Chapter 1.
Statistics - the practice or science of collecting and
Introduction to Environmental Science
Introduction
Most of our environmental problems are caused by
us, humans, as we live our lives. Now, the main
problem of our home, the earth, are public health,
land management, waste disposal and pollution,
overpopulation, deforestation, endangered species,
climate change, etc.
Environmental Science is relatively recent field of
study that emerged from recognition of the multiple,
interrelated impacts caused by the complex
interactions between humans and the Earth
environment in which they live.
Environmental science is important for it study the
connection and implication of seemingly disconnected
phenomena, enlightening to the consequence of our
action.
ENVIRONMENT
The term ―environment‖ refers to the living and non-
living surroundings relevant to organisms. It is
composed of physical, chemical and biological factors
and processes that determine the growth and survival
of organisms, populations and communities.
Components of Environmental Sciences
Biology - the study of living organisms.
Physics - deals with the fundamental constituents of
the universe, the forces they exert on one another,
and the effects of these forces.
Geology - deals with the origin of the planet earth, its
history, its shape, the materials forming it, and the
processes that are acting and have acted on it.
Chemistry - deals with the study of matter and the
various changes it undergoes.
Social Sciences - study of human society and social
relationships
analyzing numerical data in large quantities,
especially for the purpose of inferring proportions in a
whole from those in a representative sample
Microbiology – the branch of science that deals with
microorganisms
Economics – the branch of knowledge concerned
with the production, consumption, and transfer of
wealth
Sociology – study of the development, structure, and
functioning of human society
Meteorology – study of the earth’s atmosphere that
focuses on weather processes and forecasting.
Climatology - is the study of the atmosphere and
weather patterns over time.
Aeronomy - the study of the physics and chemistry of
the upper atmosphere, including the distribution of
temperature, density and chemical constituents and
the chemical reactions that occur.
Ecology - is the study of relationships between living
organisms and their physical environment.
Environmental chemistry – scientific study of the
chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur in
natural places.
Hydrology - the study of the earth’s water in relation
to geological processes.
Oceanography - study of the ocean.
To understand its relationship, you must focus on the
scientific principles, concepts and methodologies of
the natural world. Environmental studies enlighten us
of the importance of protection and conservation in
the indiscriminate release of pollution into the
environments. Environmental engineers solve
problems and design systems using knowledge of
environmental concepts and ecology, thereby
providing solutions to various environmental
problems.
Environmental Ethics
According to Sta. Clara University, ethics is based on
well-founded standards or right and wrong that
prescribe what human sought to do, usually in terms
of rights, obligations, benefits to society, fairness or
specific values.
Three Ethical Perspectives
According to Encyclopedia.com (July 2020), A
―centrism‖ is a world view of looking at things that
places some particular value or group at the center.
Anthropocentrism
 Worldview that considers humans to be
the most important thing in the universe,
or at least in the planet earth.
 It is the set of ethics that protects and
promotes human interests or well-being
at the expense of all other factors.
 It places emphasis on short-term
benefits while disregarding long-term
consequences.
Biocentric
 Worldview considers humans to be a
particular species of animals, without
greater intrinsic value than any other
species of organism that occur on earth.
 In this sense, development is opposed if
it destroys life, even if it creates jobs.
Ecocentric
 Nature is believed to deserve to exist for
its own sake regardless of degree of
usefulness to human.
 The preservation of ecosystems or other
living things takes priority over human
needs.
Frontier Ethic
 Attitudes towards resources which
assume that the earth has infinite
supply. It is human-centered for only the
needs of human are measured.
 If resources in an area are already
consumed, then more can be found
elsewhere. Human will soon find
substitute just to satisfy human desires.
Environmental Ethic
 A field of applied ethics that considers
the moral basis of environmental
responsibility.
 It includes humans as part of the natural
community rather than managers of it.
Such an ethic places limits on human
activities that may adversely affect the
natural community.
Sustainable Ethic
The way people treat the earth as if its resources are
limited. It also believed that humans must conserve
and share the earth’s resources with other living
things and that humans are part of nature and are
affected by natural laws.
The Environmental Attitudes
According to Guido (2015), several different attitudes
about the environment but most of them can be
categorized as follows:
Development Ethic
 Considers major value questions and
choices implied in processes of societal
development- economic, social and
political development.
 It is based on individualism and
egocentrism.
Preservation Ethic
 Considers that nature is special.
Unchanged nature should be protected
for its own inherent value. We should
protect our environment in a pristine
state, because it promotes human
happiness and fulfillment.
Conservation Ethic or Management Ethic
 The use of natural resources wisely for
the greatest good for the most people. It
is also described as a utilitarian
standard that calls for a prudent,
efficient and sustainable resource
extraction and use of the natural
resources.
The environment’s protection and preservation can be
justified through this multiple perspective.
Utilitarian Justification Environmental Organizations
 For environmental conservation means
that we should protect the environment International Local Environmental
because doing so provides a direct Environmental Non - Government
economic benefit to people. Organizations Organizations
Greenpeace Haribon Foundation
Ecological Justification World Wide Fund for ABSCBN Bantay
 For environmental conservation means Nature Kalikasan
that we should protect the Friends of the Earth Center for Environmental
environmental because doing so will Concerns Philippines
protect both species that are beneficial Climate Action Network Eco Link Women’s
to other as well as other species and an Network
ecological justification for conservation Fauna and Flora Foundation for the
acknowledges the many ecosystem International Philippines Environment
services that we derive from healthy National Geographic Haribon Foundation
ecosystems. Society
Defenders of Wildlife Philippines Ocean
Aesthetic Justification Heritage
 For conservation acknowledges that Partnerships in Tanggol Kalikasan
many people enjoy the outdoors and do Environmental
not want to live in a world without Management for the
wilderness. One could also think of this Seas of East Asia
as recreational, inspirational, or spiritual Society for the
justification for conservation Conservation of
Philippine Wetland
Moral Justification Incorporated
 Represents the belief that various
aspects of the environment have a right
to exist and that it is our moral obligation
to allow them to continue or help them
persist.

