified plants on the basis of nature of substratum (soil) into the following groups.

(1) Plants of acidic soil (Oxylophytes)

(2) Plants of saline soil (Halophytes)

(3) Plants growing on the sand (Psammophytes)

(4) Plants growing on the surface of rocks (Lithophytes)

(5) Plants growing in the crevices of rocks (Chasmophytes).

Epiphytes are not included in the above classification because of the fact that they do not have permanent
connection with the soil. Warming’s second classification (1909) of the plants is based on their water
relations. The supply of water to the plants and regulation of transpiration are the factors that evoke great
differences in plant forms and plant life.

On the basis of their water requirement and nature of soils, the plants have been classified as follows:

1. Hydrophytes: Plants growing in or near water.

2. Xerophytes: Plants adapted to survive under the condition of very poor supply of available water in the
habitats.

3. Mesophytes:

Plants growing in an environment which is neither very dry nor very wet. The detailed description of only
some important ecological groups is given here.

Hydrophytes:

Hydrophytes are those plants which live in water and adjust with their surroundings. They either remain
fully submerged in the water like Hydrilla, Valisineria, etc. or most of their body parts remain under the
water like trapa, lotus, etc. water lilies, sedges, crow foots are other important water plants.

A plant that is adapted to living either in waterlogged soil or partly or wholly submerged in water. Many
hydrophytes absorb water and gases over the whole surface and have no stomata like the spiked water
milfoil (Myriophyllum spicata), which is completely submerged in water.

The mechanical and vascular tissue of many hydrophytes is reduced and supports them. They often have
large intercellular air spaces in their stems, roots, and leaves to overcome the difficulty of obtaining gases
from the water. Hydrophytes that are partially submerged have floating leaves with stomata through which
gases can be exchanged as in land plants.
However, to prevent the leaves being flooded with water, the petioles may be very long to adjust easily to
changes in water level. In the giant water lily (Victoria regia), the enormous leaves have a vertical rim to
prevent them from being flooded. Some species like water crowfoot (Ranunculus aquatilis) have both finely
divided submerged leaves and floating leaves with stomata.

Aquatic plants are plants that have adapted to living in aquatic environments (saltwater or freshwater). They
are also referred to as hydrophytes or macrophytes. These plants require special adaptations for living
submerged in water, or at the water’s surface – the most common adaptation is aerenchyma, but floating
leaves and finely dissected leaves are also common. Aquatic plants can only grow in water or in soil that is
permanently saturated with water. They are therefore a common component of wetlands.

Aquatic plants can usually be categorized into 4 main types:

(i) Floating plants

(ii) Deep water plants

(iii) Marginal plants

(iv) Oxygenating plants.

Characteristics of Hydrophytes:

Hydrophytes are aquatic plants that are especially suited for living in aquatic environments. In order to
survive, a hydrophyte, also known as an aquatic macrophyte, must either be completely submerged in water,
or in some cases be allowed to float on the surface of the water

(i) Water Retention:

Plants require water to survive, plants usually possess the ability to absorb and retain water to keep the plant
alive between watering cycles. Because aquatic plants are literally submerged in water at all times, there is
no need for the plant to water retention like non-aquatic plants. As such, there is no need for aquatic plants
to expend energy to regulate transpiration, which is the loss of water in the plant due to evaporation.

(iii) Flat Leaves:

Some aquatic plants float on the surface of water; most aquatic plants have flat leaves which act as floation
to a portion of the plant. An example of such a plant is the water lily, Nymphaea Attraction, which is a
beautiful bright red water lily that can have up to a 12 inch diameter leaf.

(iii) Feathery Roots:

Hydrophtes are supported by water as compared to roots and stem structures; most hydrophtes have roots
that are small and feathery. These are designed to take in oxygen from the water, and since the plant is fully
submersed in water at all times, there is less need for a long and thick root structure. One plant that has a
feathery root is the Salvinia, which is a free-floating aquatic fern.

(iv) Air Sacks:

Many hydrophytes have air sacks (chambers) that help the plant float on the surface of the water. It is
important to note that some aquatic plants will float slightly submerged in the water, such as the buttercup.
Others, such as water lilies, will float up on top of the surface since their leaves distribute the weight across
the surface of the water.
Ecological Adoptations in Hydrophytes:

A. Roots:

1. Due to availability of plenty of water root system is secondary importance and least significant.

2. Roots absent in Wolfia, Ceratophylum.

3. Poorly developed roots are seen in Hydrilla.

4. Submerged leaves compensate for roots in Salvania.

5. Root caps are absent in Hydrophytes.

6. Amphibious plants growing in mud will have distinct root caps.

7. Root caps are replaced by root pockets in Pistia.

8. If present roots are generally fibrous adventitious reduced in lenth unbranched or poorly branched.

9. Balancing roots are present in Pistia, Eichornia.

B. Stems:

1. Stem is long slender and flexible in submerged plants Eg: Hydrilla, Potamogeton.

2. Stem is slender or thick, short and spongy in free floating forms Eg; Eichornia.

3. Stem is a rhizome in rooted plants with free floating leaves Eg: Nymphaea and Nelumbo.

C. Leaves:

1. In submerged forms leaves are thin long and ribbon like (Eg: Vallisnaria) long and linear.

(Potamogeton) finely dissected (eg; Ceratophylum)

2. Floating leaves are large and flat with wax coating Eg: Nyphaea, Nelumbo and Victoria regia.

3. Largest simple leaves in plant kingdom are present in Victoria regia.

4. Petioles are long flexible and covered with mucilage.

5. Petioles are swollen and spongy in Eg: Eichornia, Trapa.

6. Hetrophily with submerged, floating and aerial leaves seen in Limniphila, Ranunculus and Sagittaria.

Anatomical Features of Hydrophytes:

1. Cuticle is completely absent in submerged parts of the plants.

2. Cuticle may be present as a thin film on surface of parts exposed to atmosphere.

3. Epidermal cells are with chloroplast useful for absorption and assimilation.

4. Stomata are totally absent in submerged hydrophytes.

5. Exchange of gases takes place through diffusion.

6. Non-functional stomata are seen in Potamageton.

7. Epistomatous leaves (stomata found only on upper surface) are present in hydrophytes with floating
leaves Eg; Nelumbo.

8. Mechanical tissues like collenchyma and sclerenchyma are more or less absent

9. Xylem is poorly developed in Hydrophytes as the water absorption takes place all over surface of the
plant body

10. Hydrophytes have aerenchyma in all parts of the plants. Aerenchyma proves provides buoyancy to the
hydrophytes.

Xerophyte:

A xerophyte (xero meaning dry, phyte meaning plant) is a plant which is able to survive in an environment
with little availability of water or moisture. Plants like the cacti and other succulents are typically found in
deserts where low rainfall is the normal phenomen, but few xerophytes can also be found in moist habitats
such as tropical forests, exploiting niches where water supplies are limited or too intermittent for mesophytic
plants.

Plants that live under arctic conditions may also have a need for xerophytic adaptations, as water is
unavailable for uptake when the ground is frozen. Their leaves are covered with silvery hairs.

Adaptations of xerophytes include reduced permeability of the epidermal layer, stomata and cuticle to
maintain optimal amounts of water in the tissues by reducing transpiration, adaptations of the root system to
acquire water from deep underground sources or directly from humid atmospheres and succulence, or
storage of water in swollen stems, leaves or root tissues. The typical morphological consequences of these
adaptations are collectively called xeromorphisms.

2. Types of Xerophytic Plants:

These are plants adapted to grow in dry habitats.

They are classified into four categories on the basis of their morphology and life cycle pattern:

a. Ephemeral Annuals:

These plants are also called as drought evaders or drought escapers. They are annuals and complete their life
cycle within a very short period. They do not withstand dry seasons but actually avoid them. Argemone
mexicana, Solatium xanthocarpum.

b. Succulent:

These plants grow in habitats with less or no water. They store water whenever it is available. They have
succulent and fleshy organs like stems, leaves and roots which serve as water storage organs and accumulate
large amounts of water during the brief rainy seasons. Euphorbia and Opuntia.

c. Non-Succulent Perennials:

These are drought resistant and called as true xerophytes. They possess a number of morphological,
anatomical and physiological characteristics which enable them to withstand critical dry conditions.
Calotropis, Acacia, Casuarina and Nerium
d. Succulent Plants:

Succulent plants typically store water in stems or leaves. They include the Cactaceae families which
typically have stems that are round and store a lot of water. Often, as in cacti where the leaves are reduced to
spines, their leaves are vestigial, or they do not have leaves.

3. Characteristics of Xerophytes:

(i) Reduction in Air Flow:

Some xerophytes have tiny hairs on their surface to provide a wind break and reduce air flow, thereby
reducing the rate of evaporation. When a plant surface is covered with tiny hairs, it is called tomentose. In a
still environment, the areas under the leaves/spines where transpiration is taking place form a small localized
environment that is more saturated than normal with water vapour.

If this is not blown away by wind, the water vapour potential gradient is reduced and so is transpiration.
Thus, in a windier situation, this localization is not held and so the gradient remains high, which aids the loss
of water vapour. Spines trap a layer of moisture and also slow air movement over tissues.

(ii) Reflectivity:

The color of a plant, or of the waxes or hairs on its surface, may serve to reflect sunlight and reduce
evaporation. An example is the white chalky wax (epicuticular wax) coating of Dudleya brittonii, which has
the highest ultraviolet light (UV) reflectivity of any known naturally occurring biological substance.

(iii) Physiological:

Some plants can store water in root structures, trunk structures, stems, and leaves. Water storage in swollen
parts of the plant is known as succulence. A swollen trunk or root at the ground level of a plant is called a
caudex and plants with swollen bases are called caudiciforms. Tiny pores on the surface of a xerophytic
plant called stomata may open only at night, so as to reduce evaporation.

Plants may secrete resins and waxes (epicuticular wax) on their surfaces, which reduce evaporation.
Examples are the heavily scented and flammable resins (volatile organic compounds) of some chaparral
plants, such as Malosma laurina, or the chalky wax of Dudleya pulverulenta.

Plants may drop their leaves in times of dryness (drought deciduous), or modify the leaves produced so that
they are smaller.

During dry times, xerophytic plants may stop growing and go dormant, change the kind of photosynthesis or
change the allocation of the products of photosynthesis from growing new leaves to the roots.

4. Ecological Adaptation in Xerophytes:

1. Plants growing in habitats where water supply is absent or physiologically dry are called Xerophytes.

2. Xerophytes classified based on their (a) Morphology (b) Physiology (c) Life cycle pattern

3. Plants growing in dry or arid zones are called Ephimerals or Drough evaders or drought escapers. Eg;
Tribulus

4. Ephemerals are Annuals and complete their life cycles in 6-8 weeks.

5. Xerophytic plants absorbing more water during rainy season and storeing them in different body parts are
called Succulents or drought avoiding plants.
6. Succulents store water in the form of mucilage.

7. Leaf succulents: Bryophylum, Aloe, Agave.

8. Root succulents: Asparagus

9. Perennial plants which can withstand prolonged period of drought are called Non-succulents or true
xerophytes Eg: Casurina, Nerium, Ziziphus, Calotropis etc..

Morphological adaptations of Xerophytes:

a. Roots:

1. Root system is very well developed with extensive branching and often longer than shoot system.

2. Root hairs and root caps are very well developed.

b. Stems:

1. Mostly they are stunted, woody hard and covered with thick bark.

2. In some xerophytes stem becomes underground.

3. In some plants stem becomes fleshy, green, leaf-like phylloclades covered with spines, Eg: Opuntia.

4. Stems are usually covered by hairs and or waxy coatings.

c. Leaves:

1. Leaves are very much reduced small scale like and sometimes modified in to spines to reduce the rate of
transpiration. Lamina may be long narrow needle-like or divided in to many leaflets as Eg: Acacia.

2. Foliage leaves become thick fleshy and succulent or tough and leathery in texture. Eg: Aloe.

3. Leaf surfaces are shiny glazed to reflect light and heat. Eg. Calotropis.

5. Anatomical features/adaptations of Xerophyte:

1. Epidermis is covered thick cuticle to reduce the rate of transpiration.

2. Epidermal cells may have silica crystals.

3. Epidermis is multilayered Eg: Nerium.

4. Waxy coating is present on leaves and stem Eg: Calotropis.

5. Stomata are generally confined to lower epidermis of leaves called hypostomatous.

6. Stomata are present in pits called sunken stomata. They are lined with hairs Eg: Nerium.

7. Mesophyll is differentiated in to palisade and spongy parenchyma.

8. Mechanical & vascular tissues are well developed.

 Unit-IV
Population Ecology:

Ecologists study how organisms interact with their environments on earth. Population ecology is a more
specialized field of study of how and why the populations of those organisms change over time.

As the human population grows in the 21st century, the information gleaned from population ecology can
assist with planning. It can also help with efforts to preserve other species.

Population Ecology Definition

In population biology, the term population refers to a group of members of a species living in the same
area.

The definition of population ecology is the study of how various factors affect population growth, rates of
survival and reproduction, and risk of extinction.

Characteristics of Population Ecology

Some of the most important characteristics of population are as follows:

1. Population density 2. Natality 3. Mortality 4. Population growth 5. Age distribution of population 6.

Population fluctuations.

1. Population Density:

Population density refers to the size of any population in relation to some unit of space. It is expressed in
terms of the number of individuals or biomass per unit area or volume, as for example, 500 teak trees per
hectare; 40 lions per 100 km2, 5 million diatoms per cubic meter of water. Population density is seldom
static and it changes with time and space.

Population size can be measured by several methods:

(i) Abundance:

Absolute number of individuals in population.

(ii) Numerical Density:

Number of individuals per unit area or volume. It is expressed when the size of individuals in the population
is relatively uniform, as in mammals, insects and birds.

(iii) Biomass Density:

Biomass density is expressed in terms of wet weight, dry weight, volume, and carbon and nitrogen weight
per unit area or volume.

Population density can be expressed in two ways:

(i) Crude Population Density:

When the density is expressed with reference to total area at a particular time.
(ii) Ecological Density:

When the density is expressed with reference to total area of habitat available to the species. The distribution
between crude density and ecological density becomes important because the patterns of distribution of
individuals in nature are different and individuals of some species like Cassia tora, Oplismenus burmanni are
found more crowded in shady places than in other parts of the same area. Thus population density calculated
in total area would be crude density and the densities for the shade areas and open areas separately would be
ecological densities.

Population density can be calculated by the following equation:

D = n/a/t

Where D is population density; n is the number of individuals; a is area and t is unit time. Density of human
population can be obtained by dividing the total number of persons in the area by the total land area of the
region. Density of population of a country can be obtained by dividing the total number of persons living in
the given region by total land area of that region. Average population density in developing countries is
more as compared to those in developed countries.

