Arab Academy for Science, Technology and Maritime

Transport

College of Engineering and Technology

Electronics and Communications

Report

Modern Wireless
Summary

Prepared by:
Youssef Khaled Tolba
15104215

Supervised by:
Dr. sheirf el-dyasti
 Abstract

The aim of this report is to discuss the concept of cellular network with its basic terms and rules
of designing to how it works and transmission data or calls then move to the mobile generation
evolution path discussing the modulation techniques an data speed enhancements, finally some
communication related topics are going to show in brief ideas of the different applications of a
cellular network

I
 Table of Contents
Chapter 1 – Introduction............................................................................................................................6
Chapter 2 – Cellular Systems......................................................................................................................7
2.1 Cellular Concept................................................................................................................................7
2.2 Cluster Concept.................................................................................................................................8
2.3 Frequency Planning...........................................................................................................................9
2.4 Interferences in Clusters..................................................................................................................10
2.5 Cell Size............................................................................................................................................10
2.6 Cell Organizing Techniques..............................................................................................................11
2.7 Shannon’s Equation.........................................................................................................................12
2.8 How Cellular Systems Work.............................................................................................................12
Chapter 3 – Mobile Generations and Architecture..................................................................................13
3.1 First Generation of Cellular Network (1G).......................................................................................13
3.2 Second Generation of Cellular Network (2G)...................................................................................13
3.3 Third Generation of Cellular Network (3G)......................................................................................14
3.4 Fourth Generation of Cellular Network (4G)....................................................................................14
3.5 Fifth Generation of Cellular Network (5G).......................................................................................15
3.6 Basic Architecture............................................................................................................................16
Chapter 4 – Topics in Modern Wireless....................................................................................................17
4.1 Bluetooth.........................................................................................................................................17
4.2 RFID (Radio Frequency Identification).............................................................................................18
4.3 Li-Fi (Short for Light Fidelity)............................................................................................................19
4.4 WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access)..........................................................20
4.5 GPS (Global Positioning System)......................................................................................................21
References................................................................................................................................................22

II
 List of Figures
Figure 1 the concept of communications....................................................................................................6
Figure 2 a BTS tower over a hill...................................................................................................................7
Figure 3 a BTS coverage with other BTSs.....................................................................................................7
Figure 4 (left) A set of BTS and their coverage, (right) approximated coverage..........................................8
Figure 5 Cell cluster and Sub-Bands.............................................................................................................8
Figure 6 Reuse distance...............................................................................................................................9
Figure 7 Co- channel interference.............................................................................................................10
Figure 8 Adjacent channel interference....................................................................................................10
Figure 9 (left) one sector cell,(middle) 3 sectored cell, (right) 6 sectored cell...........................................11
Figure 10 cell splitting................................................................................................................................11
Figure 11 cellular network.........................................................................................................................12
Figure 12 realization of FDMA...................................................................................................................13
Figure 13 realization of TDMA...................................................................................................................13
Figure 14 realization of CDMA...................................................................................................................13
Figure 15 (left)OFDMA and (right)SC-FDMA..............................................................................................14
Figure 16 system improvements from 4G to 5G........................................................................................15
Figure 17 evolution path of cellular architecture......................................................................................16
Figure 18 Bluetooth data packet...............................................................................................................17
Figure 19 the full RFID system overview....................................................................................................18
Figure 20 realization of Li-Fi system..........................................................................................................19
Figure 21 WiMAX network........................................................................................................................20
Figure 22 trilateration and triangulation...................................................................................................21

III
 List of Abbreviations

BTS…………………………………...…Base Station Transmission

MS……………………………………….Mobile station
BSC………………………………….......Base station controller
MSC…………………………………......Mobile switching center
PSK………………………………….......Phase Shift Keying PSK
LTE………………………………….......Long term evolution
OFDM…………………………………..Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing
SC-FDMA………………………………Single carrier frequency division multiple access
MIMO…………………………………...Multiple input multiple output
QAM………………………………….....Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
LTE-A…………………………………...Long-term evolution advanced
VHF…………………………………......Very High Frequency
SINR ……………………………..……..Signal to Interference & Noise ratio
AMPS………………………………..….Advanced Mobile Phone System
TACS……………………………….…...Total Access Communication System
FDMA…………………………….…..…Frequency Division multiple access
FDM…………………………….…….....Frequency division duplexing
GSM…………………………….……....The Global System for Mobile Communications
GMSK………………………….……….Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying
UMTS…………………………..…….....Universal Mobile Telecommunications Service
FDD…………………………………......Frequency division duplexing
TDD…………………………………......Time division duplexing
SMS…………………………………......Short Message Service
TDMA…………………………………..Time division multiple access
GPRS…………………………………....General Packet Radio Service
EDGE……………………………………Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution
GMSC…………………………………...Gateway mobile switching center
VLR………………………………….......Visitor Location Register
HLR………………………………….......Home Location Register
MSISDN………………………………....Mobile station international subscriber directory number
SIM…………………………………........Subscriber Identity Module
WCDMA………………………………...Wideband Code Division Multiple Access
CDMA………………………………....... Code Division Multiple Access
IoT……………………………….…....….Internet of Things
VLC…………………………….………...Visible light communication
RAN………………………….…………..Radio Access Network
IMSI………………………………………International mobile subscriber identity
TMSI……………………………………..Temporary mobile Subscriber identity
UHF………………………………………Ultra high frequency
DQ-PSK………………………………….Differential quadrature phase-shift keying
GFSK…………………………………….Gaussian frequency shift keying
FHS…………………………………..Frequency hopping synchronization

IV
 Chapter 1 – Introduction

Now a days wireless communication is one of the most Essential thing we use, we use them from
calling each other to get information from the internet while on the move, wireless
communication is so imbedded in our life’s that we don’t know what we will do if the stopped
working, due to our need, the evolution of wireless communications’ is non-stop from the start of
the land lines to the mobile phones and its several cellular networks.