Environmentalism
In contrast, is a social movement through
which citizens are involved in activism to further
protect the environmental landmarks and natural
resources. This is not a field of science, but
incorporates some aspects of environmental
knowledge to advance conservation and sustainability
efforts. With the continuing drive to protect and
maintain the ecological balance, a large number of
organizations had sprouted with only one goal and
that is the environmental protection. With the
continuing advocacy to protect and maintain the
ecological balance, a large number of organizations
were formed both local and international.
Chapter 2.
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE: MATTER AND
ENERGY
Matter
 is the material that makes up things in the
universe;
 is anything that occupy space and has mass.
Ex: Periodic table of 115 elements
2. Review of the States of Matter: Solid, Liquid, Gas,
Plasma
Solid: has a definite shape (rigid), definite
volume, particles vibrate around fixed positions
Liquid: has no definite shape (takes the shape of
its container), no definite volume, particles are free to
move over each other, but are still attracted to each
other
Gas: has no definite shape (takes the shape of
its container), no definite volume, particles move in
random motion with little or no attraction to each
other, highly compressible
Plasma: has no definite shape, no definite
volume, known as fourth-state of matter, not an
ordinary gas because it can generate electricity
CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER:
Mixture: composed of different substances and the
proportions that make up the mixture vary likewise
they can be separated by physical method.
Classifications:
Homogenous: to the naked eye have
indistinguishable parts;
Heterogeneous: have distinguishable parts
Pure Substances: have constant composition and
can only be separated by chemical reactions.
Elements and compounds are pure substances.
Pure Substances can be broken down in the
process of chemical changes: change in color,
change in temperature, and change in odor;
Mixtures on the other hand, can be separated by
physical changes: change in the form of the
substance, but not its chemical compositions.
Methods of Separating Mixtures:
Distillation: a process of separating a mixture by
differences in boiling point.
Filtration: is a process of separating a solid and
a liquid.
Chromatography: is a method of separation that
requires 2 phases: stationary phase, and mobile
phase
Properties of Matter: is the characteristic that give
each substance its unique identity:
Physical Property: is the tangible property of the
substance/matter: color, melting point, conductivity,
density
Chemical Properties: is the substance as it
change or interacts with another substance:
flammability, corrosiveness, and reactivity with acids.
Energy: the ability/capacity to do work
Types of Energy:
Kinetic Energy: energy of motion. Any moving
objects have kinetic energy. This is known as energy
of motion: bouncing ball, when you walk or run,
pushing the hammer for a nail, a fast-moving truck,
etcs.
Potential Energy: stored energy that is
potentially available for use: the food you eat, the still
water behind the dam, the dynamite possess potential
energy, batteries and all types of fuel.
Three Laws of Thermodynamics:
The First Law Thermodynamics: also called
―conservation of energy‖, states that the total amount
of energy in the universe is constant.

All of the energy in the universe are neither
created nor destroyed; they are just transformed from
one form to another.
The Second Law Thermodynamics: states that
the disorder in the universe always increases.
- This means that the energy that is
transformed to another form is degraded.
- Degradation is due to the waste energy used
to the transformation, this waste energy is
the heat released on the process of
transformation.
The Third Law Thermodynamics: states that all
molecular movements stops at a temperature we call
absolute zero, or) kelvin (-273oC).
THE ENERGY
ENERGY: the ability or capacity to do work.
 It is about moving objects from one place to
another, whether such energy used is large
or small.
 Energy is associated with movements.
Types of Energy:
Kinetic Energy: energy of motion.
Any moving objects have kinetic energy.
This is known as energy of motion: bouncing ball,
when you walk or run, pushing the hammer for a nail,
a fast-moving truck, etcs.
Potential Energy: stored energy that is potentially
available for use:
- the food you eat this morning
- the still water behind the dam
- the dynamite possess potential energy
- batteries and all types of fuel possess PE
Types of Potential Energy:
Gravitational PE: a ball held at a certain height, the
higher the position the greater the GPE
Elastic PE: a stretch slingshot or springs, the energy
in the rubber or spring, the more they are stretched,
the greater the EPE
Magnetic PE: a magnet held close together, they
tend to repel or will release the other magnet to move
away = MPE
Chemical PE: the energy stored in food and other
chemicals = CPE or simply chemical energy
Sources:
 The food we eat. Example: Carbohydrates
(CHO), Protein (CHON)
 All Types of Fuel
Gravitational PE: a ball held at a certain height, the
higher the position the greater the GPE
Forms of Energy:
- Chemical Energy: energy stored in the food we
eat and other chemicals.
- Mechanical Energy: energy associated with the
functioning of machines and tools that we use
- Nuclear Energy: potential energy in nuclei atoms.
We have been dependent on NE since the
beginning of time = the sun, its central part of the
core, is where nuclear fusion takes place.
Forms of Energy:
Nuclear Fusion – is the process that fuels the sun.
Nuclear Plants - rely on nuclear fusion they bombard
or split uranium-235 to lighter elements called
plutonium = produces tremendous amounts of
energy.
However, the waste products are radioactive and
harmful to living creatures, can remain radioactive for
24,110 years
Heat Energy: light energy is transformed or when
energy is transferred from one object to another.
The energy received from the pot is called HE
Electrical Energy: movement of electrical charges
through conducting wires: the flick of the switch turns
on, the lights, TV sets, and the fan goes to work.
 electrical charges: volts (110/220 outlet
sockets);
 watts (7 / 9 / 50 etc.. light watts)
Light Energy: energy of electromagnetic radiation.
Energy to start an automobile;
Sound Energy: energy associated with vibrating
medium: drums, musical instruments, etcs..
Sources of energy: the Sun: is principal source of
energy
Renewable Energy: Solar Energy: nonpolluting but
expensive, Photovoltaic cells: batteries; Biological
resources: biofuels, & Geothermal & hydroelectric
Renewable resources can be replenished over fairly
short spans of time, such as months, years, or
decades.
Nonrenewable Energy: Fossil fuels: coal, Petroleum
or crude oil, Natural gas, Nuclear power, hydroelectric
power
 Nonrenewable resources take millions of years
to form and accumulate.
 Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons that may be used
as fuel, including coal, oil, and natural gas.
Coal: used in heating, in steam engines and also in
generation of electricity;
Crude oil: liquid found naturally in rock, containing
mostly complex hydrocarbons, with some additional
organic materials.
OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting
Countries), is the largest producers of crude oil which
comprised Saudi Arabia, Algeria, Ecuador, Gabon,
Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar,
UAE, and Venezuela
Sources of energy:
Conventional (commonly used): Non-renewable
sources of Energy: Fossil fuels (petroleum, coal),
Hydroelectric Power, Nuclear power, Geothermal
Energy, wind and direct solar power.
Non-conventional (not widely used): tidal power, wind
power, OTEC, hydrogen gas, alcohol and gasohol
Alternative Energy Sources
Solar energy has two advantages; Solar energy’s
―fuel‖ is free; Solar energy is non-polluting.
This is done by using solar panels (photovoltaic cells),
flat panels made up of many individual solar cells,
invented to absorb sunlight and convert it into
electricity.
Nuclear Energy
1. In nuclear fission, the nuclei of heavy atoms such
as uranium-235 are bombarded with neutrons.
2. The uranium nuclei split into smaller nuclei
(plutonium) and emit neutrons producing tremendous
amount of heat energy.
Example: Philippines Bataan Nuclear Power Plant
Wind Energy: conversion of wind energy into a useful
form of energy: possible by using wind turbines to
make electrical power, windmills for mechanical
power, and wind pumps.
In the next 50 to 60 years, wind power could meet
between 5 to 10 % of the country’s demand for
electricity.
Hydroelectric Power: is the power generated by
falling water. The water held in a reservoir behind a
dam is a form of stored energy that can be released
through the dam to produce electric power.
Widely-used renewable source of energy. The strong
water flow that results drives turbines and electric
generators. (Angat dam, Magat dam, La Mesa dam)
Geothermal Energy: Geothermal energy is
harnessed by tapping natural underground reservoirs
of steam and hot water. Heated water is used directly
for heating and the steam turn turbines that generate - Conservation is the careful use of resources.
electric power.
- Pollution prevention means stopping pollution from
Tidal Power (high tide/low tide): Tidal power is entering the environment.
harnessed by constructing a dam across the mouth of
a bay or an estuary in coastal areas. The strong in- Keeping Water Clean and Safe
and-out flow of tidal water drives turbines and electric
generators. In 1972, the Clean Water Act (CWA) required
industries to reduce or eliminate point source pollution
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC): Based into surface waters.
on temperature differences between cold deep water
and warm surface water The Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974 helped protect
drinking resources.
Hydrogen Gas: Can be used to fuel cars, provide
electricity; Decomposing freshwater or seawater thru How You Can Prevent How You Can Save
the use of heat and electricity. Non-polluting but Water Pollution Energy
expensive Never pour household Recycle when possible.
chemicals (paints,
Alcohol and Gasohol: Ethanol used to replace thinners, cleaners,
gasoline and diesel fuels; Brazil is the leading country pesticides, waste oil)
using ethanol for automobile fuel down the drain or into the
toilet.
Biomass Energy: term generally pertaining for all Never dump toxic Let the sun in on bright
plant and animal materials. Biomass can be burned or chemicals in the gutter or winter days using solar
digested to produce energy. onto the ground. energy to warm rooms.
Don’t put items that Use energy-saving
Methods for converting Biomass to Energy: contain hazardous fluorescent bulbs where
 Burning (direct burning) substances, such as you can.
 Alcohol Fermentation (end product known as batteries or old computer
―gasohol‖) monitors into the trash.
 Anaerobic Digestion (convert biomass into Find out about hazardous Turn off lights when you
methane, a major component of natural gas) waste collection sites and leave a room. Turn off
 Pyrolysis (heating of biomass in a very high times from your local the radio, TV, or
temperature) sanitation or public works computer when you’re
department. not using them.
Water, Air, and Land Resources Avoid using hazardous Walk or ride a bike when
substances in the first you can.
Land Resources place.
- Earth’s land provides soil and forests, as well as When buying electric
mineral and energy resources products, look for the
- Damage to Land Resources energy star sticker which
 Mines produce many mineral resources, but denotes energy-saving
mines are destroying, soil, vegetation, and products.
Earth’s contours.
 Mines also cause soil erosion and pollution Protecting the Air
that contaminates soil and water and
destroys ecosystems. Example: mining at - In the 1970’s, Congress passed the Clean Air Act,
Dinagat Islands? the nation’s most important air pollution law.