Netherlands is smaller than India but its population density is greater (319/km2 in Netherlands and les/km2 in
India). Area of India is 2.5% of the world but 15% population of the world lives in India alone. The
population density of India is 4% higher than that of Europe and more than 7 times that of U.S.A. Population
density is affected by a number of environmental factors, such as geographical factors, mortality, natality,
emigration and immigration and socio-economic factors.

2. Natality:

Natality refers to the rate of reproduction or birth per unit time. It is an expression of the production of new
individuals in the population by birth, hatching, germination or fission.

Natality is calculated by the following formula:

Birth rate or Natality (B) = Number of births per unit time/Average population.

The maximum number of births produced per individual under ideal conditions of environment is called
potential natality. It is also called reproductive or biotic potential, absolute natality or maximum natality.

Natality varies from organism to organism. It depends upon the population density and environmental
factors. It is a general rule that if the population density is usually low, the birth rate is also low. This is so
because the chances of mating between males and females are low. If population density is unusually high,
the birth rate may also be low due to poor nutrition or physiological or psychological problems related to
crowding.

The maximum or absolute natality is observed when the species exists under ideal ecological and genetic
conditions. The actual number of births occurring under the existing environmental conditions is much less
as compared to absolute natality. It is referred to as ecological natality or realized natality. It is not constant
for population and may vary with the size of population as well as with the time.

3. Mortality:

Mortality refers to the number of deaths in population per unit time.

Mortality rate = D/t where D is the number of deaths in the time t.

Mortality can be expressed in the following two ways:

(i) Minimum or Specific or Potential Mortality:

It represents the minimum of theoretical loss of individuals under ideal or non-limiting condition. Thus,
even under the best conditions individuals of a population would die of old age determined by their
physiological longevity. So it is constant for a population.

(ii) Ecological or Realized Mortality:

It refers to the death of individuals of a population under existing environmental conditions. Since it varies
with environmental conditions, it is never constant. The maximum mortality occurs at the egg, larval,
seedling and old age. Mortality is affected by a number of factors, such as, density, competition, disease,
predation and environment. Death rates vary among the species and are correlated with birth rates. When the
rate of natality is equal to the rate of mortality the population is stationary.

4. Population Growth:

The growth is one of the dynamic features of species population. Population size increases in a characteristic
way. When the number of individuals of population is plotted on the y-axis and the times on the x-axis, a
curve is obtained that indicates the trend in the growth of population size in a given time. This curve is
called population growth curve.

There are two types of growth curves:

(i) Sigmoid Curve:

When a few organisms are introduced in an area, the population increase is very slow in the beginning
(positive acceleration phase or lag phase), in the middle phase, the population increase becomes very rapid
(logarithmic phase) and finally in the last phase population increase is slowed down (negative acceleration
phase) until an equilibrium is attained Lund which the population size fluctuates according to variability of
environment.

The level beyond which no major increase can occur is referred to as saturation level or carrying capacity. In
the last phase the new organisms are almost equal to the number of dying individuals and thus there is no
increase in population size. In this way, one gets sigmoid or 5-shaped growth curve (Fig. 4.2).

(ii) J-Shaped Curve:

The second type of growth curve is J-shaped. Here in the first phase there is no increase in population size
because it needs some time for adjustment in the new environment. Soon after the population is established
in the new environment, it starts multiplying rapidly. This increase in population is continued till large
amount of food materials exist in the habitat. After some time, due to increase in population size, food
supply in the habitat becomes limited which ultimately results in decrease in population size. This will result
in J-shaped growth curve rather than S-shaped (Fig. 4.2).

5. Age Distribution:

Age distribution is another important characteristic of population which influences natality and mortality.
Mortality, usually varies with age, as chances of death are more in early and later periods of life span.
Similarly, natality is restricted to certain age groups, as for example, in middle age-groups in higher animals.
According to Bodenheimer (1958), the individuals of a population can be divided into pre-reproductive,
reproductive and post-reproductive groups. The individuals of pre-reproductive group are young, those of
reproductive group are mature and those in post-reproductive group are old.

The distribution of ages may be constant or variable. It is directly related to the growth rate of the
population. Depending upon the proportion of the three age-groups, populations can be said to be growing,
mature or stable, and diminishing In other words, the ratio of various age groups in a population determines
the reproductive status of the population. Rapidly increasing population contains a large proportion of young
individuals, a stable population shows even distribution of individuals in reproductive age-group and a
declining population contains a large proportion of old individuals.

Age Pyramids:

Age pyramid is a model in which the numbers or proportions of individuals in various age groups at any
given time are geometrically presented. In an age pyramid, the number of pre-reproductive individuals is
shown at the base that of reproductive age group in the middle and the number of post-reproductive
individuals at the top.

The shape of age-pyramid changes with the change in the population age distribution over a period of time
(Fig. 4.3). The age pyramid indicates whether a population is expanding or stable or diminishing and
accordingly three hypothetical age pyramids have been suggested.

These are as follows:

(i) Pyramid with broad base:

This pyramid shows a high percentage of young individuals and an exponential growth of population due to
high birth rate, as for example in yeast, housefly, Paramecium (Fig. 4.4A).
(ii) Bell-shaped pyramid:

This type of age pyramid shows a stationary or stable population having, more or less equal number of
young and middle-aged individuals and post-reproductive individuals being the smallest in number (Fig. 4.4
B).

(iii) Pyramid with narrow base:

This is an um-shaped pyramid which shows increased numbers of middle aged and old organisms as
compared to young ones in the population. It is indicative of contracting or diminishing population (Fig. 4.4
C).

6. Population Fluctuations:

The size and density of natural population show a changing pattern over a period of time. This is called
population fluctuation.

There are three types of variations in the pattern of population change:

(i) Non-fluctuating:

When the population remains static over the years, it is said to be non-fluctuating.

(ii) Cyclic:

The cyclic variations may be (i) seasonal, and (ii) annual. Sometimes seasonal changes occur in the
population and there are additions to the population at the time of maximum reproduction and losses under
adverse climatic conditions. Common examples of seasonal variations are met in mosquitoes and houseflies
which are abundant in particular season and so also the weeds in the field during the rainy season. When the
population of a species shows regular ups and downs over the years, it is called annual cyclic variation. It
appears in the form of a sigmoid curve with regular drops in population after peaks.

(iii) Irruptive:

When the change in population density does not occur at regular intervals or in response to any obvious
environmental factor, it is said to be irruptive fluctuation. In this there is a sudden exponential or logarithmic
increase in population density in short time followed by equally quick drop in population density due to
deaths, and final return to normal level or even below that level.

Characteristics of Plant Communities:

The analytical and synthetic characteristics of plant communities are discussed below.

Generally, analysis of community characters is being done for two specific purposes:
(i) To record variation within and between communities and

(ii) For naming and classifying communities.

Analytical characteristics are those features of community which can be observed or measured directly in
each aspect. It involves measurements of various characters in sample plots, commonly known as quadrats.
Measurements made in sample plots (quadrats) are scientifically processed to reflect the characteristics of
the entire community.

Two sets of characters, viz.:

(i) Analytical, and

(ii) Synthetic are studied in a community at the same time.

1. Analytic Characters:

They are directly observed or measured in sample plots. They include kinds and number of species,
distribution of individuals, number of individuals, height of plants, etc.

2. Synthetic Characters:

They are derived from the measurements of analytic characters and utilise data obtained in the analysis of a
number of stands.

Analytical characters are of two types:

(i) Qualitative:

They are based on non-quantitative observations, e.g., species composition and stratification of vegetation.
They are expressed only in qualitative way.

(ii) Quantitative:

They are expressed in quantitative terms. They are measured. The major quantitative characters include
frequency, diversity, cover, biomass, leaf size, abundance, dominance, etc.

They are as follows:

Frequency:

This is based on percentage of sample plots in which a species is present, indicating its dispersion in space.

This frequency of each species is calculated as follows:

Frequency percentage = number of sampling units in which that species occurred / number of sampling units
studied Χ 100

Diversity:

This is denoted by number of individuals per unit area, indicating the relative abundance of a species.

Cover and Basal Area:

This is percentage land area occupied by a species, indicating the influence zone of a species. Although
sometimes used in general sense for the area occupied by a plant, (which may be the herbage cover or the
cover of basal area), it is generally used for above ground parts.

Thus, cover or herbage cover signifies primarily the area of the ground occupied by the above ground parts
of plants, such as leaves, stems and inflorescences as viewed from above.

However, basal area refers to the ground actually penetrated by the stems and is readily seen when the
leaves and stems are clipped at the ground surface. It is one of the chief characteristics to determine
dominance. It is measured either at 2.5 cm above ground or actually on the ground level.

Biomass:

This expresses quantity of living materials per unit area, indicating the growth of a species. Thus, biomass is
the standing crop expressed in terms of weight (i.e., organism mass) of the living matter present. The
amount of living material, present in a component population at any time, is known as the standing crop,
which may be expressed in terms of weight per unit area.

Leaf Area:

The percentages of species having different leaf sizes, indicating the adaptation of the vegetation to the
prevailing environment. As the leaves are essential part and are very much affected by climate condition,
their shapes and sizes have been taken as important criteria in determination of quantitative characters.

Density:

Density represents the numerical strength of a species in the community. The number of individuals of that
species in any unit area is its density. This gives an idea of degree of competition.

It is calculated as follows:

Density = Number of individuals of the species in all the sampling unit/Total number of sampling units
studied

The value thus obtained is then expressed as number of individuals per unit area.

Abundance:

This is the number of individuals of any species per sampling unit of occurrence.

It is calculated as follows:

Abundance =Total number of individuals of the species in all the sampling units/Number of sampling units
studied

Synthetic Characters:

These are determined after computing the data on the quantitative and quantitative characters of the
community. For comparing the vegetation of different areas, community comparison needs the calculation
of their synthetic characters. These are determined in terms of presence and Constance, fidelity, etc.

Presence and Constance:

It expresses the extent of occurrence of the individuals of a particular species in the community.
Fidelity:

This is the degree with which a species is restricted in distribution to one kind of community. Such species
are sometimes known as indicators.

Dominance:

Here, the dominance is expressed in synthetic form. On the basis of density, frequency and dominance
(cover) values; there has been proposed idea of Importance Value Index (IVI). IVI of a species in the
community give the idea of its relative importance. For IVI, values of Relative density.

Relative frequency and Relative dominance (cover basis) are obtained as follows:

Relative density = Density of the species x 100/Total density of all the species

Relative Frequency = Frequency of the species x 100/Total frequency of all the species

Relative dominance (cover) = Dominance (cover) of the species x 100/Total dominance (cover) of all the
species

Now for IVI, three values are added. IVI values of different species are then arranged in decreasing order.

Other Synthetic Characters:

In addition to above mentioned characters, there are some other synthetic characters. They are quite useful in
comparative studies on communities. Such characters include, interspecific association and association
index, index of similarity, dominance index, species diversity and diversity index, etc.

Population dynamics

Population dynamics is the branch of life sciences that studies the size and age composition of populations
as dynamical systems, and the biological and environmental processes driving them (such as birth and death
rates, and by immigration and emigration). Example scenarios are ageing populations, population growth, or
population decline.

Population dynamics has traditionally been the dominant branch of mathematical biology, which has a
history of more than 210 years, although more recently the scope of mathematical biology has greatly
expanded.

The first principle of population dynamics is widely regarded as the exponential law of Malthus, as modeled
by the Malthusian growth model. The early period was dominated by demographic studies such as the work
of Benjamin Gompertz and Pierre François Verhulst in the early 19th century, who refined and adjusted the
Malthusian demographic model.

A more general model formulation was proposed by F.J. Richards in 1959, further expanded by Simon
Hopkins, in which the models of Gompertz, Verhulst and also Ludwig von Bertalanffy are covered as
special cases of the general formulation.

The Lotka–Volterra predator-prey equations are another famous example, as well as the alternative Arditi–
Ginzburg equations.

In the past 30 years, population dynamics has been complemented by evolutionary game theory, developed
first by John Maynard Smith. Under these dynamics, evolutionary biology concepts may take a deterministic
mathematical form. Population dynamics overlap with another active area of research in mathematical
biology: mathematical epidemiology, the study of infectious disease affecting populations.
Ecological speciation:

Ecological speciation is the process by which ecologically based divergent selection between different
environments leads to the creation of reproductive barriers between populations.This is often the result of
selection over traits which are genetically correlated to reproductive isolation, thus speciation occurs as a by-
product of adaptive divergence.

Ecological selection is "the interaction of individuals with their environment during resource acquisition".
Natural selection is inherently involved in the process of speciation, whereby, "under ecological speciation,
populations in different environments, or populations exploiting different resources, experience contrasting
natural selection pressures on the traits that directly or indirectly bring about the evolution of reproductive
isolation". Evidence for the role ecology plays in the process of speciation exists. Studies of stickleback
populations support ecologically-linked speciation arising as a by-product, alongside numerous studies of
parallel speciation—of which, substantiates speciation's occurrence in nature.

The key difference between ecological speciation and other kinds of speciation, is that it is triggered by
divergent natural selection among different habitats; as opposed to other kinds of speciation processes, like
random genetic drift, the fixation of incompatible mutations in populations experiencing similar selective
pressures, or various forms of sexual selection not involving selection on ecologically relevant traits.
Ecological speciation can occur either in allopatry, sympatry, or parapatry. The only requirement being that
speciation occurs as a result of adaptation to different ecological or micro-ecological conditions.

The four main categories of speciation are: 1. Allopatric Speciation 2. Parapatric Speciation 3.
Sympatric Speciation 4. Alloparapatric Speciation.

1. Allopatric Speciation:

Allopatric speciation occurs when the new species evolves in geographic isolation from the parent species.
The species range, becomes subdivided by a barrier such as a new mountain range or the change in the
course of a river.

Gene flow between the two subpopulations becomes impossible allowing evolution to proceed inde-
pendently in each. Natural selection may favour different genotypes on either side of the barrier and random
genetic drift and mutation could contribute to divergence. Over time, divergence may proceed to the point
that were the two populations to meet again, they would not be able to interbreed and speciation would be
complete. This form of speciation may take place most readily in small populations at the extreme edge of a
species range. The peripheral population could become isolated, for example, during contraction of the main
species range in response to changing climate.

The isolated population would be subject to the founded effect and could be genetically different from the
parent population. The combined effect of a small atypical population and extreme environmental conditions
can cause rapid and extensive genetic reorganization through random genetic drift and strong natural
selection, or, in other words a genetic revolution.

2. Parapatric Speciation:

This form of speciation occurs where the speciating populations are contiguous and hence only partially
geographically isolated. They are able to across a common boundary during the speciation process. Where a
species occupies a large geographical range it may become adapted to different environmental (e.g. climatic)
conditions in different parts of that range.