Protecting Resources
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)
established for six ―criteria‖ pollutants known to cause
health problems – carbon monoxide, ozone, lead,
sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and particulates (fine
particles).

Caring for Land Resources

- Protecting land resources involves preventing

pollution and managing land resources wisely.

Compost is partly decomposed organic material that

can be used as fertilizer.

Recycling is the collecting and processing of used

items so that they can be made into new products.
Chapter 3.
Population
Demography
 Is the study of the characteristics of populations.
 It provides a mathematical description of how
those characteristics change over time.
 It includes many statistical factors that influence
population growth or decline.
 The world’s population as of August 25, 2020,
9:33 pm is 7,807,338,117. This is according to
www.worldometer.info.
 Scientist study a population by examining how
an individual in the population interact with each
other and how the population as a whole
interacts with its environment.
Population - is defined as a group of individuals of
the same species living and interbreeding within a
given area.
POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS AND GROWTH
Organism - is a single, living individual is a certain
community.
Levels of Interaction
Individual level
An Individual - is one organism and is also one type
of organism. It is referred to as species.
Population Level
Species are made up of populations. It depends on
how widespread the species is and how small or large
the geographic area is. Some species have very
limited ranges or distributions, being restricted.
Community Level
Communities are made up of all the populations of
different species in a given area. It involves multiple
populations of all the different species in the given
area and how these species interact with each other.
Community Ecologists - study the populations in a
given area and their interactions.
Ecosystem Level
The physical environment, the non-living or abiotic
conditions and not just what they are, but how they
impact the organisms, and in some case how the
organisms impact the physical environment.
POPULATION DISTRIBUTION, DENSITY AND SIZE
Population Distribution - means the pattern of
where people live.
PATTERNS OF DISTRIBUTION
Density and Size - are useful measures for
characterizing populations.
Dispersion or Distribution Patterns - show the
spatial relationship between members of a population
within a habitat.
Patterns - are often characteristic of a particular
species; they depend on local environmental
conditions and the species’ growth characteristics (as
for plants) or behavior (as for animals).
Three Basic Patterns of Individual Distribution:
Uniform Dispersion - is observed in plant species
that inhibit the growth of nearby individuals. Animals
that maintain defined territories, such as nesting
penguins, also exhibit uniform dispersion.
Random Dispersion - occurs with dandelion and
other plants that have wind-dispersed seeds that
germinate wherever they happen to fall in a favorable
environment.
Clumped Dispersion
 Seen in plants that drop their seeds straight to
the ground, such as oak trees, or animals that
live in groups, such as schools of fish or herds of
elephants.
 May also result from habitat heterogeneity. If
favorable conditions are localized, organisms
will tend to clump around those, such as lions
around a watering hole.
Heterogeneity - the quality or state of being diverse
in character or content.
POPULATION DENSITY
Population Size - is the number of individuals in a
population. It influences the chances of a species
surviving or going extinct. The size of a population
may be less important than its density.
4 Factors Determining the Population Size
Natality – the addition of organisms to population
through reproduction. Many organisms produce fast
and some may not, this is the reason why some
organisms are more than the others. Natality
increases population density.
 The term most commonly used when describing
natality is 'birth rate'.
Birth Rate - is the number of individuals born per
1,000 individuals per year. Birth rate is often reported
as a percentage of the population.
Mortality - losing a member of the population due to
death. Mortality decrease population density.
Immigration - the addition of organisms because of
the movement of an organism from one place to
another.
 Immigration is a factor that can influence the
size of a specific population of humans, but does
not influence the overall human population.
Emigration - the loss of individuals that move out of
the population. This decreases the population density.
POPULATION GROWTH
 The world population increased from 1 billion in
1800 to 7.7 billion today.
 The world population growth rate declined from
2.2% per year 50 years ago to 1.05% per year.
 Studying how and why populations grow (or
shrink!) helps scientists make better predictions
about future changes in population sizes and
growth rates.
 This is essential for answering questions in
areas such as biodiversity conservation
 It also helps scientists understand what causes
changes in population sizes and growth rates.
Studying Population Growth gives scientists insight
into how organisms interact with each other and with
their environments. This is especially meaningful
when considering the potential impacts of climate
change and other changes in environmental factors.
BIOTIC POTENTIAL
Biotic Potential - is the ability of a population of living
species to increase under ideal environmental
conditions – sufficient food supply, no predators, and
a lack of disease. An organism’s rate of reproduction
and the size of each litter are the primary determining
factors for biotic potential.
ENVIRONMENTAL RESISTANCE
Environmental Resistance Factors - are all reasons
that keep a population of organisms from endlessly
increasing.
 They lower the chances for reproduction, affect
the health of organisms, and raise the death rate
in the population.
 Environmental resistance factors include factors
that are biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living).
 Biotic Factors are things like predation,
parasitism, lack of food, competition with other
organisms and disease.
 Abiotic Factors include drought, fire,
temperature, and even the wrong amount of
sunshine.
CARRYING CAPACITY
The Carrying Capacity of an environment - is the
maximum population size of a biological species that
can be sustained in that specific environment, given
the food, habitat, water, and other resources
available.
LIMITING FACTOR
Limiting Factors - are resources or other factors in
the environment that can lower the population growth
rate.
 Limiting factors include a low food supply and
lack of space.
 Limiting factors can lower birth rates, increase
death rates, or lead to emigration.
Chapter 4.
Hydrology
 Became a science in response to the need of
human to understand the complex water system
of the earth and help solve water problem.
 the science that encompasses the study of
water on the earth’s surface and beneath the
surface of the earth, the occurrence and
movement of water, the physical and chemical
properties of water and its relationship with the
living and material components of the
environment.
 It deals with the occurrence, distribution,
movement and properties of the waters of the
earth and their relationship with the environment
within each phase of the hydrologic cycle.
Water - is considered to be the most important factor
behind existence of life on earth.
 Human body is made of 70% of water, much of
which is lost though urine and sweat.
Hydrologic Cycle - also known as the water cycle
 a continuous process by which water is purified
by evaporation and transported from the earth's
surface to the atmosphere and back to the land
and oceans.
PROPERTIES OF WATER
1. Water is polar. – Water molecules are polar, with
partial positive charges on the hydrogen, a partial
negative charge on the oxygen, and a bent overall
structure.
2. Water is a tasteless, odorless liquid at standard
temperature and pressure. – Water and ice is a very
slight blue hue, although water appears colorless in
small quantities. Ice also appears colorless, and water
vapor is essentially invisible as a gas.
3. Water is transparent. - Aquatic plants can live
within the water because sunlight can reach them.
Only strong UV light is slightly absorbed.
4. Water is an excellent solvent. – Water has the
unique ability to dissolve many polar and ionic
substances.
 Substances that dissolve in water, e.g., salts,
sugars, acids, alkalis, and some gases
especially oxygen, carbon dioxide (carbonation)
are known as hydrophilic (water-loving)
substances, while those that do not mix well with
water (e.g., fats and oils), are known
as hydrophobic (water-fearing) substances.
5. Water has high heat capacity (Specific Heat). - It