Intermediate or hybrids, will be found but the large distances involved prevent the two types from merging
completely.
For example, the herring gull Larus argentatus is a ring species whose distribution covers a large
geographical area. Westwards from Britain toward North America its appearance changes gradually, but it is
still recognizable herring gull. Further west in Siberia it begins to look more like the lesser black-backed gull
Larus fuscus. From Siberia to Russia and into northern Europe it becomes progressively more like the lesser
black-backed gull. The ends of the ring meet in Europe and the two geographical extremes appear to be two
good biological species.

3. Sympatric Speciation:

Sympatric speciation describes a situation where there is no geo- graphical separation between the speciating
populations. All individuals are, in theory, able to meet each other during the speciation process. This model
usually requires a change in host preference, food preference or habitat preference in order to prevent the
new species being swamped by gene flow.

Whether sympatric speciation happens at all is a contentious issue. In theory it can occur where there is a
polymorphism in the population conferring adaptation to two different habitats or niches. Reproductive
isolation could then arise if the two morphs had a preference for ‘their’ habitat.

There is some evidence for this in natural populations. For example, caterpillars of the ermine moth,
Yponomeuta padellus, feed on apple and hawthorn trees. Females prefer to lay their eggs on the species on
which they were raised. Caterpillars also prefer to feed on the plant on which their mothers were raised and
adult moths prefer to mate with individuals from the same plant. The apple and hawthorn types are not
completely isolated, but may represent an intermediate point in on-going sympatric speciation.

4. Alloparapatric Speciation:

It is specialised kind of speciation where differentiation in isolation takes place through barrier breakdown
processes, as influenced by gradual environmental variation. The details of different kinds of speciation
mechanisms are shown in Fig. 2.1.
Most of the biologists believe that proto cells i.e. primitive life form gave rise to prokaryotes and that these
in turn evolved into more complex protists, fungi, plants, animals and even man that make up the earth’s
stunning biodiversity (Fig. 2.2).

Study of Communities:

No plant or animal lives as isolated individual. Plants and animals generally prefer to live in groups or
colonies.

Different plants and animals living in a habitat constitute a biotic community. When only assemblage of
plants in a habitat is considered, it is plant community.

Similarly, assemblage of animals in a habitat is called animal community. In any biological organization
plants and animals are very closely related and interdependent and at a particular place plants and animals
share the same set of conditions and same environment.

In view of these facts, modem biologists prefer use of biotic community to plant community or animal
community. The study of the relationships of plants and animals making up a natural community is termed
as community ecology or synecology. The basic unit of vegetation is called plant community or a plant
association. The communities are not the random mixtures of species. The species living together in groups
exhibit various degrees of adjustment among themselves and with their physical habitats as well.

Each community consists of a set of many different species which persist year after year. In a community,
each plant species is represented by innumerable individuals. A group of individuals of the same species is
commonly known as population.

Thus a population is a part of community and populations of different species may be intermingled in a
community. Costing defines community as “an aggregation of living organisms having mutual relationship
among themselves and to the environment.” In modem books of ecology, plant community is defined as
uniform flonstic composition. Earlier Gleason (1939) in his individualistic concept of plant association
suggested that an association is a complex of slight irregularities, all of which blend into an entirety of
apparent homogeneity. It is uniform either in space or in time and possesses definite limits of area only to a
reasonable extent.

Pondeyar (1960, 1961) has discussed this subject and suggested that an association is a temporary
phenomenon which is continuous in space and with slight irregularities, all of which blend into an entirety of
apparent abstract homogeneity.

According to him the association is not a final vegetation but an assemblage of plants of any status. Misra
and Pun (1954) are of the opinion that Clements’ original concept which defined “community as any unit of
vegetation whether developmental or climax in status”, should be accepted as such and they used the term
association for climatic climax. According to them, the climatic climax community is in, complete
equilibrium not only with climate but also with the whole complex of environment.
Ecological amplitude:

Each species of community has got definite range of tolerance towards the physical and biological
environmental conditions of the habitat. The range of environment a species can tolerate is called its
ecological amplitude. The nature of community of a particular habitat is determined by the species
contents, ecological amplitudes of the species and physical and biotic influences prevailing in the locale of
community.

Ecological Amplitude also called ecological valence is the degree of adaptation of a living organism to
changes in its environment. A species trait, ecological amplitude is expressed quantitatively as the range of
environmental changes within which a given species is able to carry on its normal vital activities.

Ecological amplitude can be examined as either the reaction of a species to individual environmental factors
or to an aggregate of factors. In the first case, species that are able to tolerate a wide range of changes in the
strength of an acting factor are designated by a term consisting of the name of the given factor and the prefix
“eury,” such as eurythermal (referring to the effects of temperature), euryhaline (salinity), and eurybathic
(depth). Species that are adapted to only a narrow range of changes in a given factor are designated by the
same term with the prefix “steno,” for example, stenothermal and stenohaline. Species that exhibit broad
ecological amplitude with respect to an aggregate of factors are called eurybionts, while species with low
adaptability are called stenobionts. Inasmuch as euroky makes it possible for a species to occupy a variety of
habitats while stenoky sharply curtails the range of suitable habitats, these two groups are often referred to
as eurytopic and stenotopic, respectively.

Habitat, Microhabitat and Niche

Habitat refers to a specific place where a species normally lives. For example, habitat of a tiger is the forest,
of a shark is the sea, and of Plasmodium are the red blood cells. More than one animal or plant may live in
the same habitat. For example, tiger, deer, wolf, fox, lion, etc. may be found in the same forest.

Animals exhibit habitat specificity and require specific environmental conditions to live. For example, a fish
lives in an aquatic habitat, but a river fish can live only in freshwater, while a sea fish can live only in a
marine habitat. Some organisms are more tolerant than the other.

A habitat can be subdivided into regions with different environmental conditions. These subdivisions are
called microhabitat. For example, in a pond, some organisms are surface dwellers while some others are
bottom dwellers.

For a species to maintain its population, its individuals must survive and reproduce. Certain combinations of
environmental conditions are necessary for individuals of each species to tolerate the physical environment,
obtain energy and nutrients and avoid predators.

The total requirements of a species, i.e. resources and physical conditions determine where it can live and
how abundant it can be at any one place within its range. These requirements are termed abstractly as the
ecological niche. In other words, niche is a term used to indicate not only the habitat but also the role played
by the organisms in the environment.

G.E. Hutchinson (1958) suggested that the niche could be modelled as an imaginary space with many
dimensions, in which each dimension or axis represents the range of specific environmental condition or
resource that is required by the species. Thus, the niche of a plant might include the range of temperatures
that it can tolerate, the intensity of light required for photosynthesis, specific humidity regimes and
minimum quantities of essential soil nutrients for uptake.

A useful extension of the niche concept is the distinction between fundamental and realised niches (Fig. 2).
The fundamental niche of a species includes the total range of environmental conditions that are suitable for
existence without the influence of interspecific competition or predation from other species. The realised
niche describes that part of the fundamental niche was actually occupied by the species.

A habitat possesses many niches and supports many species. An organism changes its niches as they
develop. For example, the common toad, Bufo bufo occupies the aquatic environment when it is a tadpole
and feeds on algae and detritus. But after it metamorphosis’s into an adult it becomes terrestrial and becomes
insectivorous.

According to Odum, while the habitat is the organism’s ‘address’, its ecological niche is its ‘profession’.
Two organisms may be found in the same habitat, but do not occupy the same ecological niche. Each plays a
different role in its habitat. Different animals that occupy similar ecological niche in different geographical
regions are called ‘ecological equivalents’.
Energy Flow in an Ecosystem:

The functioning of ecosystem depends on the flow of energy through matter. The most important feature of
energy flow is that it is unidirectional or one way flow. The energy captured by autotrophs does not revert
back to solar input.

Unlike nutrients (like C, N, P) which move in a cyclic manner and are reused by the producers after flowing
through the food chain, energy is not reused in the food chain. Also the flow of energy follows the two laws
of thermodynamics.

First law of thermodynamics states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed but it can be
transformed from one form into another. The solar energy captured by the green plants (producers) gets
converted into biochemical energy of plants and later into that of consumers.

Second law of thermodynamics states that every transformation or transfer of energy is accompanied by its
dispersion. As energy flows through the food chain, there occurs dissipation of energy at every trophic level.
The loss of energy takes place through respiration or other metabolic activities. At every trophic level there
is about 90% loss of energy and the energy transferred from one trophic level to the other is only 10%.

Trophic Structure:

The trophic structure of an ecosystem is a kind of producer-consumer arrangement and their interaction with
population size. Each food level is known as trophic level and the amount of living matter at each trophic
level at a given time is known as standing crop or standing biomass. In the ecosystem various trophic levels
are connected through food chain.

(i) Food Chain:

The transfer of food energy from the producers, through a series of organisms (herbivores to carnivores to
decomposers) with repeated eating and being eaten, is known as food chain. All organisms, living or dead,
are potential food for some other organisms, hence there is no waste in the functioning of a natural
ecosystem. Some examples of simple food chain are:

Types of Food Chains:

(a) Grazing food chain: It starts from green plants (primary producers), goes to grazing herbivores and
culminates to carnivores (Fig. 2). The chain thus depends on autotrophic energy capture and movement of
this captured energy to carnivores. Examples constitute sequence of
(b) Detritus food chain: It starts from dead organic matter and passes through micro-organisms to
detritivores (organisms feeding on detritus), their predators and decomposers. The ecosystems exhibiting
detritus food chain are less dependent on direct solar energy. These depend chiefly on the influx of organic
matter produced in another ecosystem. Such type of food chain operates in the decomposing accumulated
litter in a temperate forest.

A good example of detritus food chain is seen in a Mangrove (estuary). Mangrove leaf fragments acted on
by saprotrophs (fungi, bacteria), colonized by algae are eaten by detritus consumers (crabs, shrimps,
nematodes, molluscs etc.). These are, in turn, eaten by minnows and small carnivorous fish which serve as
the food for large game fish and birds.

Thus the grazing food chain derives its energy from plants while in detritus food chain energy is obtained
primarily from plant biomass, secondarily from microbial biomass and tertiary from carnivores. Both the
food chains occur together in natural ecosystems but the grazing food chain usually predominates.

(ii) Food Web:

Food chains in ecosystems are rarely found to operate in isolated linear sequence. Rather, they are
interconnected with several linkages forming a complex network of interlocking pattern which is referred to
as food web. Thus, food web is a network of food chains where different types of organisms are
interconnected with each other at different trophic levels so that there are a number of options of eating and
being eaten at each trophic level.

An example of food web is illustrated by the unique Antarctic ecosystem (Fig. 4). It represents the total
ecosystem including the Antarctic sea and the continental land. The land does not show any higher life
forms of plants. The only species are those of some algae, lichens and mosses. The animals include snow
petrel and penguins which depend on the aquatic food chain. In a tropical region, on the other hand, the
ecosystems have a rich species diversity and therefore, the food webs are much more complex.

Why has nature evolved food webs in ecosystem instead of simple linear food chains? This is because food
webs give greater stability to the ecosystem. In a linear food chain, if one species becomes extinct then the
species in the subsequent trophic levels are also affected. Just consider the simple food chains of Arctic
Tundra ecosystem.
If due to some stress, the population of reindeer or caribou falls, it will leave little option for man or wolf to
feed from the ecosystem. Had there been more biodiversity, it would have led to complex food web giving
the ecosystem more stability. In a food web, there are a number of options available to each trophic level.

So, if one species is affected, it does not alter other trophic levels so seriously. For instance, in grazing food
chain of a grassland, in the absence of rabbit, grass may be eaten by mouse, which in turn, may be eaten by
hawk or snake (Fig 5.)

Besides those shown in Fig. 5, there may also be present some other consumers as vultures, fox and man in
grasslands, and if so, the food web may be even more complex than shown here. In fact, real food webs
usually have hundreds of species interlinked according to their feeding habits.

The complexity of any food web depends upon the diversity of organisms in the system.

It would accordingly depend upon:

1. Length of the food chain:

More diverse the organisms in food habits, longer would be the food chain.

2. Alternatives at different levels of consumers in the chain:

More the alternatives, more would be the interlocking pattern.

Significance of Food Chains and Food Webs:

1. Food chains and food webs play a very significant role in the ecosystem because the most important
functions of energy flow and nutrient cycles take place through them.

2. Food chains help in maintaining and regulating the ecological balance.

3. Food chains show a unique property of biological magnification of several pesticides and heavy metals
which are non-biodegradable in nature. Such chemicals increase in concentration at each successive trophic
level.
Ecological Pyramids:

Graphic representation of trophic structure and functions of an ecosystem, starting with producers at the base
and successive trophic levels (herbivores -> carnivores) forming the apex is known as ecological pyramid.
These were first devised by British ecologist Charles Elton (1927) and so are also known as Eltonion
pyramids.

Ecological pyramids are of three types:

1. Pyramid of Numbers:

It represents the number of individual organisms at each trophic level. There may be upright or inverted
pyramid of numbers depending upon the type of ecosystem and food chain as shown in Fig. 6. A grassland
ecosystem [Fig. 6(a)] and a pond ecosystem [Fig. 6(b)] shows an upright pyramid of numbers. In grassland,
the producers (grasses) are very large in number and form a broad base.

The primary consumers (herbivores like rabbit, mice), secondary consumers (snakes, lizards etc.) and
tertiary consumers (hawks or other birds) gradually decrease in number, hence the pyramid apex becomes
narrower forming an upright pyramid. Similar is the case with pond ecosystem. Here the producers, mainly
phytoplanktons such as algae and bacteria, are maximum in number. The carnivores (small fish, beetles etc.)
and top carnivores (large fish) decrease in number at higher trophic levels forming an upright pyramid of
numbers.

In a forest ecosystem, the producers are big trees which are less in number and hence form a narrow base. A
large number of herbivores including birds, insects and several species of animals feed upon trees and form
a much broad middle level. The secondary consumers like fox, snakes, lizards etc. are less in number than
herbivores while top carnivores such as lion, tiger are still less in number. So the pyramid is spindle-shaped,
i.e., narrow on both sides and broader in the middle [Fig. 6(c)].
Parasitic food chain shows an inverted pyramid of numbers. The producers like a few big trees harbour fruit
eating birds acting as herbivores which are larger in number. A much higher number of lice, bugs etc. grow
as ectoparasites on these birds while a still greater number of hyperparasites such as bugs, fleas and
microbes feed upon them, thus making an inverted pyramid [Fig. 6(d)],

Note that the pyramids of numbers do not reflect a true picture of the food chain as they are not very
functional. They do not indicate the relative effects of the geometry, food chain and size factors of the
organisms. They vary with different communities with different types of food chains in the same
environment.