takes a lot of energy to raise the temperature of a
certain amount of water by a degree, so water helps
with regulating temperature in the environment.
 Water’s high specific heat allows for the
moderation of the Earth’s climate and helps
organisms regulate their body temperature
more effectively.
6. Water has high heat of vaporization. - Water is
converted from its liquid form to steam when the heat
of vaporization is reached.
 Sweat is made mostly of water. The
evaporating water absorbs excess body heat,
which is released into the atmosphere. This is
known as evaporative cooling.
7. Water has cohesive and adhesive properties. -
Water molecules have strong cohesive forces due to
their ability to form hydrogen bonds with one another.
 Cohesive forces are responsible for surface
tension, the tendency of a liquid’s surface to
resist rupture when placed under tension or
stress.
 Water also has adhesive properties that allow
it to stick to substances other than itself. These
cohesive and adhesive properties are
essential for fluid transport in many forms of
life.
 This phenomenon also causes water to stick to
the sides of vertical structures despite gravity’s
downward pull.
 Water’s high surface tension allows for the
formation of water droplets and waves, allows
plants to move water (and dissolved nutrients)
from their roots to their leaves, and the
movement of blood through tiny vessels in the
bodies of some animals.
9. Water is less dense as a solid than as a liquid. -
As water freezes, the molecules form a crystalline
structure that spaces the molecules further apart than
in liquid water. This means that ice is less dense than
liquid water, which is why it floats.
10. Water in a pure state has a neutral pH. - Pure
water is neither acidic nor basic. Water changes its
pH when substances are dissolved in it.
 Rain has a naturally acidic pH of about 5.6
because it contains natural derived carbon
dioxide and sulfur dioxide.
11. Water molecules are the only substance on
Earth that exists in all three physical states of
matter: solid, liquid, and gas. - Incorporated in the
changes of state are massive amounts of heat
exchange.
 This feature plays an important role in the
redistribution of heat energy in the Earth’s
atmosphere.
 In terms of heat being transferred into the
atmosphere, approximately ¾’s of this process
is accomplished by the evaporation and
condensation of water.
12. The freezing of water molecules causes their
mass to occupy a larger volume. - When water
freezes it expands rapidly adding about 9% by
volume.
 Fresh water has a maximum density at around
4° Celsius.
 Water is the only substance on this planet where
the maximum density of its mass does not occur
when it becomes solidified.
13. The boiling point of water (and all other
liquids) is dependent on the barometric pressure.
- For example, on the top of Mt. Everest water boils at
68 degrees Celsius, compared to 100 degrees
Celsius at sea level. Conversely, water deep in the
ocean near geothermal vents can reach temperatures
of hundreds of degrees and remain liquid.
KINDS OF WATER
1. Tap Water - water that you get directly from your
faucet, it may or may not be suited for drinking
purposes. It is widely used for household chores such
as cleaning, cooking, gardening and washing clothes.
2. Mineral Water - water that naturally
contains minerals.
 It is obtained from underground sources, which
makes it rich in minerals like
calcium, magnesium, and manganese.
 The water also cannot be subjected to any
treatment, except for limited ones such as
carbonation, iron or manganese removal, before
packaging.
3. Spring or Glacier Water - types of bottled waters
that are claimed to be bottled at the source from
where the water flows — either from the spring or
glacier.
 Theoretically, spring or glacier waters should be
relatively clean and free of toxins. They also
contain many of the same helpful minerals found
in mineral water.
 Some spring water is raw, unfiltered, and
untested water, which could pose
potential health risks depending on what it
contains.
4. Sparkling Water - Sometimes referred to as
carbonated water or soda water.
 Sparkling water is infused with carbon dioxide
gas while under pressure.
 While there are some minerals present in
sparkling water, there aren’t enough to be truly
beneficial to your health in a meaningful way.
 In addition, it can be expensive compared to
both tap and certain types of bottled water
5. Distilled Water - This type of water is boiled and
the steam is collected and condensed back into a
liquid.
 a great option if you live somewhere — or are
visiting somewhere — where the tap water
supply is contaminated or possibly could be.
 Distilled water or demineralized water is one
where the water has been subjected to a
treatment that removes all its minerals
and salt by the process of reverse osmosis and
distillation.
 It is an absolutely pure form of water but it is not
typically recommended for drinking. It can cause
mineral deficiencies because it is devoid of all
salts and most of the natural minerals in the
water are gone as a result of this process.
 Drinking this water may cause a rapid sodium,
potassium, chloride, and magnesium loss. As
there are no vitamins and minerals in distilled
water, there are no health benefits.
 In fact, it has the potential to be detrimental as
non-mineralized water tends to pull minerals
 from where it can — in this case, your body, or
specifically your teeth.
6. Purified Water - usually tap or groundwater which
has been treated to remove harmful substances like
bacteria, fungi, and parasites.
 This means that drinking it is pretty much
guaranteed to be safe. Like distilled water,
purified water is a great option if your immediate
water source is contaminated.
 Many countries purify tap water, so you’re
basically drinking purified water every time you
fill a cup from your kitchen sink. Because all
potentially harmful substances are removed
from purified water, you also miss out on some
of the potentially beneficial ones that are added
to tap water supplies like fluoride, which helps to
reduce tooth decay.
HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
- Begins with the evaporation of water from the
surface of the ocean. As moist air is lifted, it cools and
water vapor condenses to form clouds.
 Moisture is transported around the globe until it
returns to the surface as precipitation.
 Once the water reaches the ground, one of two
processes may occur; 1) some of the water may
evaporate back into the atmosphere or 2) the
water may penetrate the surface and
become groundwater.
 Groundwater either seeps its way to into the
oceans, rivers, and streams, or is released back
into the atmosphere through transpiration. The
balance of water that remains on the earth’s
surface is runoff, which empties into lakes, rivers
and streams and is carried back to the oceans,
where the cycle begins again.
WATER PURIFICATION
- The process by which undesired chemical
compounds, organic and inorganic materials, and
biological contaminants are removed from water.
 Also includes distillation (the conversion of a
liquid into vapor to condense it back to liquid
form) and deionization (ion removal through the
extraction of dissolved salts).
 One major purpose: to provide clean drinking
water.
 It also meets the needs of medical,
pharmacological, chemical, and industrial
applications for clean and potable water.
 The purification procedure reduces the
concentration of contaminants such as
suspended particles,
parasites, bacteria, algae, viruses, and fungi.
WATER QUALITY
- Basic treatments for water purification have been
documented in Greek and Sanskrit writings,
and Egyptians used alum for precipitation as early as
1500 BCE.
 Multiple processes, such as physical, chemical,
or biological analyses, have been developed to
test contamination levels.
 Levels of organic and inorganic chemicals, such
as chloride, copper, manganese, sulfates,
and zinc, microbial pathogens, radioactive
materials, and dissolved and suspended solids,
as well as pH, odour, colour, and taste, are
some of the common parameters analyzed to
assess water quality and contamination levels.
 Regular household methods such
as boiling water or using an activated-
carbon filter can remove some water
contaminants. Although those methods are
popular because they can be used widely and
inexpensively, they often do not remove more
dangerous contaminants.
 According to a 2017 report by the United
Nations (UN) World Health Organization (WHO),
2.1 billion people lack access to a safe and
reliable drinking water supply at home.
DEHYDRATION
- The first symptoms of dehydration include thirst,
darker urine, and decreased urine production. In fact,
urine color is one of the best indicators of a person’s
hydration level – clear urine means you are well
hydrated and darker urine means you are
dehydrated.
 It is important to note that, particularly in older
adults, dehydration can occur without thirst. This
is why it is important to drink more water when
ill, or during hotter weather.
Symptoms of:
- dry mouth
Moderate - lethargy
Dehydration - weakness in muscles
- headache
- dizziness
 Severe - lack of sweating
Dehydration - sunken eyes
- shriveled and dry skin
- low blood pressure
- increased heart rate
- fever
- delirium
- unconsciousness
Symptoms in - in babies – a sunken fontanel
Children (soft spot on the top of the
head)
- dry tongue and mouth
- irritable
- no tears when crying
- sunken cheeks and/or eyes
- no wet diaper for 3 or more
hours
Causes of Dehydration
The basic causes of dehydration are not taking in
enough water, losing too much water, or a
combination of both.
Additional causes of dehydration include:
Diarrhea – the most common cause of dehydration
and related deaths. The large intestine absorbs water
from food matter, and diarrhea prevents this from
happening. The body excretes too much water,
leading to dehydration.
Vomiting – leads to a loss of fluids and makes it
difficult to replace water by drinking it.
Sweating – the body’s cooling mechanism releases a
significant amount of water. Hot and humid weather
and vigorous physical activity can further increase
fluid loss from sweating. Similarly, a fever can cause
an increase in sweating and may dehydrate the
patient, especially if there is also diarrhea and
vomiting.
Diabetes – high blood sugar levels cause increased
urination and fluid loss. Tips for handling summer
heat for people with diabetes.
Frequent Urination – usually caused by
uncontrolled diabetes, but also can be due to alcohol
and medications such as diuretics, antihistamines,
blood pressure medications, and antipsychotics.
Burns – blood vessels can become
damaged, causing fluid to leak into the surrounding
tissues.
USES OF WATER
Industrial Water - use accounts for an estimated
15% of worldwide water use, with a much greater
percentage in developed nations. Industrial uses of
water include power plants that use water to cool their
equipment and oil refineries that use water for
chemical processes.
Household Use - Think about all the ways you use
water in a day. You need to count the water you drink,
cook with, bathe in, garden with, let run down the
drain, or flush down the toilet.
 In developed countries, people use a lot of
water, while in less developed countries people
use much less. Globally, household or personal
water use is estimated to account for 15% of
world-wide water use.
 Some household water uses are non-
consumptive, because water is recaptured in
sewer systems, treated, and returned to surface
water supplies for reuse. Many things can be
done to lower water consumption at home.
Recreational Use - People love water for swimming,
fishing, boating, river rafting, and other activates.
 Despite its value, the amount of water that most
recreational activities use is low: less than 1% of
all the water we use.
 Many recreational water uses are non-
consumptive including swimming, fishing, and
boating.
 Golf courses are the biggest recreational water
consumer since they require large amounts for
irrigation, especially because many courses are
located in warm, sunny, desert regions where
water is scarce and evaporation is high.
Environmental Use - includes creating wildlife
habitat. Lakes are built to create places for fish and
water birds. Most environmental uses are non-
consumptive and account for an even smaller
percentage of water use than recreational uses. A
shortage of this water is a leading cause of
global biodiversity loss.
Chapter 5.
THE ATMOSPHERE
- is the envelope of gasses surrounding the earth.
It provides materials necessary to support all forms of
life on earth. The atmosphere covers the earth with a
thick blanket of gas. These layers of gas protect the
earth from a large number of meteors that can
otherwise, crash on the earth and cause extensive
damage. They also protect the earth from the harmful
rays of the sun.
Layers of the Atmosphere
The atmosphere can be divided vertically into five
layers based on temperature.
1. Troposphere - is the bottom layer of the
atmosphere where temperature decreases with an
increase in altitude. This layer is the zone where
temperature occurs. Temperature decreases with
increasing height (altitude) in the troposphere. At
around 11 to 16 km above from the earth’s
surface, is a boundary called Tropopause – acts
as a ceiling to the weather zone. The Tropopause
contains stormy winds called jet streams.
Jet Streams: where strongest winds occur where
narrow winding rivers of air found from, 20,000 to
40,000 feet above sea level.
Winds with speeds greater than 200 miles per
hour.
2. Stratosphere - Extends upward to about 50 km
from the surface of the earth. The stratosphere
contains a layer of ozone.
 Ozone keeps most of the sun’s ultraviolet
radiation from reaching the earth’s
atmosphere. Ozone is responsible for the
temperature increase in the upper
stratosphere.
 The zone where the temperature is at its
highest is called Stratopause. The
Stratopause separates the stratosphere from
the next layer of the atmosphere.
3. Mesosphere - Extends upward to about 80
to 85 km from the surface of the earth.
 The layer of the atmosphere immediately
above the stratosphere and is characterized by
decreasing temperatures with height.
 The coldest zone of the atmosphere. At the
zone called Mesopause, the temperature
changes, and decreases to about – 80oC from
the next layer of the atmosphere.
4. Thermosphere – Extends upward to about
85 km upward to about 500 km. The
thermosphere is the region of the
atmosphere immediately above the
mesosphere. Characterized by rapid
increase of temperatures due altitude.
 Within this layer is the ionosphere – a
layer of electrically charged particles.
The ions glow in different colors due to
solar flares that hit the ionosphere.
When this happens, a resulting display
of color called Aurora occurs. Auroras
– may cause disturbances in radio, TV
and telephone transmissions.
5. Exosphere - Extends upward to about 500
km to around 3,000 km above the surface of
the Earth. Farther beyond this layer, at about
3,000 to 30,000 km above the earth surface
is the Van Allen Belt.
 Van Allen Belt – this is the radiation
formed by the concentration of particles
of solar winds that are held in place by
the earth’s magnetic field.
Composition of the Atmosphere
Air is a mixture of different gases and particles, each
with its own physical properties.
The atmosphere contains mostly nitrogen and
oxygen. Traces of other gases are also found in the
atmosphere.
- Nitrogen N2 – 78 % - used in fertilizers, amino
acids, nitroglycerin.
- Oxygen O2 – 21 % - used by animal
respiration, rocket fuel.
- Argon Ar – 0.93 % - used for electrical bulbs,
welding rods.
- Carbon Dioxide CO2 - 0.03 % -
photosynthesis.
- Water Vapor H20 – 0 – 4.0% - component of
all life forms; absorbs the earth’s heat
Water Vapor - is the source of all clouds and Human Influence
precipitation. Like carbon dioxide, water vapor
absorbs heat given off by Earth. It also absorbs some Emissions from transportation vehicles account for
solar energy. nearly half the primary pollutants by weight
Ozone - is a form of oxygen that combines three
oxygen atoms into each molecule Primary Pollutants
(O3). What They Are Where They Come
If ozone did not filter most UV radiation and all of From
the sun’s UV rays reached the surface of Earth, Carbon Monoxide Transportation
our planet would be uninhabitable for many living 49.1% 46.2%
organisms. Sulfur Oxides Stationary Source Fuel
16.4% Combustion
Review of Energy Transfer as Heat 27.3%
Three mechanisms of energy transfer as heat are Nitrogen Oxides Industrial Processes
conduction, convection, and radiation. 14.8% 15%
Volatile Organics Miscellaneous
Conduction - is the transfer of heat through matter by 13.6% 9%
molecular activity. Particulates Solid Waste Disposal
6% 2.5%
Convection - is the transfer of heat by mass
movement or circulation within a substance. Climate - is a pattern or cycle of weather conditions
such as:
Radiation - is the transfer of energy (heat) through - Temperature
space by electromagnetic waves that travel out in all - Wind
directions. - Snowfall
- Precipitate
Unlike conduction and convection, which need - Humidity and clouds
material to travel through, radiant energy can travel  It has a major role in determining how
through the vacuum of space. ecosystems are distributed throughout the
biosphere.
What Happens to Solar Radiation?  Climate determines the amount of rainfall a
certain area will receive, thus, the presence of
Reflection - occurs when light bounces off an object. various terrestrial biomes.
Reflection radiation has the same intensity as incident
radiation. The Sun’s Radiation - is the primary source of heat
for all Earth’s organisms.
Scattering - produces a larger number of weaker
rays that travel in different directions. The sun’s heat reaches the different parts of the Earth