2. Pyramid of Biomass:

These are comparatively more fundamental since instead of geometric factor, they show quantitative
relationship of the standing crops. Pyramid of biomass is based upon the total biomass (dry matter per unit
area) at each trophic level in a food chain. In a forest, the pyramid of biomass is upright in contrast to its
pyramid of numbers.

This is because the producers (trees) accumulate a huge biomass while the consumers total biomass feeding
on them declines at higher trophic levels resulting in broad base and narrowing top [Fig. 7(a)], In a pond
ecosystem, the total biomass of producers (phytoplanktons) is much less as compared to herbivores
(zooplanktons, insects), carnivores (small fish) or tertiary carnivores (large fish). Thus the pyramid takes an
inverted shape with narrow base and broad apex [Fig. 7(b)].

3. Pyramid of Energy:

Pyramid of energy is based on the amount of energy trapped per unit time and area in different trophic levels
of a food chain. It gives the best representation of the trophic relationships and is always upright (Fig. 8).
The energy content is generally expressed as kJ/m2/yr. At each successive trophic level, there is sharp
decline in energy (about 90% in the form of heat and respiration) as we move from producers to top
carnivores. Thus only 10% of the energy passes on at each next higher level forming an upright pyramid.
Succession:

Succession refers to change in a community following either physical or biological disturbance, when a
farmland is abandoned, a forest develops after a series of temporary communities. Like an organism every
plant community has a developmental history; this developmental history is called plant succession. A plant
community first comes into existence with the colonization of a bare area by spore-bearing or seed-bearing
plants. The bare area may be a rock, open soil surface or a shallow pool or lake; it is successively occupied
by different plant communities.

The concept of succession was largely developed by the botanists Warming (1909) and Cowles (1899), who
studied the stages of sand dune development.

According to Odum, “plant succession may be defined as an orderly process of community change”.

In the words of Salisbury, “Plant succession is a competitive drift in which at each phase until the climax the
constituent species render the habitat more favorable to their successors than to themselves.”

Most plant associations are not static and constant in extent and character but tend to expand their range to
cover the entire environment to which they are well suited. Some particular species, on account to its size,
abundance and ability to compete successfully with its associates, usually becomes dominant.

The presence of a particular dominant species, which is usually called as pioneer community, may in time
change conditions so that a very different group of plants invade the community and eventually replace the
original colonizers.

Climatic and topographic changes of various kinds may in time modify conditions so that there are marked
changes in the distribution of plant associations. In a given locality one group of plants may thus encroach
upon another. This kind of succession may be rapid, or it may extend over many years and it will continue
until stability is attained through the establishment of vegetation which is essentially permanent. This is
called as climax association for the region in question.

The great plant formations, such as forest, grassland, and tundra are climax formations. The process of
succession may start at places like bare rocks, exposed soil surface, shallow water such as a small pool,
silting up rivers and banks of a lake etc.

Plant succession may be of two kinds:

(i) Primary succession:

It begins in areas which have previously been unoccupied by plants, such as open water, bare rock, or sand.

(ii) Secondary succession:

This kind of succession begins wherever the existing vegetation has been destroyed without denuding the
area of soil. It usually starts after forest fires, cutting of the trees, flood and erosions. It is also of common
occurrence in abandoned agricultural lands. A single case of plant succession at a particular kind of habitat
is usually referred to as a sere, and the various stages of a sere are called seral stages.

Depending upon the nature of the habitat on which the plant succession begins seven types of seres
may be distinguished:

1. Hydrosere:

When succession starts in aquatic habitat (Fig. 4.1).

2. Xerosere:

When succession initiates on a dry, bare land.

3. Lithosere:

It starts on a bare rock surface.

4. Psammosere:

Initiating on sandy habitats. Here the pioneer community comprises sand-binding grasses with runners, e.g.
Spinifex and Ipomoea biloba.

5. Halosere:

It starts in saline soil or water. Here the pioneer plants usually have succulent leaves and stem e.g., Suaeda
maritima, Acanthus ilicifolius, Chenopodium, Basella and some species of Asclapias.

6. Senile:

It is the succession of micro-organisms and lower plants on dead plant parts and bodies.

7. Eosere or Geosere:

It is the development of vegetation in an era.

Process of Plant Succession:

Major steps in a autotrophic succession are as follows:

1. Nudation:

An area is exposed.

2. Migration:

The process of dispersal of seeds, spores and other structures of propagation of the species to bare area is
known as migration.
3. Germination:

It occurs when conditions are favourable.

4. Ecesis:

Successful germination of propagules and their establishment in a bare area is known as ecesis.

5. Colonisation and Aggregation:

After ecesis, the individuals of the species increase in number as the result of reproduction.

6. Competition and Co-action:

Due to limited resources, species show both inter and intraspecific competition. This results into elimination
of unsuitable and weaker plants.

7. Invasion:

Various other types of plants try to establish in the spaces left by the elimination of plants due to
competition.

8. Reaction:

The newly arrived plants interrupt with the existing ones. As a result of reaction, environment is modified
and becomes unsuitable for the existing community which sooner or later is replaced by another community.

9. Stabilisation:

Finally, there occurs a stage in the process when the climax community becomes more or less stabilized for
a longer period of time and it can maintain itself in equilibrium with the climate of the area. As compared to
seral stage community, the climax community has larger size of individuals, complex organization, complex
food chains and food webs, more efficient energy use and more nutrient conservation.

Major Trends during Succession:

1. There is an increase in structural complexity.

2. Diversity of species tends to increase.
3. Biomass and standing crop increase.
4. There is a decrease in net community production.
5. Increase in non-living matter.
6. Food chain relationship becomes complex.
7. Niche becomes special and narrower.
8. Energy use and nutrient conservation efficiency increases.
9. Stability increases.
Types of Seres:

(A) Hydrosere:

A sere beginning on a wet area is often referred to as a hydrosere. It may proceed in open bodies of water,
such as ponds, lakes, and marshes etc.
Hydrosere consists following six seral stages (Fig. 4.1):
(1) Submerged stage:
In this initial seral stage, a number of submerged aquatic plants, such as Hydrilla, Elodea, Potamogeton,
Ceratophyllum, Najas, Vallisnaria, Utricularia, Ranunculus and several algae occupy the shallow pond or
lake, which, accumulating after death and decay, gradually raise the bottom of the pond or lake. Silting may
also be associated with this accumulation. The inadequate oxidation of flora and fauna remains of the lake
results in the formation of humus-which makes the bottom of the lake firmer.

(2) Floating stage:

As the bottom of the lake is raised, a second, or floating, stage follows, characterized by plants like
Nymphaea, Polygonum, Limnanthemum and Castalia etc. These plants are rooted in the mud, and their
broad leaves float on the surface of the water shading the submerged plants below. Besides these, free
floating plants like Azolla, Eichornia and Lemna may also make their appearance. The death and decay of
the submerged and free floating plants further raise the level of the lake bottom and contribute further to the
soil-building process. This initiates the next reed-swamp stage.

(3) Reed-Swamp stage:

This stage is initiated in extremely shallow waters (i.e., hardly one to four feet deep). The area is invaded by
amphibious plants like Scirpus, Typha, Phragmites etc. These plants remain only partly submerged in water.

Their rhizomes are profusely branched and they are rooted in the bottom of the lake. These plants prevent
light to reach submerged and floating plants which consequently die, and their dead remains settle down on
the lake bottom raising its level further.

Now a second group of plants, such as Sagittaria, Alisma and Acorus etc., invades the area. Eventually the
habitat is made unfit for the growth of the plants of reed-swamp stage. The soil becomes dry enough to
afford a foothold for terrestrial species.

(4) Sedge meadow stage:

Reed-swamp stage is followed by sedge-meadow stage which is characterized by plants like Carex, Juncus
and Eleocharis. The soil level continues to rise and soil organic matter continues to increase. More
competent and dominant plants, such as Mentha, Caltha, Iris, Galium, Campanula and Teuricum etc., invade
the area. By excessive transpiration and soil binding, these species make the area too dry for any
hydrophytic plant. This eventually leads to other-sub-climax vegetation.

(5) Woodland stage:

The sedge-meadow stage leads to the formation of heath land which remains saturated with water in spring
and early summer. A new sub-climax vegetation dominated by shrubs and small trees make their appearance
in this area. Important among these plants are Salix, Cornus, Cephalanthus, Alnus and Populus etc. Due to
shade of these plants grasses and sedges disappear from the area. Shrubs and trees further lower the water
table and bind the soil.

(6) Climax forest stage:

As more and more plants appear in the area, competition among these plants also intensify and soil organic
matter further increases, soil becomes more fertile and consequently the area is invaded by larger trees.
Competition then becomes less intense as the community becomes stable and a climax state is reached. It
may also be pointed out here that succession in water always does not necessarily lead to land community.
When succession starts in deep and large open water it may lead to a stable aquatic vegetation.

(B) Xerosere:

When succession starts on a dry, bare area, it is usually referred to as xerosere. When the bare area is dry,
the pioneers may be more or less xerophytic, the degree of xerophytism depending on local climate and
physiographic factors.

A xerosere usually includes the following six seral stages (Fig. 4.2):

(1) Crustose lichen stage:

Succession on the bare rock surfaces begins with crustose lichens as pioneers. These lichens migrate to the
rocks by means of wind-borne spores and soredia. The lichens grow only when enough moisture is
available, but they can withstand drought conditions for long.

The lichens release carbon dioxide during respiration which after combining with water forms a weak acid.
The mechanical and chemical action of the lichens on the underlying rock, loosens particles, which, together
with decaying lichen remains form a thin layer of soil on the soil surface. The requisite nitrogen is brought
in by rain and wind-blown dust. These lichen form pioneer community.

(2) Foliose lichen stage:

Simple crustose lichens may be followed by larger, leafy forms, such as Parmelia, Dermatocarpon.
Umbilicaria, which grow on the slight accumulation of soil and humus Foliose lichens further loosen the
rock particles. They overshadow the crustose lichens which eventually die and decay thus increasing the
amount of humus in the soil.
(3) Moss stage:

Lichens are succeeded by mosses, which, like lichens, are able to survive in dry environment. These mosses
are xerophytic in nature and important among these are the species of Polytrichum and Tortula.These
mosses form an open community connected with a dense rhizoid system which passes through and binds
together a few millimeters of soil particles. Among the shoots of these mosses wind and water borne soil
continues to accumulate. The primary role of these mosses is to stabilize the soil surface and to increase its
water-holding capacity.

(4) Herbaceous stage:

The moss plants increase in number until a close carpet of moss is formed over the soil. The mosses shade
the lichens and successfully compote with them for water and nutrients which eventually result in the death
of the lichens. The death and decay of the lichens and old mosses add to the amount of organic matter in the
soil and still further increases its water- holding capacity.

In his way the habitat is rendered suitable for the growth of higher plants and consequently a new
community of herbaceous plants, such as Festuca, Verbascum, Poa, Potentilla and Solidago etc., invade the
area. The herbaceous plants over shadow the mosses, compete successfully with them for space, water and
nutrients. The soil increases in thickness by disintegration of the rock and the decay of the various plant
parts, more nutrients become available and next higher community, dominated by shrubs, appear.

(5) Shrub stage:

Shruby plants, such as Rhus, Physocarpus, Symphocicarpous, invade the area, erstwhile dominated by
herbaceous plants, by means of seeds and underground rhizomes. The herbaceous plants of the preceding
stage, now shaded, tend to disappear. The death and decay of the herbaceous plants further enrich the soil.
As the shrubs grow in size and number, they continue to modify the soil and make the habitat more and
more suitable for the support of still higher plants i.e., trees.

(6) Climax forest stage:

The first tree species to invade the area are usually xerophytic in character, but as the soil moisture
increases, these are gradually replaced by mesophytic ones. The mesophytic species compete successfully
and become dominant because their seedlings are much more shade-tolerant. Competition gradually
becomes less intense as the community becomes stable and a climax state is reached.

Theories of the Climax Community (Climax Concept)

The final stage of succession is called the climax or climax community (Clements, 1936; Shimwell 1971).

It is the final or stable community in a successional series. It is self-perpetuating and in equilibrium with the
physical and biotic environment.

Climax communities undergo changes in structure as a result of birth, death and growth processes in the
community.

There are following theories of the climax:

1. Mono-climax Theory:

According to the mono-climax theory of succession (Clements, 1936), every region has one climax
community toward which all communities are developing. He believed that climate was the determining
factor for vegetation and the climax of any area was solely a function of its climate. Various terms such as
sub-climax, dis-climax, post-climax, and pre-climax are used to describe the deviations from the climatically
stabilized climax. These communities, controlled by topographic, edaphic (soil), or biotic factors are
regarded as exceptions by the supporters of the mono-climax view.

2. Poly climax Theory:

This theory was proposed by Tansley (1939) and later supported by Daubenmire (1966). The poly-climax
theory of succession holds that many different types of vegetation as climax communities may be
recognized in a given area. These will be climaxes, controlled by soil moisture, soil nutrients, activity of
animals and other factors. According to this theory, climate is only one of the several factors, any of which
may have a controlling influence on the structure and stability of the climax. This allows many climaxes in a
climate region and is, therefore, called the poly-climax theory.

The difference between this theory and the mono-climax theory is largely a matter of emphasis on which
factor is responsible for the stability of a climax. According to Krebs (1994), the real difference between two
theories lies in the time factor of measuring relative stability. The climate varies on an ecological time scale
as well as on a geological time scale. Succession in a sense, then, is continuous because we have variable
vegetation approaching a variable climate.

3. Climax-pattern Theory:

Whittaker (1953) emphasized that a natural community is adapted to the whole pattern of environmental
factors in which it exists; the major factors are: genetic structure of each species, climate, site, soil, biotic
factors (activity of animals), fire, and wind, availability of plant and animal species, and chances of
dispersal. According to this theory, climax communities are patterns of populations varying according to the
total environment. There is thus no discrete number of climax communities and no one factor determines the
structure and stability of a climax community.

Whereas the mono-climax theory allows for only one climatic climax in a region and the poly-climax theory
allows several climaxes, the climax-pattern hypothesis allows a continuity of climax types varying gradually
along environmental gradients and not clearly separable into discrete climax types.

4. Climax as Vegetation:

According to Egler (1954) one can say that “climaxes” in a broad sense are nothing more than totality of
vegetation, itself He, thus, favours the study, of vegetation; as it is, with careful observations to explain and
interpret past, present, and future conditions of particular communities.

We may conclude from these theories that the end point of succession is climax which is in itself not
completely stable. The climate of an area has overall control on the vegetation; but within each of the broad
climatic zones there are many modifications caused by soil, topography, and animals which lead to many
climax situations. Climax communities do not necessarily represent a halt to successional change.
Ecotone:

The zone where two or more different communities meet and integrate, is called transition zone or ecotone.
This zone of integration may be narrow or wide, local (e.g., a zone between field and a forest) or regional
(e.g., the transition between forest and grass land). Ecotone contains few species from both communities.
The total number of species is often greater in the ecotone than in the adjoining communities.