> About 50 percent of the solar energy that strikes the at different times throughout the year which results to
top of the atmosphere reaches Earth’s surface and is variations in weather and climate.
absorbed.
The Tropical Zone - is the region that extends from
The Greenhouse Effect - is the heating of Earth’s the equator to about 30o degrees north and south
surface and atmosphere from solar radiation being latitudes.
absorbed and emitted by the atmosphere, mainly by  Is characterized by a hot climate and strongly
water vapor and carbon dioxide. monsoonal weather patterns.
 The zone includes hot desserts and tropical
Emissions from transportation vehicles account for rain forests.
nearly half the primary pollutants by weight
Pollution The Temperate Zone - extends from 30o to about 60o
north and south latitudes.
  The temperature is cooler here than in the
tropical zone and changes with the season.
 During summer, the temperature changes from
warm to hot; while during winter, the
temperature is from cool to cold.
Precipitation falls as rain or drizzle during summers;
and as snow or freezing rain during winters.
The Polar Zone - extends beyond 60o north and
south latitudes.
Winters are long and extremely cold, while summers
are short and cool.
All precipitation is frozen. Ice and snow covers are
extremely thick.
Cloud - is a visible aggregate of small water droplets
and/or ice particles in the atmosphere above earth’s
surface
 They form in the atmosphere as a result of
condensation of water vapor rising from the
surface.
 Clouds form when moisture in the air
condenses on small particles of dust or other
solid particles in the air
 Clouds are classified according to shape and
altitude (form and height).
Types of Clouds:
Classified on the basis of their form and height:
1) Cirrus (cirrus = curl of hair or ‘feathery’) are clouds
that are high, white, and thin.
> They are fair-weather clouds.
2) Cumulus (cumulus = a pile or ‘Heaped up’) are
clouds look like heads of cauliflower with flat bottoms.
> Indicates fair weather.
3) Stratus (stratus = a layer, ‘spread out’ or ‘stretched
in layers’) are clouds best described as sheets or
layers that cover much or all of the sky.
> Clouds that brings light rain and drizzle
4) Nimbus means ‘rainy’. Any clouds that produces
precipitation is called nimbus.
> Clouds that brings rain or snow
The main types of clouds are: cirrus, cumulus, stratus,
nimbus clouds.
High Clouds (height greater than 7 km):
 Cirrus Clouds are high, white, and thin
 Cirrostratus Clouds are flat layers of cloud
 Cirrocumulus Clouds consist of fluffy masse
Middle Clouds (2-7 km high):
 Altocumulus Clouds - are composed of
rounded masses or sheet of layered clouds
composed of rounded masses or rolls.
 Altostratus Clouds - create a uniform white to
gray sheet covering the sky with the sun or
moon visible as a bright spot.
Low Clouds (0 - 2 km high):
 Stratus Clouds - are best described as sheets
or layers that cover much or all of the sky,
which may (if thick enough), produce drizzle;
 Stratocumulus Clouds - have a scalloped
bottom that appears as long parallel rolls or
broken rounded patches;
 Nimbostratus Clouds - are the main
precipitation makers;
 Cumulonimbus – the thunderstorm cloud.
This is a heavy and dense cloud in the form of
a tall tower. The base of the cloud is often dark
and produces precipitation.
> This cloud type also produces hail and tornado.
The color-coded rain depending on the amount of rain
a cloud carries:
Green - light rain
Yellow - moderate rain, flooding is possible
Red - heavy rain, severe flooding is expected
Orange – flooding is threatening
Blue – warm winds
Pink - cold winds
Chapter 6.
ECOSYSTEM
- a community of living organisms interacting with
the Non-living components of their environment.
Biotic Factors - include plants, Animals, and other
organisms.
Abiotic Factors - include rocks, temperature, and
humidity.
Biomes - are large sections of land, sea, or
atmosphere. Forests, ponds, reefs, and tundra are all
types of biomes.
3 Categories of Living Things in an Ecosystem:
1. Producers - are the green plants. They make their
own food.
2. Consumers - are animals and they get their
energy from the producers or from organisms that eat
producers.
Three Types of Consumers:
 Herbivores - are animals that eat plants
 Carnivores - are animals that eat herbivores
and sometimes other carnivores
 Omnivores - are animals that eat plants and
other animals
3. Decomposers - are plants and animals that break
down dead plants and animals into organic materials
that go back into the soil.
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
- is the process by which an environment
changes structure, in terms of resident
species, over a period of time.
Succession - is a series of progressive changes in
the composition of an ecological community over
time.
Primary Succession - newly exposed or newly
formed rock is colonized by living things for the first
time. It occurs when new land is formed or bare rock
is exposed, providing a habitat that can be colonized
for the first time.
Secondary Succession - an area previously
occupied by living things is disturbed, disrupted, and
then recolonized following the disturbance that kills
much or all of its community.
 A classic example of secondary succession
occurs in oak and hickory forests cleared by
wildfire.
 Wildfires will burn most vegetation and kill
animals unable to flee the area. Their
nutrients, however, are returned to the
ground in the form of ash.
 Since a disturbed area already has nutrient-
rich soil, it can be recolonized much more
quickly than the bare rock of primary
succession.
The early ecologists who first studied succession
thought of it as a predictable process in which a
community always went through the same series of
stages. They also thought that the end result of
succession was a stable, unchanging final state called
a Climax Community, largely determined by an
area's climate. For instance, in the example above,
the mature oak and hickory forest would be the climax
community.
FACTORS INFLUENCING SUCCESSION
1. Topographical - extreme conditions cause
abiotic topographical factors, which are mainly
involved with secondary succession.
- Landslides and mudslides are examples of this
type of factor because they cause a massive
reformation of the landscape.
- The disturbance caused by landslides and
mudslides allows for disturbance-tolerant
species to repopulate the habitat.
2. Soil - the soil, an abiotic factor, of an
environment affects ecological primary
succession greatly.
- Different species of plants require different soil
conditions. Trees tend to be the largest driving
organism in this portion of ecological
succession.
- The ph levels of the soil is often affected most
by the inhabiting trees and determines what
type of plants can thrive there.
- The type of soil (loamy sand, sandy, top soil
with humus, etc.) also plays a large role in
what species can inhabit an area.
 - In sandy areas, only a select few species are
able to take root and survive.
- The moisture level of the soil determines what
sort of trees inhabits an area.
- Swampy areas tend to house trees with higher
ph level requirements where drier soils tend to
house trees with lower ph level requirements.
Climate - an abiotic factor highly involved in both
primary and secondary succession, plays a significant
role in determining the direction of succession in an
environment. If an environment receives a period of
low precipitation, it becomes more susceptible to fires
caused by lightning. This leads to secondary
succession in which fire-resistant and tolerable
species thrive and the others die out. Wind has the
ability to reform the landscape over time by way of
erosion. Winds can also drive wildfires to further
cause disturbance. However, when an environment
receives high levels of precipitation, it becomes more
suitable for certain species that are tolerable of high
moisture levels, which is an example of climatic effect
on primary succession.
Species Interaction and Competition - is a biotic
factor of ecological primary succession. When
succession begins and the very first species, known
as pioneer species, change the environmental
structure, new species now tolerable to the new
conditions move in. The diversity among the species
present is high at this point. However, in time,
competition and interaction causes a significant drop
in species diversity where the dominant species thrive
and the rest die off.
TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM
Habitat - is a part of an ecosystem. The climate,
plants, and animals are the identities of a habitat.
Ecosystems Primarily Have Two Domains:
1. Terrestrial or Land Ecosystem
Desert Ecosystems - The amount of rainfall is the
primary abiotic determining factor of a desert
ecosystem.
 Deserts receive less than 25 centimeters (about
10 inches) of rain per year. Large fluctuations
between day and night temperatures