The ecotone or transition zone exhibits a shift in dominance of the conspicuous species of both sides. It may
also include a number of highly adaptable species that tend to colonize such transitional areas. Because of
this, the variety (i.e., species diversity) and density of life is often greatest in such areas.

Characteristics of Ecotone

 It may be narrow (between grassland and forest) or wide (between forest and desert).
 It has conditions intermediate to the adjacent ecosystems. Hence it is a zone of tension.
 Usually, the number and the population density of the species of an outgoing community decreases
as we move away from the community or ecosystem.
 A well-developed ecotone contains some organisms which are entirely different from that of the
adjoining communities.

Edge Effect:

This potential for the ecotone to act as a habitat for species found in neither major community is called edge
effect. Thus the tendency of increased variety and density of some organisms at the community border is
known as edge effect.

The organisms that occur primarily, or most abundantly, or spend the greatest amount of their time in
junctions between communities are called edge species. A common example of the edge effect in action can
be seen in those species of owl that live in or near ecotones between forests and grasslands. They depend on
forest trees for nesting and do their hunting in the grassland, where they depend on field rodents for food.

In man-made communities such as agricultural fields, the ecotone between the field and the forest act as
refuge for species formerly found in the ploughed area, as well as for other plants such as weeds. Ecotones
of this type are also the prime habitat of may species of insects, game birds, and mammals.
Ecological efficiency

Ecological efficiency describes the efficiency with which energy is transferred from one trophic level to the
next. It is determined by a combination of efficiencies relating to organismic resource acquisition and
assimilation in an ecosystem.

Energy transfer:

A diagram of energy transfer between trophic levels

Primary production occurs in autotrophic organisms of an ecosystem. Photoautotrophs such as vascular

plants and algae convert energy from the sun into energy stored as carbon compounds. Photosynthesis is
carried out in the chlorophyll of green plants. The energy converted through photosynthesis is carried
through the trophic levels of an ecosystem as organisms consume members of lower trophic levels.

Primary production can be broken down into gross and net primary production. Gross primary production is
a measure of the energy that a photoautotroph harvests from the sun. The fraction of that energy that is
converted into glucose reflects the gross productivity of the blade of grass. The energy remaining after
respiration is considered the net primary production. In general, gross production refers to the energy
contained within an organism before respiration and net production the energy after respiration. The terms
can be used to describe energy transfer in both autotrophs and heterotrophs.

Energy transfer between trophic levels is generally inefficient, such that net production at one trophic level
is generally only 10% of the net production at the preceding trophic level (the Ten percent law). Due to
non-predatory death, egestion, and cellular respiration, a significant amount of energy is lost to the
environment instead of being absorbed for production by consumers. The figure approximates the fraction of
energy available after each stage of energy loss in a typical ecosystem, although these fractions vary greatly
from ecosystem to ecosystem and from trophic level to trophic level. The loss of energy by a factor of one
half from each of the steps of non-predatory death, defecation, and respiration is typical of many living
systems. Thus, the net production at one trophic level is 1/2*1/2*1/2=1/8 or approximately ten percent that
of the trophic level before it.

Quantifying ecological efficiency

Ecological efficiency is a combination of several related efficiencies that describe resource utilization and
the extent to which resources are converted into biomass.
  Exploitation efficiency is the amount of food ingested divided by the amount of prey production
(In/Pn-1)
 Assimilation efficiency is the amount of assimilation divided by the amount of food ingestion (An/In)
 Net Production efficiency is the amount of consumer production divided by the amount of
assimilation (Pn/An)
 Gross Production efficiency is the assimilation efficiency multiplied by the net production efficiency,
which is equivalent to the amount of consumer production divided by amount of ingestion (Pn/In)
 Ecological efficiency is the exploitation efficiency multiplied by the assimilation efficiency
multiplied by the net production efficiency, which is equivalent to the amount of consumer
production divided by the amount of prey production (Pn/Pn-1)

Theoretically, it is easy to calculate ecological efficiency using the mathematical relationships above. It is
often difficult, however, to obtain accurate measurements of the values involved in the calculation.
Assessing ingestion, for example, requires knowledge of the gross amount of food consumed in an
ecosystem as well as its caloric content. Such a measurement is rarely better than an educated estimate,
particularly with relation to ecosystems that are largely inaccessible to ecologists and tools of measurement.
The ecological efficiency of an ecosystem is as a result often no better than an approximation. On the other
hand, an approximation may be enough for most ecosystems, where it is important not to get an exact
measure of efficiency, but rather a general idea of how energy is moving through its trophic levels.

Applications

In agricultural environments, maximizing energy transfer from producer (food) to consumer (livestock) can
yield economic benefits. A sub-field of agricultural science has emerged that explores methods of
monitoring and improving ecological and related efficiencies.

In comparing the net efficiency of energy utilization by cattle, breeds historically kept for beef production,
such as the Hereford, outperformed those kept for dairy production, such as the Holstein, in converting
energy from feed into stored energy as tissue. This is a result of the beef cattle storing more body fat than the
dairy cattle, as energy storage as protein was at the same level for both breeds. This implies that cultivation
of cattle for slaughter is a more efficient use of feed than is cultivation for milk production.

While it is possible to improve the efficiency of energy use by livestock, it is vital to the world food question
to also consider the differences between animal husbandry and plant agriculture. Caloric concentration in fat
tissues are higher than in plant tissues, causing high-fat organisms to be most energetically-concentrated;
however, the energy required to cultivate feed for livestock is only partially converted into fat cells. The rest
of the energy input into cultivating feed is respired or egested by the livestock and unable to be used by
humans.

Ten percent law: The ten percent law of transfer of energy from one trophic level to the next can be
attributed to Raymond Lindeman (1942), although Lindeman did not call it a "law" and cited ecological
efficiencies ranging from 0.1% to 37.5%. According to this law, during the transfer of organic food energy
from one trophic level to the next higher level, only about ten percent of the transferred energy is stored as
flesh. The remaining is lost during transfer, broken down in respiration, or lost to incomplete digestion by
higher trophic level.
Biogeochemical Cycles

The chemical elements tend to circulate in the biosphere in characteristic paths from environment to
organisms and back to the environment.

These more or less circular paths of the chemical elements are known as the Biogeochemical cycles.

These cycles of chemical elements involve biological organisms and their geological environment. Hence,
they are collectively referred to as biogeochemical In this term “bio” refers to living organisms and “geo” to
the rocks, soil, air, and water of the earth (Odum, 1963).

For each cycle two compartments or pools may be recognized. These are: (a) the nutrient pool or the
reservoir pool, which is the large, slow-moving, generally non-biological component; and (b) the exchange
or cycling pool, which is a small but more active portion that is exchanged (i.e., moved back and forth).
There are three basic types of biogeochemical cycles.

(a) Gaseous type:

In this type of biogeochemical cycles, the atmosphere constitutes the major reservoir of the element that
exists there in gaseous phase. Such cycles show little or no permanent change in the distribution and
abundance of the element. The Carbon, Oxygen and Nitrogen cycles are good examples of biogeochemical
cycles with prominent gaseous phase.

(b) Sedimentary type:

In the sedimentary type of cycle major reservoir is the lithosphere, from which the elements are released by
weathering. The sedimentary types are best exemplified by Phosphorus, Sulphur, and Iodine cycles. In these
cycles a little portion of the supply may get lost, as in the deep ocean sediments, and thereby becomes
inaccessible to organisms and to continual cycling.

(c) Hydrological cycle or Water cycle:

The hydrologic (water) cycle has been included in gaseous types of cycles by Odum (1963). But Kormondy
(1969) considers it to be a separate major cycle, involving the movement of a compound, while the others
involve the movement of elements.

Carbon cycle:

Carbon is the basic constituent of all organic compounds. Since energy transfer occurs in the consumption
and storage of carbohydrates and fats, carbon moves to the ecosystem with flow of energy The source of
nearly all carbon found in the living organisms is CO2 which is found in free state in atmosphere and in
dissolved state in the water on the earth. Green plants (producers) use CO2 through photosynthesis in the
presence of sunlight and carbohydrate is formed. Later on, complex fats and polysaccharides are formed in
plants which are utilized by animals.

Flesh eating animals (carnivores) feed on herbivores and the carbon compounds are again digested and
converted into the other forms. Carbon is released to the atmosphere directly as CO2 in respiration of both
plants and animals.

Bacteria and fungi attack the dead remains of plants and animals. They degrade the complex organic
compounds into simple substances which are then available for other cycles. Part of the organic carbon is
incorporated into the earth’s crust as coal, gas, petroleum, limestone and coral reef Carbon from such
deposits may be liberated after a long period of time (Fig. 3.18).
Nitrogen cycle:

Of all the elements which plants absorb from the soil, nitrogen is the most important for plant growth. This
is required in greatest quantity. Nitrogen is required for the synthesis of amino acid, proteins, enzymes,
chlorophylls, nucleic acids, etc.

Green plants obtain nitrogen from the soil solution in the form of ammonium, nitrate and nitrite ions and the
main source of all these nitrogen compounds is the atmospheric nitrogen. The atmospheric nitrogen is not
directly available to the organisms with the exception of some prokaryotes like blue green algae and
nitrogen fixing bacteria.

Nitrogen cycle consists of the following steps:

(1) Nitrogen fixation,

(2) Nitrogen assimilation,

(3) Ammonification,

(4) Nitrification,

(5) Denitrification, and

(6) Sedimentation.

1. Nitrogen fixation:

Conversion of free nitrogen of atmosphere into the biologically acceptable form or nitrogenous compounds
is referred to as nitrogen fixation.

This process is of two types:

(a) Physicochemical or non-biological nitrogen fixation

(b) Biological nitrogen fixation.

In physicochemical process of nitrogen fixation, atmospheric nitrogen combines with oxygen (as ozone)
during lightning or electrical discharges in the clouds and produces different nitrogen oxides:

The nitrogen oxides get dissolved in rain water and on reaching earth surface they react with mineral
compounds to form nitrates and other nitrogenous compounds:

Biological nitrogen fixation is carried out by certain prokaryotes. Some blue-green algae fix significant
amounts of nitrogen in the oceans, lakes and soils. Symbiotic bacteria (Rhizobium) inhabiting the root
nodules of legumes and also the species of alder, buck brush and a number of other non-leguminous genera
and symbiotic blue-green algae (species of Nostoc Anabaena, etc.) found in free state or in the thalli of
Anthoceros, Salvenia, Azolla, coralloid roots of Cycas fix atmospheric nitrogen. The relation is mutualistic
because the microbes use energy from the plants to fix nitrogen that is made available to the host plants and
other plants of the community.

Certain free living nitrogen fixing bacteria, such as Azotobacter, Clostridium Beijermckia. Derxia.
Rhodospirillium also fix free nitrogen of atmosphere in the soil. Frankia an actmomycetous fungus found in
the roots of Alnus, Percia, Casuarina, etc. also fixes nitrogen. Nitrogen fixing organisms combine the
gaseous nitrogen of atmosphere with hydrogen obtained from respiratory pathway to form ammonia which
then reacts with organic acids to form aminoacids. Biological nitrogen fixation is the major source of fixed
nitrogen upto 140—700 mg/m2/year as against 35 mg/m2/year by electrical discharge and photochemical
fixation.

2. Nitrogen assimilation:

Inorganic nitrogen in the form of nitrates, nitrites and ammonia is absorbed by the green plants and
converted into nitrogenous organic compounds. Nitrates are first converted into ammonia which combines
with organic acids to form amino acids. Amino acids are used in the synthesis of proteins, enzymes,
chlorophylls, nucleic acids, etc. Animals derive their nitrogen requirement from the plant proteins. Plant
proteins are not directly utilized by the animals. They are first broken down into amino acids during
digestion and then the amino acids are absorbed and manipulated into animal proteins, nucleic acids, etc.

3. Ammonification:

The dead organic remains of plants and animals and excreta of animals are acted upon by a number of
microorganisms especially actinomycetes and bacilli (Bacillus ramosus, B. vulgaris, B. mesenterilus). These
organisms utilize organic compounds in their metabolism and release ammonia.

4. Nitrification:

Certain bacteria, such as Nitrosomonas, Nitrococcus, Nitrosogloea and Nitrospira in oceans and soils
convert ammonia into nitrites and then nitrites into nitrates. These bacteria primarily use the energy of dead
organic matter in their metabolism.

2NH4++ 202 →NO2– + 2H2O + energy

Conversion of nitrites to nitrates is brought about by several microbes like Penicillium species, Nitrobacter,
Nitrocystis etc. Nitrocystis oceanus is the common marine autotroph which performs nitrification for
obtaining energy.

2NO-2 + O2 → 2NO3– + energy

Some nitrates are also made available through weathering of nitrate containing rocks.

5. Denitrification:

Ammonia and nitrates are converted into free nitrogen by certain microbes. This process is referred to as de-
nitrification. Thiobacillus denitrificans, Micrococcus de-nitrificans, Pseudomonas aeruginosa are the
common examples of denitrifying bacteria.

2NO-3→ 2NO-2→2NO→ N2O→N2

6. Sedimentation:

Nitrates of the soil are washed down to the sea or leached deep into the earth along with percolating water.
Nitrates thus lost from the soil surface are locked up in the rocks. This is sedimentation of nitrogen. Nitrogen
of rock is released only when the rocks are exposed and weathered.

Thus a large part of nitrogen is fixed up and stored in plants, animals, and microbes. Nitrogen leaves the
living system in the same amount it is taken in from the atmosphere and the input and outflow of nitrogen
are balanced in the ecosystem. The overall nitrogen cycle in nature v presented in Fig. 3.20.

Phosphorus cycle:

Plants and animals obtain phosphorus from the environment. Phosphorus is a component of nucleic acids,
ADP, ATP, NADP, phospholipids etc. It occurs in the soil as rock phosphate, apatite or calcium phosphate,
fluorapatite [Ca10Fe2 (PO4)6], iron phosphate or aluminium phosphate. Soils derived from the rock beds rich
in phosphates are rich in phosphorus.
Phosphorus occurs in the soil in five forms P1 (stable organic), P2 (labile organic), P3 (labile inorganic), P4
(soluble) and P5 (mineral form) and of these forms, P3 and P4 are in equilibrium and entry of phosphorus in
the green plants is considered to occur via labile inorganic pool.

The dissolved phosphorus is absorbed by plants and converted into organic form. From plants it travels to
various trophic levels in the form of organic phosphates. When the plants and animals die the decomposers
attack them and liberate phosphorus to the environment. Thus, this process proceeds in cyclic way. A
general picture of the phosphorus cycling is presented in Fig. 3.21.