characterize a desert's terrestrial environment.
The soils contain high mineral content with little
organic matter.
Forest Ecosystems - about one third of the Earth's
land is covered in forest. The primary plant in this
ecosystem is trees.
 Forest ecosystems are subdivided by the type
of tree they contain and the amount of
precipitation they receive.
Taiga Ecosystems - it is also known as northern
coniferous forest or boreal forest. It covers a large
range of land stretching around the northern
hemisphere. It is lacking in biodiversity, having only a
few species.
 Taiga ecosystems are characterized by short
growing seasons, cold temperatures, and poor
soil.
Grassland Ecosystems - temperate grasslands
include prairies and steppes. They have seasonal
changes, but don't get enough rainfall to support large
forests.
Savannas - are tropical grasslands. Savannas have
seasonal precipitation differences, but temperatures
remain constant.
 Grasslands around the world have been
converted to farms, decreasing the amount of
biodiversity in these areas. The prominent
animals in grassland ecosystems are grazers
such as gazelle and antelope.
Tundra
Two Types of Tundra Exist:
- The Arctic Tundra - is located in the Arctic
Circle, north of the boreal forests.
- Alpine Tundras - occur on mountain tops.
Both types experience cold temperatures
throughout the year.
2. Aquatic or Water Ecosystem
Freshwater Aquatic Ecosystem - they cover only a
small portion of earth nearly 0.8 per cent. Freshwater
involves lakes, ponds, rivers and streams, wetlands,
swamp, bog and temporary pools.
 Freshwater habitats are classified into lotic and
lentic habitats.
  Water bodies such as lakes, ponds, pools,
bogs, and other reservoirs are standing water
and known as lentic habitats.
 Whereas lotic habitats represent flowing
water bodies such as rivers, streams.
Lotic Ecosystems - They mainly refer to the rapidly
flowing waters that move in a unidirectional way
including the rivers and streams. These environments
harbor numerous species of insects such as beetles,
mayflies, stoneflies and several species of fishes
including trout, eel, minnow, etc. Apart from these
aquatic species, these ecosystems also include
various mammals such as beavers, river dolphins and
otters.
Lentic Ecosystems - They include all standing water
habitats. Lakes and ponds are the main examples of
lentic ecosystem. The word lentic mainly refers to
stationary or relatively still water. These ecosystems
are home to algae, crabs, shrimps, amphibians such
as frogs and salamanders, for both rooted and
floating-leaved plants and reptiles including alligators
and other water snakes are also found here.
Wetlands - are marshy areas and are sometimes
covered in water which has a wide diversity of plants
and animals. Swamps, marshes, bogs, black spruce
and water lilies are some examples in the plant
species found in the wetlands. The animal life of this
ecosystem consists of dragonflies and damselflies,
birds such as green heron and fishes such as
northern pike.
Marine Aquatic Ecosystem
Marine Ecosystem - covers the largest surface area
of the earth. Two third of earth is covered by water
and they constitute of oceans, seas, intertidal zone,
reefs, seabed, estuaries, hydrothermal vents and rock
pools. Each life form is unique and native to its
habitat. This is because they have adaptations
according to their habitat.
Ocean Ecosystems - our planet earth is gifted with
the five major oceans, namely Pacific, Indian, Arctic,
and the Atlantic Ocean.
 Among all these five oceans, the Pacific and
the Atlantic is the largest and deepest ocean.
These oceans serve as a home to more than
five lakh (a hundred thousand) aquatic
species. Few creatures of these ecosystems
include shellfish, shark, tube worms, crab
small and large ocean fishes, turtles,
crustaceans, blue whale, reptiles, marine
mammals, seabirds, plankton, corals and other
ocean plants.
Coastal Systems - they are the open systems of land
and water which are joined together to form the
coastal ecosystems.
 The coastal ecosystems have a different
structure, and diversity. A wide variety of
species of aquatic plants and algae are found
at the bottom of the coastal ecosystem.
 The fauna is diverse and it mainly consists of
crabs, fish, insects, lobsters snails, shrimp,
etc.
> OTHER PPT BUT STILL CHAPTER 6 <
Fundamentals of Ecology
Ecosystem – complex community of living organisms
and its non-living components of their environment:
(Snake, horse, dogs, grass, streams, sand & gravel,
water & air, water & mineral soil)
Biosphere – zone comprising all forms of life in the
sea, on land, and in the air.
 Part of earth that contains all ecosystems.
The biotic and abiotic (energy, water, nitrogen
& soil minerals) components are regarded as linked
together through nutrients cycles and energy flows.
Habitats - The type of environment in which a certain
animal or plant species live or occupy is called a
habitat.
 Provides certain species or population with
food, shelter, temperature, water, and
whatever it is that they need to survive.
 Are specific to a population; each population
has its own habitat.
Two basic categories of communities are: Terrestrial
(land) and Aquatic (water) communities.
These two types/categories contain smaller units
called biomes.
1. Terrestrial Biomes:
 Tundra - Tundra is an extensive treeless plain
that extends across Northern Europe to Asia and
Northern America.
 Trees grow sparsely due to a short growing
season, low precipitation, strong winds, and
often high altitude.
 Summers are short and winters are long and
dark.
 There are actually no trees here but large
patches of grass, moss, and shrubs are present.
 The animal mostly present in tundra is the
Caribou.
 Desert - As with tundra, the desert also occupies
the same extreme environment where rainfall is
less than 50 cm per year.
 There are relatively few large mammals that live
in a desert since most are not capable of storing
enough amount of water and withstanding the
heat.
 Most animals that live here are reptiles.
 Most plants in this biome have developed a
series of adaptations such as succulent stems,
absence of leaves, and presence of spines
(cactus).
 Taiga (Boreal Forest) - is a Russian word that
means ―dense evergreen forest.‖
 A taiga is a coniferous forest that receives
between 10 and 40 inches of rain per year and
has a short growing season.
 Winters are brief and cold while summers tend
to be cool.
 The trees present here have usually thick
protective leaves and bark, as well as needlelike
leaves that can withstand snowfall.
 Common animals present here include grizzly
bears, wolves, caribou, and moose.
 Tropical Rain Forest - are usually found in
regions near the equator. The climate is always
warm (between 20 – 25 degrees Celsius) with
plenty of rainfall about 190 cm per year.
 The tropical rain forest is the richest biome in
terms of biodiversity.
 Most of the animals here live in trees.
 Birds are usually brightly colored.
 Amphibians and reptiles are also abundant here.
 The growing season in tropical forests is
yearlong due to the rapid cycling of nutrients.
 Temperate Forest - This biome extends across
the region of northern hemisphere with abundant
rainfall and long growing seasons.
 Deciduous (or trees that lose leaves in the fall
/autumn and grow again in the spring), broad-
leaved trees are the dominant plants such as
oak and maple trees.
 Grassland - The grassland biome is characterized
by deep, rich soil perfect for agriculture, an
absence of trees, and presence of large herds of
grazing animals.
 This biome is usually found in temperate and
tropical regions where rainfall is between 10 to
30 inches per year.
2. Aquatic Biomes:
 Marine - The marine biome covers 70% of the
Earth’s surface which includes: oceans, coral
reefs, and estuaries.
 Oceans - are the largest and most diverse of
the ecosystems. The marine algae supplies
most of the Earth’s oxygen and absorbs much of
the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
 Is a large, deep body of water formed long
time ago
 Oceans are large bodies of water, large
enough that they respond to the gravitational
pull of the sun and moon by a large scale
movement called Tides.
The Intertidal Zone - connects the ocean to land due
to the rising and falling of tides. It is also known as the
foreshore or seashore.
 There are many fishes and seaweeds found
in this zone during low tides.
 A more diverse array of algae, snails, crabs,
and small fishes can also be found in areas
submerged during high tide.
The Open Ocean or The Pelagic Zone - is generally
cold. Mammals such as dolphins and whales can be
found here as well as many species of fishes.
 It is the zone that is not close to the shore
and to the bottom.
The Benthic Zone - is found just below the pelagic
zone and consists of all sorts of bacteria, fungi,
sponges, sea anemones, worms, sea stars and fishes.
  Light hardly penetrates in this zone and the
water is very deep.