Phosphorus along with many other mineral elements reaches the oceans and settles down as sediment. A
good proportion of phosphorus leaches down to deep layers of soil. In this way, major proportion of
phosphate becomes lost to this cycle by physical processes, such as sedimentation and leaching. Biological
processes such as formation of teeth and bones also keep phosphorus locked up for some time.
Productivity:

The rate of biomass production or the amount of food energy produced or obtained or stored by a particular
trophic level per unit area in a unit time is called productivity. It can also be defined as the energy
accumulated in plants by photosynthesis. The unit of productivity is gm/m2/year or kcal/m2/year.

According to Odum there are three types of productivities – primary productivity, secondary productivity
and community productivity.

Primary Productivity:

Primary productivity is the productivity at the producer level. It can be termed as the amount of organic
matter produced by the plants from solar energy in a given area during a given period of time.
Approximately 1-5% of solar energy that falls on the plant is converted to organic matter.

Primary productivity is of two types:

i. Gross Primary Productivity (GPP):

This refers to the total amount of organic matter produced. This also includes what is used by the producer
in respiration. This can also be defined as total energy captured by the photosynthetic organism. This will
depend on the photosynthetic capacity of the producer and environmental factors. Mean net primary
production is high in tropical rain forest while it is the lowest in deserts.

ii. Net Primary Productivity (NPP):

This productivity refers to the gross production minus the loss by respiration and decomposition. This is also
called as apparent photosynthesis or net assimilation.

NPP = GPP – Respiration

It can also be defined as the balance energy or biomass remaining after meeting the cost of respiration of
producers. It is the net stored energy in the green plants. This is the net accumulation of biomass which
serves as food for herbivores and decomposers. NPP is said to be a measure of amount of organic matter
produced in a community in a given time available to the heterotrophs.

Secondary Productivity:

This refers to the productivity at the consumer level. The secondary productivity reflects only the utilisation
of food for production of consumer biomass. It can be referred to as the net rate of increase in biomass of
heterotrophs. The secondary productivity acts as food to the next trophic level (Fig. 3).
Community Productivity:

This is the rate of net synthesis of organic matter by a community per unit time and area.
 Unit-V
Phytogeography

According to Campbell (1926), the main theme of plant geography is to discover the similarities and
diversities in the plants and floras of the present and past found in widely separated parts of the earth.

Wulff (1943) states that Phytogeography is the study of distribution of plant species in their habitats and
elucidation of origin and history of development of floras.

According to Croizat (1952), Phytogeography is the study of migration and evolution of plants in time and
space.

Major Divisions of Phytogeography:

There are two major divisions of Phytogeography:

(i) Descriptive or Static Phytogeography

(ii) Interpretive or Dynamic Phytogeography

Descriptive Phytogeography:

This deals with the actual description of floristic or vegetational groups found in different parts of the world.
Early plant geographers described floras and attempted to divide earth into floristic and botanical zones.

Interpretive or Dynamic Phytogeography:

This deals with the dynamics of migration and evolution of plants and floras. It explains the reasons for
varied distribution of plant species in different parts of the world. It is a borderline science involving
synthesis and integration of data and concepts from several specialized disciplines like ecology, physiology,
genetics, taxonomy, evolution, palaeontology and geology. Good (1931), Mason (1936), Cain (1944) and
some others have pointed out the factors involved in the distribution of plants.

Principles of Phytogeography

Lowerence (1951) has suggested the following thirteen modern principles of Phytogeography which
are classified into four groups:

I. Principles concerning environment:

1. The distribution of plants is primarily controlled by climatic conditions.

2. There has been variation in climate during geological history in the past which affected migration of
plants.

3. The relations between land masses and seas have varied in the past. The large land masses split up to form
new land masses or continents which separated and reoriented. Land bridges between continents acted as
probable routes for migration of plant and animal species. The land bridges became submerged in sea with
the passage of time and the possibility for migration of plants and animals from one continent to another
disappeared for ever.
4. Soil conditions on plains and mountains of different land masses show secondary control on distribution
of vegetation. Halophytes, psammophytes, calcicols, calcifobs etc. have developed because of edaphic
conditions.

5. Biotic factors also play important role in distribution and establishment of plant species.

6. The environment is holocentric, i.e., all environmental factors have combined effects on the vegetation of
a place (Ale & Pank, 1939).

II. Principles concerning plant responses:

7. Range of distribution of plants is limited by their tolerances. Each plant species has a range of climatic
and edaphic conditions. Therefore, tolerance of a large taxon is the sum of tolerances of its constituent
species.

8. Tolerances have a Genetic basis. The response of plants to environment is governed by their genetic
makeup. Many of the crops through breeding and genetic changes have been made to grow in wider range of
environmental conditions. In nature, hybrid plants have been found to have wider range of tolerances than
their parents.

9. Different ontogentic phases have different tolerances. Different developmental stages of plants show
different degree of tolerances, as for example seeds and mature plants are more tolerants to temperature and
moisture variations than their seedlings.

III. Principles concerning the migration of floras and climaxes:

10. Large scale migrations have taken place. The fossils and palaeoecological evidences reveal that large
scale migrations of plants and animals have taken place during Mesozoic era and Tertiary periods.

11. Migration resulted from transport and establishment. In the process of migration plants are dispersed to
new habitats through their propagules such as spores, seeds, bulbils etc., and there they are established if
environmental conditions are favourable. Plants grow and reproduce there and progeny perpetuates through
ecological adjustments.

IV. Principles concerning the perpetuation and evolution of floras and climaxes:

12. Perpetuation depends first upon migration and secondly upon the ability of species to transmit the
favourable variations to the progenies.

13. Evolution of floras and climaxes depends upon migration, evolution of species and environmental
selections.

Distribution:

On the basis of area of the earth surface occupied by the plants, the various taxa are categorized as
under:

1. Wides.

2. Endemics.

3. Discontinuous species.

1. Wides:
Plants widely distributed over the earth in definite climatic zones and the different continents are referred to
as wides. Cosmopolitan is applied for wides but, in fact, no plant is cosmopolitan in real sense of the term.
Taraxacum officinale and Chaenopodium album are the common examples of the wides. Plants of tropical
regions are called Pantropical. The plants of very cold climate may not only be found in the arctic regions
but also in alpine zone of mountains in tropical and subtropical regions. These are called arctic-alpine plants.

2. Endemics:

A taxon whose distribution is confined to a given area is said to be endemic to that area. The taxon may be
of any rank, although it is usually at a family level or below, and its range of distribution may be wide,
spanning an entire continent, or very narrow covering only a few square metres. The concept of endemism is
important because in the past the formulation of biogeographic regions was based on it.

The limits of a region are determined by mapping the distributions of taxa; where the outer boundaries of
many taxa occur, a line delimiting? a biogeographic region is drawn. Major regions are still determined as
those that have the most endemics or stated another way, those that share the fewest taxa with other regions.
As regions are further broken down into subdivisions, they will contain fewer unique taxa.

This has been criticized because it assumes that species ranges are stable, which they are not. An alternative
method of determining biogeographic regions involves calculating degrees of similarity between geographic
regions. The concept of endemic distribution of plants was put forth by A.P. de Candolle (1813). Engler
(1882) suggested two categories of endemic forms; Palaeo-endemics which are survivors of ancient forms
and indigenous or native forms which are confined to a particular ocahty. According to area of distribution,
the species may be continental endemics (restricted to a continent, endemic to a country, provincial, regional
or local endemics (restricted to valley, hills, islands, etc.).

Now the endemic species have been grouped into the following categories:

(i) Relics or Palaeoendemics:

They are the survivors of once widely distributed ancestral forms, for example, Ginkgo biloba (restricted to
China and Japan), Sequoia sempervirens (confined to coastal valleys of California, U.S.A.). Agathis
australis, Metasequoia (Confined to Single valley in China). These species are called Palaeoendemics or
epibionts. A great majority of the endemic species belonging to this type have many fossil relatives. They
are also called living fossils. Because of little variability the endemics are adapted only to a particular
environment and even if they reach new areas, they fail to establish themselves in new environment.

(ii) Neoendemics:

The other endemics may be modem species which have had not enough time for occupying a large area
through migration. They are called neoendemics. There are several such genera which are widely endemic
or few species of which are endemic. Neoendemics show good variability and have many biotypes, grow in
diverse habitats and have wide tolerance for habitats.

Some of the well known endemic genera in Indian flora are Mecanopsis (Papaveraceae) Chloroxylon
swietenia (Flindersiaceae, formerly Rutaceae). Catenaria and Butea (Papilionaceae) Caesulia (Compositae),
Petalidium (Acanthaceae), etc. Eletteria repens (Zingiberaceae) Piper longum (Piperaceae), Piper nigrum
(Piperaceae), Ficus religiosa (Moraceae), Shorea robusta (Dipterocarpaceae), Venda caerulea (Orchidaceae),
Salmalia malabarica (Bombacaceae) Eleusine coracana (Grammeae) are the well known endemic species of
Indian flora.

There are some special terms to designate the quality of these endemics, viz. Local endemics which are
found in small land features, progressive endemics which tend to spread with time retrogressive endemics in
which case the area of distribution is contracting and micro-endemics (i.e., the endemics of lower groups).
Pseudo endemics:

These endemics arise due to mutation in existing population at a particular place. These pseudo endemics or
mutants may or may not persist for long in the particular area where they originate. Endemism results from
the failure on the part of species to disseminate its seeds fruits spores or propagules because of existence of
great barriers like mountains, oceans and large deserts. The oceanic islands which are isolated from rest of
the world by large expanses of water abound in endemic species and water barrier checks the migration of
those species outside their original habitat.

3. Discontinuous Distribution:

When plants occur at two or more distant places of the world which are separated by overland’s or oceans
hundreds or thousands of kilometres apart. Such a distribution is called discontinuous or disjunct
distribution. Three genera Nothofagus, Jovellona and a for example are found in parts of South America,
South Africa and Australia which are -paraded by vast oceans.

The significant phytogeographical causes for discontinuous distribution are as follows:

(i) The species might have evolved at more than one place and they failed to migrate outside their original
habitats because of barriers.

(ii) The species which were once widely distributed in the past disappeared from certain areas and are now
surviving in some distant pockets.

(iii) The climate may also be a factor for discontinuity in distribution of species. Plants having specific
climatic requirements are found in widely separated areas with similar environmental conditions, as for
example, plants of arctic regions are also found in alpine zone of high mountains in tropics and subtropics.
Salix and Silen species show discontinuous distribution in arctic-alpine regions.

Bio-Geographical Regions in India

India has only 2.4% of the world’s land area, but contributes about 8.1% to global species diversity. This
makes India one of the 12 mega biodiversity countries in the world. The country is divided into 10
biogeographic regions. The diverse ecological habitats such as forests, grasslands, wetlands, coastal and
marine ecosystems and desert ecosystems have helped to harbour and sustain immense biodiversity in the
country.

The eight main Phytogeography regions of India are: 1. Flora of Deccan 2. Flora of Malabar 3. Flora of
Indus Plain 4. Flora of Gangetic Plain 5. Flora of Assam 6. Flora of Eastern Himalayas 7. Flora of Central
Himalayas 8. Flora of Western Himalaya.

1. Flora of Deccan:

Deccan includes entire peninsula South of Ganges and east of Malabar. The important trees are Michelia
champaca, Dillenia aurea, Chloroxylon swetenia, Cedrela toona, Santalum album, Pterocarpus sentalinus,
Soyamida, and tree ferns etc.

Shrubs are mainly Zizyphus, Grewia, Bauhinia, Woodfordia, Capparis, Lagerstroemia, Holarrhena;
Climbers like Hiptage, Cassytlea, Dioscorea, Ipomoea, Vitis, Smilax etc. Euphorbia nerrifolia and E. tortilis
etc., are common in dry areas whereas herbs are commonly belonging to Lamiaceae, Amaranthaceae,
Acanthaceae, Commelinaceae and Orchidacee etc. Bambusa arundinacea, Dendrocalamus, Borassus
flabellifer, Phoenix sp. etc. represent family of Arecaceae and Poaceae.
Deccan is characterized by presence of “black cotton soil”. Common planes of this soil are Hibiscus, Cassia
auriculata, Acacia arabica, Parkinsonia aculeata, Calotropis procera, Zizyphus numularia, Jatropha
grandiflora etc.

The vegetation of Coromandal subregion is same in Deccan except some estuarial and mangrove plants such
as Brugiera, Ceriops, Avicinnia etc. Other plants are Mimusops, Garciia, Chloroxylon swietenia, Strychnos
nux-vomica etc.

2. Flora of Malabar:

Area of Malabar includes Kerala, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Karnataka. Hill areas of western ghats are also
included in this zone.

Generally, the plants are distributed into:

(a) Temperate evergreen forests, (b) Subtropical evergreen forests, (c) Tropical evergreen forests,

(d) Tropical semi-evergreen forests, (e) Tropical deciduous forests, and (f) Mangrove forests.

(a) Temperate evergreen forests:

The area includes Nilgri hills, Palni, Annamalai and Tirunevelly hills etc. The vegetation shows red tinged
leaves of the trees, e.g., Meliosma wightii, Michelia nilgirica, Rhododendron nilgiricum, Toddalia, Clematis,
Impatiens, Arisema, Cymbopogon etc.

(b) Subtropical evergreen forests:

The dominant vegetation of this area is Memecylon, Syzygiun, Etnblica officinalis, Murraya koenigii,
Rhododendron nilgiricum, Smilax, Piper, Clematis etc.

(c) Tropical evergreen forests:

The area of includes Mysore plateau, western side of Western Ghats, Coorg and Annamalai Hills etc.
Evergreen dense vegetation dominates by the presence of Dillenia pentogyna, Terminalia balerica,
Artocarpus peltata, Cinnamomum zeylenicum, Areca, Calamus, Croton, Ixora etc.

(d) Tropical semi evergreen forests:

Plateau of Western Ghats is the main centre with the presence of Dipterocarpus, Lagerstroemia, Xylia,
Rauwolfia serpentina, and Terminalia etc.

(e) Tropical deciduous forests:

Wet and Dry types of vegetation are found. Wet type is common in Cochin, west coast of Karnataka and
Travencore etc., where rainfall is more. Dominant vegetation is of Tectona grandis, Grewia tiliaefolia, Butea
monosperma, Dalbergia latifolia, Mitragyna parviflora, Bombax malabaricum (B. ceiba), Adina cordifolia,
Xylia xylocarpa, Anogeissus latifolia, Santalum album, Erythrina variegata, Lantana, Clerodendron,
Woodfordia, Kydia calycina, Bambusa arundinacea, Terminalia tomntosa, Gardinia latifolia etc.

(f) Mangrove forest:

The vegetation is found in Elora, Elephanta, Bombay suburbs, Mudh Island, Arabian sea shore etc. the
major plants are of Rhizophora, Bruguiera parviflora, Ceriops tagal, Kandelia candel, Xylocarpus grantum
Acanthus illicifolius, Sonneratia etc.
3. Flora of Indus Plain:

The area comprises of Gujarat, Delhi, Rajasthan, Haryana and Punjab. It is the dry region from plains to Mt.
Abu; deserts and irrigated lands. Rainfall is very low in extremely dry areas. Indus plain can be divided into
3 types of vegetation as tropical dry deciduous, tropical thorny and dry shrubs.

On the basis of topography the area is divided into 3 areas and the vegetation of the region is as
follows:

(a) Aravallies:

Anogeissus pendula, Butea, Acacia catechu, Bombax, Zizyphus, Grewia salvifolia, Maytenus (syn.
Gymnosporia), Balanites roxburghii, Boswelia serrata, Nyctanthes, Carissa, Euphorbia nivulia, Mangifera
indica etc. are prominent. Bamboos are absent

(b) Irrigated or Riverine Lowlands:

It is dominated by Dalbergia sisso, Populus, Butea, Mangifera, Anthocephalus, Amoora, Bombax, Acacia,
Melia azadarach, Azadirachta indica, Polyalthia longifolia, Albizia lebbeck, Eucalyptus, Cordia,
Lagerstroemia, Ficus religiosa, F. benghalensis, F. infectoria and sp. of Ficus etc.

(c) Kutch:

Generally the vegetation is of thorny plants e.g., Acacia nelotica, A. Senegal, Salvadora, Cassia, Tinospora,
Tamarix, Tragia, Rivea, Vitis, Apluda, Cymbopogon, Eragrostis, Paspalidium, Cenchrus, Peristrophe,
Grewia populnifolia, Commiphora wightii etc.

(d) Arid Sandy zone:

It includes sandy areas of Rajasthan and Punjab mainly. The land is not irrigated. The plants of this zone
mainly are xerophytes e.g., Argemone, Tephrosia, Acacia leucophloea, Prosopis, Salvadora, Butea, Opuntia,
Agave, Calotropis, Tamarix, Sueda, Salsola, Solanun surattense, Tribulus, Capparis, Boerhaavia, Echinops
etc.

(e) Desert zone:

It is the long track of Rajasthan and other adjoining areas. Mainly sand, gravel and Rock communities are
found in this zone e.g., Calotropis procera, Calligonum, Capparis, Citrullus, Aerua, Indigofera, Zizyphus,
Farsetia, Salvadora, Tecomella, Maytenus, Tribullus terrestris, Fagonia, Boerhaavia diffusa, Eleusine
aristata, Aristida mutabilis, Poinciana, Ficus religiosa, Melia azadirachta, Convolvulus, Lepidagathis,
Achyranthes, Salsola, Pupalia, Lindenbergia, etc.

4. Flora of Gangetic Plain:

The area extends from east Delhi to Sundarbans of Bengal passing through Bihar, Orissa and U.P. It
includes dry deciduous (Scrub) and Moist deciduous vegetation. Sometimes the Indus region and Gangetic
region, because of similar type of vegetation, is called as Indo Gangetic plain. The Gangetic plain divided
into upper Gangetic plain, Lower Gangetic plain and Sundarbans.

(a) Upper Gangetic plain:

The vegetation is dominated by Acacia nilotica, Balanites, Jatropha, Flacourtia, Capparis decidua, Butea
monosperma, Madhuca, Zizyphus, Dalbergia, Phoenix, Nyctanthes, Woodfordia, Adhatoda, Terminalia,
Prosopis, Tinospora, Vitis, Cocculus, Ixora, Carissa, Hemidesmus and many types of grass.
(b) Lower Gangetic plain:

The vegetation is dominated by Shorea robusta, Artocarpus, Lagerstroemia, Ptersopermum, Bombax,

Ehertia, Adhatoda, Murraya koenigii, Pogosternon, Aegle marmelos, Holoptelea, Areca, Borassus,
Pagostemon etc.

(c) Sunderbans:

The largest mangrove forest of the world is of sunderbans covering and area of over 15,000 sq. km. The area
has sea creepers and swampy islands. The main vegetation includes Typha elephantine (elephant grass),
Pharagmites karka (reed), Pandanus, Alpina, Ipomoea biloba, Bruguiera con ugata, Kandelia. candel,
Heritiera, Ceriops, Aviecnnia officinalis, Aegiceras, Sonneratia, Nipa fruiticons, Pheonix paludosa, Cocos
nucifera, Rhizophora mucronata, Acanthus illicifolius, Panicum repens, Sueda maritima, Salicornia,
Allophylus, Tamarix, Hygrophila, Derris etc.

5. Flora of Assam:

The area includes Valleys of Brahmputra, Jaintia, Khasi and Garo hills, Mishmi hills, North Himalayas,
Santosh River, Naga, Cachar and Mizo hills, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur, Tripura and Assam
region. Good rainfall, dense vegetation is characteristic of this area. The vegetation is richest in the world
except Khasi hills region. The vegetation is divided into many types e.g.,

(a) Tropical forest:

It is the low foot hill, valley and plains zone.

This may be:

(i) Evergreen:

Vegetation includes Dipterocarpus, Artocarpus, Ficus, Mesua, Amoora, Ficus elastica, Persea, Calamus,
Talauma, Cinnamomum, Sterculia, Adina, Vernonina, Mimusops hexandra, Diospyros ebenum, Ixora
parviflora, Carissa carnadas, Asparagus, Derris, Acacia intsia etc.

(ii) Deciduous forests:

It is dominated by Tectona grandis and Shorea robusta. The other plants are Kydia, Terminalia,
Dipterocorpus etc.

(b) Wet temperate forests:

The main vegetation consists of bamboos and shrubs. The trees are taller in height e.g., Rhododendron,
Alnus, Betula, Michelia, Magnolia, Quercus, Carpinus, Acer, Prunus, Pyrus and Bucklandia (Symingtonia)
etc.

(c) Pine forest:

The area is 1200-2000 metre above the hill. Majority of plants are of Pinus. Other plants of the vegetation
are Acer, Myrica, Camellia, Lithocarpus, Quercus griffithii, Rhus, Prunus, Rubus, Bambusa, Viburnum,
Arundinaria etc.

(d) Riverine forests:

Vegetation is found along the banks of rivers and streams. Vegetation is evergreen and deciduous. Mainly
the plants found in this region are Pterospermum, Mesua, Salix, Amoora, Anthocephalus, Albizzia procera,
Acacia catechu, Dalbergia sisso, Terminalia, Bombax, Sterculia etc.

(e) Swamp forests:

Swampy aras are common in Assam. The important plants of this region are Cephalanthus, Glochidion,
Ficus heterophylla, Dracaena, Marsilea, Scirpus, Cyperus, Panicum, Azolla, Salvinia, Euryale, Nymphaea,
Nelumbo, Barringtonia, Alpina, etc.

(f) Grass lands:

Grasslands are generally found in plains in Assam. The plants of this region are mainly Paspalidium,
Phragmites, Arundo, Panicum, Erianthus, Apluda, Sorghum, Themeda, Saccharum, Andropogon,
Cymbopogon etc.

6. Flora of Eastern Himalayas:

Eastern Himalayas comprises of mountain ranges from Sikkim to Arunachal. It is botanically best known
part of this region. More than 4,000 sp. of phanerogams belonging to 160 families and lower plants are
found in this region. The Eastern Himalayas are chiefly distributed into 3 regions i.e., Tropical, Temperate
and Alpine zone.

(a) Tropical zone:

Rainfall in this zone is heavy and for longer period, the forest in this region are sal forests, mixed deciduous
forests, semi-evergreen, evergreen and subtropical forests. Savannah is the grass land which includes trees
like Albizzia, Bombax, Bischofia, and grasses like Erianthus, Cymbopogon, Microstegia etc.

The main vegetaion in forest regions includes Quercus, Cycas, Pinus, Populus, Salix, Pandanus, Dillenia,
Sterculia, Toona ciliata, Lagerstroemia, Bombax, Shorea robusta, Amoora, Terminalia, Bauhinia, Michelia,
Artocarpus, Syzygium, Cinnamomum, Alnus, Rhus and others like Entada, Beaumontia grandiflora,
Hiptage, Tinospora cordifolia, Bambusa etc.

(b) Temperate zone:

The zone ranges from 2,000 to 3,540 meter. The region includes broad leaved forests and coniferous forests.
The vegetation comprises of mainly Quercus, Magnolia, Pyrus, Abies, Larix, Picea, Tsuga, Juniperus,
Taxas, Betula, Acer, Arundinaria, Lyonia, Syringa, Sorbus, Ilex, Fraxinus, Camellia kissi (wild tea) etc.

(c) Alpine zone:

This zone ranges from 3,690 to 5,540 meter. The prominent members belong to Primulaceae and
Scrophulariaceae. Vegetation consists of chiefly Artemisia, Potentilla, Carex, Astragalus, Juncus, Rheum,
Ephedra, Berberis, Abies, Rhododendron, Primula, Salix, Pedicularis, Meconopsis, Corydalis, Polygounm,
Lonicera, Caranga and Saussurea etc.

7. Flora of Central Himalayas:

Central Himalaya is restricted to Nepal. They are joined to Kumaon Himalaya in west and Sikkim Himalaya
in east. The region is divided into western, central and eastern Nepal. The Vegetation consists of chiefly
Shorea robusta, Bombax, Gmelina, Petalidium, Clerodendron, Bauhinia vahlii, Ehertia, Rhus, Olea,
Quercus, Alnus, Rhododendron, Pinus, Eriobortya, Lindera, Berberis, Tsuga, Abies, Juniperus, Lonicera,
Primula, Caranga, Pennisatum, Artemesia, Lyonia, Spiraea, Cornus, Zanthoxylum in western Nepal;
Bauhinia, Kydia, Spathodea, Albizzia, Shorea robusta, Trema, Bombax, Saccharum arundinaceum,
Cymbopogon martini, Quercus, Acer, Alnus, Mesua, Cyathea, Rhododendron, Camellia, Fraxinus, Pinus,
Taxus, Syringa, Barberis, Polygonum, Pedicularia and Mecenopsis etc., in central Nepal and Shorea,
Lagerstroemia, Cassia, Sterculia, Flacourtia, Dendracalamus, Smilax, Beaumontia, Euphorbia, Woodfordia,
Schima, Quercus, Prunus, Boehmeria, Camellia, Arundinaria, Betula, Eragrostis, Sedum, Saxifrega, Carex,
Agrostis, Potentilla, Sedum etc., in Eastern Nepal area are very common.

The flora of Nepal or central Himalaya is a mixture of eastern and western Himalayas. There are certain
species of Acer e.g., Acer cappadoscicum, Quercus floribunda and Populus ciliata etc. which are not found
in eastern Himalaya but are present in Central Himalaya.

8. Flora of Western Himalaya:

The region of western Himalaya extends from Kumaon ranges to Kashmir. Plants are present in cold, dry
climate and high altitude. The vegetation of this region consists of chiefly Acacia modesta, Euphorbia
royleana, Olea, Bombax ceiba, Themada, Chrysopogon serrulatus, Bauhinia vahlii, Shorea robusta, Cassia
fistula, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Murraya keonigii, Zanthoxylum alatum, Terminalia, Anogeissus latifolia,
Toona ciliata, Zanthoxylum alatum, Adhatoda, Carissa, Rosa, Rubus, Syzygium, Crataegus, Diospyros,
Emblica, Picea, Pinus wallichiana, Cedrus deodara, Rhamnus, Salix, Berberis, Smilax, Arundinaria,
Fraxinus, Fragaria, Viola, Artemesia, Rheum, Sedum, Betula, Anemone, Saxifraga, Geranium, etc.

Continental Drift Theory:

Most palaeontologists are in favour that in early palaeozoic, the six major land masses were coalesced and
formed a single super land mass, called Pangaea (Fig. 1,6A), first named by a German meteorologist, Alfred
Wegner in 1912.

A Paper, “The Origin of Continents and Oceans” (Die Enstehung der Kontenente) was published by him in
German in 1912 and in his paper he postulated a theory that the different continents coalesced in the early
Palaeozoic period and subsequently broke in early or mid-Mesozoic and drifted apart to occupy the present
positions.

This theory was not accepted in those days but widely accepted since 1960 with the studies of
Palaeomagnetism of the ocean floor. From the mid-60s, the concept of Continental Drift has been
incorporated into the view of tectonic plates.

According to recent findings, Wegner’s Continental Drift Theory has gained a wide acceptance among
different scientists.

The exact period of coalescence and separation of different land masses is still controversial. At present
different scientists have presented different opinions on the basis of analysis of palaeomagnetic data. There
were two land masses throughout the Devonian period, of which is Laurasia (Angara), (Fig. 1,6B) a northern
land mass that included St. Lawrence area of North America, Europe and parts of Asia.

Another southern land mass is called Gondwanaland (Fig. 1,6B) (named after a South Indian tribe, Gond)
that is formed by the union of South America, Africa, Arabia, India, Madagascar, Antarctica and Australia.
In the middle Carboniferous period, the two land-masses, converged to form a single super land-mass, is
called Pangaea.

Pangaea lasted about 100 million of years. In the late Triassic or in the early Jurassic, the tectonic plate
movement and volcanic activity forced to rupture the Pangaea into smaller present land masses (Fig. 1.6C).

In the Jurassic, the Gondwana rotated anticlockwise, and Europe and N. America separated from it and
moved northwards so that in the Jurassic, the Tethys Sea (named after the Greek ‘mother of seas’, the
daughter of Oceanus) created in between Africa and Eurasia, and in coarse of time, it became the
Mediterranean sea.

The breakup of Pangaea produced a series of Orogeny (mountain building) that continues up to date. During
the Cretaceous period the formation of Rocky mountains and the Andes along North America and Western
South America took place. Also in the N. America, the late Palaeozoic and Mesozoic era is marked by the
Appalachian Revolution, in which, mountain formation took place by the compression of the tectonic forces.

In between middle to late Cretaceous period, South America, Antarctica and Australia separated from
Africa, and the Tethys Sea, opened to the Atlantic. In the Eocene, Australia separated from the Antarctica
and India drifted northwards and joined with the Asia about 25 million years ago. The continents are still
drifting today. North America recedes westward and Australia northward at approximately 4 cm per year.

Paleontological Evidence of Continental Drift:

The Tethys Sea, which extended as a shallow epicontinental sea across southern Asia and north-Africa also
washed the ancient northern coastline of India. The Jurassic fauna of Tethys Sea is known from Europe in
the west and in the east it is in the Himalayan region.