The Abyssal Zone - is the deepest and coldest part

of the ocean and is highly pressurized.
 Fishes that glow in the dark via a process
called photoluminescence are present here
and other invertebrates and fishes.
 Hydrothermal Vents are often found along
the ocean floors in this zone.

Coral Reefs - are mostly found in warm shallow

waters. They can be found as barriers along
continents such as Australia’s Great Barrier Reef,
fringing islands, and atolls.
 Corals obtain nutrients through the algae via
photosynthesis and also by extending
tentacles to obtain planktons from the water.

Estuaries - The area where fresh water, streams, and

rivers merge with ocean is called an Estuary.
 Algae, seaweeds, horseshoe crabs, shrimps,
scallops, and mangroves are found here.
 Estuaries protect water quality by filtering dirt
and pollution.
 It is the center of most coastal communities.

 Fresh Water - fresh water ecosystems cover

0.80% of the Earth’s surface and inhibit 0.009% of
its total water.

Three Basic Types of Fresh Water Ecosystems:

 Lentic: slow moving water, including pools,

ponds, and lakes.

 Lotic: faster moving water, including streams and

rivers.

 Wetlands: areas where soil is saturated or

inundated for at least part of the time.
 Four Main Types:
- swamp;
- marsh (soft wetland),
- bogs (sink in, swamp) &
- mire (heavy deep mud); fen (low boggy land)