There are still marine sediments which mark the northern coastline of India that ran from the Cutch in the
North-west, eastward along the present course of the Narmada valley to Baroda.

The southern coastline of Indian peninsula is not known from the Jurassic sediments but is known from the
Cretaceous onwards of Tiruchirapalli district of southern India. From the analysis of faunal composition it is
presumed that the nature of fauna which inhabited the sea to the south of India presumably the forerunner of
the Indian Ocean.

After the elevation of the Himalayan- Alpine mountains at the end of Miocene, the realm of the Tethys
became restricted to the present northern portion of the Indian Ocean. The palaeontological picture suggests
that India has occupied the northern Indian Ocean since the late Jurassic times and its northern peninsular
region has lain near the boundaries of both the Tethys and the Indian Ocean.

Physical Evidence of Continental Drift:

On the basis of Palaeomagnetic observations, Adie (1965) and Creer (1966) refer that India formed part of a
supercontinent, Gondwanaland located near the geographic South Pole in the early Mesozoic. The
supercontinent started to be disrupted in the mid-Jurassic times and the process of dismemberment ended in
the Cretaceous and India drifted at least 60° of latitude northward in the post Jurassic time.

Bullard (1969) states that Palaeomagnetic work show that India has been moving northward for the past 100
Ma. McElhinny (1969) deduces that an Indo-Madagascar-Antarctica block broke away from Africa between
155 and 100 million years ago, opening up the Indian Ocean for the first time.

An India-Madagascar block then separated from Antarctica, and at first drifted southwards before reversing
its course to move northward.
Limiting Factor

A limiting factor is a resource or environmental condition which limits the growth, distribution or abundance
of an organism or population within an ecosystem. These can be either physical or biological factors which
can be identified through a response of increased or decreased growth, abundance, or distribution of a
population, when the factor is changed and when the other factors necessary to life are not.

Limiting factors are theorized under Liebig’s Law of the Minimum, which states that “growth is not
controlled by the total amount of resources available, but by the scarcest resource”.

A limiting factor restricts organisms from occupying their fundamental niche and results instead in the
fulfillment of their actual or realized niche.

Types of Limiting Factor

Density Dependent Factors

Density dependent factors are those factors whose effect on a population is determined by the total size of
the population. Predation and disease, as well as resource availability, are all examples of density dependent
factors. As an example, disease is likely to spread quicker through a larger, denser population, impacting the
number of individuals within the population more than it would in a smaller, more widely dispersed
population.

Density Independent Factors

A density independent limiting factor is one which limits the size of a population, but whose effect is not
dependent on the size of the population (the number of individuals). Examples of density independent
factors include environmentally stressful events such as earthquakes, tsunamis, and volcanic eruptions, as
well as sudden climate changes such as drought or flood, and destructive occurrences, such as the input of
extreme environmental pollutants. Density independent factors will usually kill all members of a population,
regardless of the population size.

Physical and Biological Limiting Factors

Limiting factors can also be split into further categories. Physical factors or abiotic factors include
temperature, water availability, oxygen, salinity, light, food and nutrients; biological factors or biotic
factors, involve interactions between organisms such as predation, competition, parasitism and herbivory.

Limiting Factors and Law of Tolerance:

Every organism requires unique set of environmental conditions or factors for its survival. Both abiotic and
biotic factors influence the growth, reproduction, abundance, distribution and survival of organisms. Some
factors exert more influence than the other. Any factor that tends to slow down the rate of metabolism or
potential growth in an ecosystem is said to be a limiting factor.

The factor that controls the survival of an organism is said to be regulatory factor. Different ecosystems have
different combinations of limiting factors. Temperature, light, soil, humidity, carbon dioxide and oxygen,
pressures are important limiting factors.

When the factor remains constant and abundant and if the organism has a wide range of tolerance, the factor
is not a limiting factor. But if the factor fluctuates and the organism has a narrow range of tolerance, the
factor can be called a limiting factor.

The mechanisms of limiting factors can be explained by two main laws:

The Law of Minimum:

It was proposed by Liebig in 1840. According to this law, growth and reproduction of organisms are
dependent on the factor that is present in minimum quantity in the environment.

b. The Law of Tolerance:

It was proposed by Shelford in 1913. According to this law, organisms are exposed to a variety of
environmental factors such as light, temperature, nutrients, etc. Each organism survives well only at a
particular range of intensity of the factor. This is called tolerance. Every environmental factor has two zones
– the zone of tolerance and zone of intolerance.

In the zone of tolerance, organisms survive well.

This zone is further divided as follows:

i. Optimum Zone:

The zone where growth, reproduction and survival capacity is high. Maximum numbers of organisms are
found in this zone.

ii. Stress Zones:

The stress zone is found on either side of the optimum range in which the activity slows down. These are the
zones of physiological stress and only a few organisms are found in these zones.

In the zone of intolerance or lethal zones, the intensity of the environmental factor is too low or high. No
organism can survive in this zone. When the species has a narrow range of tolerance, the prefix ‘steno’ is
added to the factor.

For example, stenothermal means an organism that can tolerate a narrow range of temperature; when the
species has a wide range of tolerance the prefix ‘eury’ is added to the factor. For example, eurythermal
means an organism that can tolerate a wide range of temperature.

When the activity of an organism in response to a range of environmental factor is plotted on a graph, a bell
shaped curve is obtained. When an environmental factor shifts beyond the tolerance of an organism, it can
become dormant until the return of favourable conditions, or migrate to a place with favourable conditions
or it can acclimatise.

Organisms possess physiological adaptations that help them to respond quickly to a stressful situation. The
feeling of nausea, headache and general discomfort, an individual feels, when he visits places at high
altitude is known as altitude sickness. This happens because the body does not get enough oxygen due to the
low atmospheric oxygen.

But usually within a week, the body adjusts to the change and stops experiencing altitude sickness. This
process of adjustment is known as acclimatisation. The body compensates for the low oxygen availability by
increasing oxygen production, decreasing the binding capacity of haemoglobin and by increasing breathing
rate. But people who live at high altitudes possess higher lung capacity and large number of red blood
corpuscles to compensate for the low oxygen levels.
Major Biomes of the World

The eight major biomes of the world are: 1. Tundra 2. Northern Conifer Forest 3. Temperate Deciduous
Forests 4. Tropical Rain Forest 5. Chapparal 6. Tropical Savannah 7. Grassland 8. Desert.

1. Tundra:

The literal meaning of word Tundra is north of the timberline. The tundra extends above 60°N latitude. It is
almost treeless plain in the far northern parts of Asia, Europe and North America. A tundra consists of plains
characterised by snow, ice and frozen soil most of the year. The permanent frozen soil of tundra is called
permafrost.

Winters are very long on the tundra with little daylight. In contrast summers are short but there are many
daylight hours. Precipitation is low, amounting to only 25 cm or less per year, because cold air can hold
relatively little moisture.

The ground is soggy in the summer because moisture cannot soak into the permanently frozen ground.
Ponds, small lakes and marshes are abundant due to the nearly flat terrain.

There are no upright trees on the tundra. Only trees such as dwarf willows and birches, which grow low to
the ground, can escape the drying effect of the wind which upright trees would experience. This biome
consists mainly of mosses, grasses, sedges, lichens and some shrubs. Seasonal thawing of the frozen soil
occurs only up-to a few centimetres depth, which permits the growth of shallow rooted plants.

Carbon, arctic hare and musk ox are important herbivores of tundra biome. Some important carnivores that
prey on the herbivores are the arctic fox, arctic wolf, bobcat and snowy owl. Polar bears live along coastal
areas, and prey on seals.

Because of the severe winters, many of the animals are migratory and move from one region to another with
the change in seasons. Many shorebirds and water fowls, such as ducks and geese, nest on the tundra during
the summer but migrate south for the winter. The tundra make a very delicate ecosystem, and may be
recovered from any disturbance very slowly.

2. Northern Conifer Forest:

The northern coniferous forest or taiga is a 1300-1450 km wide band south of the tundra. This extends as an
east-west band across North America, Europe and Asia. This area also has long, cold winters, but summer
temperatures may reach 10-12°C, and the summer and the growing season are longer than in the tundra.
Precipitation is higher than in the tundra, ranging from 10 to 35 cm annually.

The moisture is the combined result of summer rains and winter snows. Lakes, ponds and bogs are abundant.
The duration of growing period of plants is only about 150 days. Since five physical conditions are variable,
the organisms are resistant to fluctuations of temperature.

The taiga makes really a northern forest of coniferous trees such as spruce, fir, pine, cedar and hemlock. In
disturbed areas, deciduous trees such as birch, willow and poplar are abundant. In certain areas the trees are
so dense that little light may reach the floor of the forest. Vines, maple and spring wild flowers are common.
Mosses and ferns also grow in moist areas.

The common smaller mammals are herbivores, such as squirrels, snowshoe hare, and predatory martens.
Important migratory herbivores include moose, elk, deer and carbon. Moose and carbon migrate to the taiga
for winters and to the tundra for summers.
Important predators are the timber wolf, grizzly bear, black bear, bobcat and wolverine. Many insects are
found during the warmer months. Migratory shore birds and waterfowls are abundant during summer
months.

3. Temperate Deciduous Forests:

The deciduous forests are found in the temperate regions of north central Europe, east Asia and the eastern
United States, that is, south of the taiga in the Northern Hemisphere. Such forests occur in regions having
hot summers, cold winter, rich soil and abundant rain. Annual rainfall is typically around 100 cm per year.

Common deciduous trees are the hardwoods such as beech, maple, oak, hickory and walnut. They are broad-
leaved trees. The trees shed their leaves in the late fall so the biome has an entirely different appearance in
the winter than in the summer.

The fallen leaves provide food for a large variety of consumer and decomposer populations, such as
millipedes, snails and fungi living in or on the soil. The temperate deciduous forest produces flowers, fruits
and seeds of many types which provide a variety of food for animals.

The common herbivores of this biome are deer, chipmunks, squirrels, rabbits and beavers. Tree-dwelling
birds are abundant in number and diversity. Important predators are—black bears, bobcats, and foxes.
Predatory birds are also found, such as hawks, owls and eagles. The coldblooded or ectothermic animals,
such as snakes, lizards, frogs, and salamanders are also common.

The temperate deciduous forest makes a very complex biome. Many changes take place during the year, and
a large variety of species inhabit the soil, trees and air.

4. Tropical Rain Forest:

This biome is situated in the equatorial regions having the annual rainfall more than 140 cm. However, the
tropical rain forest makes an important biome across the earth as a whole. This biome is found in Central
America, the Amazon Basin, Orinocon Basin of South America, Central Africa, India and Southeast Asia.

Tropical rain forests have high rainfall, high temperature all year, and a great variety of vegetation. Plant life
is highly diverse reaching up-to a framework of 200 species of trees per hectare. The warm, humid climate
supports broad- leaved evergreen plants showing peculiar stratification into an upper storey and two or three
understoreys.

The tallest trees make an open canopy, but the understoreyed plants block most of the light from the jungle
floor. The climbers and lianas reach the highest level of the trees in search of light.

An enormous variety of animals lives in the rain forest, such as insects, lizards, snakes, monkeys and
colorful birds. The ant eaters, bats, large carnivorous animals, and a variety of fish in the rivers are quite
common. About 70-80 per cent of the known insects are found in tropical rain forests. Such rich animal
diversity is linked to plant-animal interaction for pollination and dispersal of fruits and seeds.

5. Chapparal:

This biome is also known as mediterranian scrub forest. This is marked by limited winter rain followed by
drought in the rest of the year. The temperature is moderate under the influence of cool, moist air of the
oceans. The biome extends along the mediterranian.

Pacific coast of North America, Chile, South Africa and South Australia. This biome has broad-leaved
evergreen vegetation. The vegetation is generally made up of fire resistant resinous plants and drought-
adapted animals. Bush fires are very common in this biome.
6. Tropical Savannah:

The savannahs are warm climate plants characterized by coarse grass and scattered trees on the margins of
tropics having seasonal rainfall. Primarily they are situated in South America, Africa and Australia.
However, there is no savannah vegetation in India. The average total rainfall in such regions is 100 to 150
cm. There is alternation of wet and dry seasons.

Plants and animals are drought tolerant and do not have much diversity. The animal life of tropical savannah
biome consists of hoofed herbivorous species, such as giraffe, zebra, elephant, rhinoceros and several kinds
of antelope. Kangaroos are found in the savannahs of Australia.

7. Grassland:

Some grasslands occur in temperate areas of the earth and some occur in tropical regions. Temperate
grasslands usually possess deep, rich soil. They have hot summers cold winters and irregular rainfall. Often
they are characterized by high winds. The main grasslands include the prairies of Canada and U.S.A., the
pampas of South America, the steppes of Europe and Asia, and the veldts of Africa.

The dominant plant species comprise short and tall grasses. In tall-grasses prairies in the United States,
important grasses are tall bluestem, Indian grass and slough grass. Short-grass prairies generally have blue
grama grass, mesquite grass and bluegrass. Many grasses have long, well-developed root systems which
enable them to survive limited rainfall and the effects of fire.

The main animals of this biome are-the prong-horned antelopes, bison, wild horse, jack rabbit, ground
squirrel and prairie dogs. Larks, the burrowing owl and badgers are also found. Important grassland
predators include coyotes, foxes, hawks and snakes.

8. Desert:

The desert biome is characterised by its very low rainfall, which is usually 25 cm per year or less. Most of
this limited moisture comes as short, hard showers. Primarily the deserts of the world are located in the
south-west U.S.A., Mexico, Chile, Peru, North Africa (Sahara desert), Asia (Tibet Gobi Thar) and central
Western Australia. Deserts generally have hot days and cold nights, and they often have high winds.

The reason for the difference of temperature between day and night is due to the lack of water vapour in the
air. Deserts are characterised by scanty flora and fauna. Desert organisms must meet some initial
requirements if they are to survive. The plants must be able to obtain and conserve water.

In order to meet these requirements, many adaptations have been made by desert plants. Such adaptations
are—reduced leaf surface area, which reduces evaporation from the plants, loss of leaves during long dry
spell; small hairs on the leaf surfaces, and the ability to store large amount of water.

The examples of important desert plants are—yuccas, acacias, euphorbias, cacti, many other succulents and
hardy grasses. Many of the small plants are annuals.

Animals also must meet the requirements of heat, cold and limited water. Many desert animals are nocturnal
in habit, and are active mainly at night. Many reptiles and small mammals burrow to get away from the
intense heat of midday. The other common desert animals are the herbivorous kangaroo, rat, ground squirrel,
and jack rabbit.

The important predators are—coyotes, badgers, kit fox, eagles, hawks, falcons and owls. Ants, locusts,
wasps, scorpions, spiders, insect-eating birds, such as swifts and swallows, seed-eating quails, doves and
various cats are other common desert animals.