Figure 1 the concept of communications

Cellular network is the one of basic structures need for the mobile industry to work, the network
is large and is made of many elements, with each new evolution of the network the elements
change or enhance to suit the new standers and with the new 5 th generation of the Cellular
network, the uses of the network won’t be for only call and internet access but it will cover a new
area of severs through the upcoming of IoT and AI.
For that the understanding of the network elements and the evolution path is a must so that one
can know how to deal with them.

V
 Chapter 2 – Cellular Systems

2.1 Cellular Concept

One of first thing any network must deal with is the converge, the converge deal with the area of
which anyone with access to the network can connect to the network.
One of the first concepts was to place a BTS on a high place and provide it with a high-power
transmitting power so that the antenna can coverage a large area.[ CITATION drs \l 1033 ]

Figure 2 a BTS tower over a hill

This concept was ok when the number of user where low, but with the increase of users
interference problem starting appearing so the next concept was to divide the large converge area
to smaller ones each with a frequency which is reused in another coverage area but is far, this is
called frequency reuse.[ CITATION drs \l 1033 ]

Figure 3 a BTS coverage with other BTSs

VI
as seen figure 3, the converge are is not a circle as expected because the circler converge area
will cause the creation of dead spots, spots where there is no converge meaning call can drop and
no call can be received in this spot, hence the shape of the hexagon shape is used to avoid dead
spots but it only used in thermotical work in the real world an approximation is use as seen in the
figure below.[ CITATION drs \l 1033 ]

Figure 4 (left) A set of BTS and their coverage, (right) approximated coverage

The type of antenna is the second thing a network deal with, the type of antenna can vary in the
BTS location if the used antenna is an Omni-directional antenna the BTS is placed in the center
of a cell if it is Directional antenna is placed on a shared edge [ CITATION drs \l 1033 ]
to help manage the increased numbers of BTSs, a group of BTSs transmit to a BSC which then
gives the data to the core network [ CITATION drs \l 1033 ]

2.2 Cluster Concept

One of the down sides of wireless communication is that its radio spectrum is limited, main there
is no fixed wireless communication, to help manage this a group of cells are put together to form
a cluster and each of the cells inside a cluster uses a sub-band different than of the others to
avoid interference.[ CITATION drs \l 1033 ]

Figure 5 Cell cluster and Sub-Bands

VII
A cluster is usually be a group of 7 cell but can be more or less but it must follow a sequence of
(1,4,7,12), each cell uses a frequency from a sub-band as shown in figure 5, the idea behind
cluster is to minimize the load the rest of the network [ CITATION drs \l 1033 ]

2.3 Frequency Planning

As mentioned above the radio spectrum is limited and the division of the courage into cluster
consumes from the available band due to each cell using a frequency different from the others so,
the method of Frequency Re-use is used to improve the efficiency of the network by taking
distance into consideration, the same frequency can be used in a different cluster but that is far
way with a certain distance beyond its converge.[ CITATION drs \l 1033 ]

Figure 6 Reuse distance

There are two types of planning:

1. Fixed frequency assignment
Certain frequencies are given a certain set of cells, but there will be different traffic loads at
different cells[ CITATION drs \l 1033 ]
2. Dynamic frequency assignment
The BTS chooses frequencies depending on the surrounding frequencies, this can help
increase it capacity also inference measurements can affect it decision [ CITATION drs \l 1033 ]

VIII
2.4 Interferences in Clusters

One of the issues that face a cellular network is interference, there are 2 type of interference
1. Adjacent channel interference
This happens when 2 or more users with different frequency overlap each other, usually
happen at adjacent cells [ CITATION drs \l 1033 ]
2. Co-channel interference
This happens when 2 or more users use the same channel usually happen at cell that use the
same frequency and when use is at the boundary of the converge [ CITATION drs \l 1033 ]

Figure 7 Co- channel interference Figure 8 Adjacent channel interference

Adjacent is more serious than co-channel but both can be avoided through careful filtering and
planning

2.5 Cell Size

Not all cells are same size, the cluster size is affected by the size of the served area and its
environment, it can be indoors or outdoors, so for that different classes of cells are made
[ CITATION drs \l 1033 ]

 Macro cell : can serve up to 10km and are used for large clear areas like highways
 Micro cell : can serve up to 1km and is used for malls and airports
 Pico cell : can serve up from 50m to 300m and is used for inside building
 Femto cell : can serve from 10m to 40m and are used for rooms like work offices

IX
2.6 Cell Organizing Techniques

In order to increase the network capacity some new techniques were made to help enhance the
capacity
1. Cell sectorization :
This states that a cell is divided into sectors each sector with a frequency and its own
antenna, this technique uses a group of 3 or 6 omni-directional antenna depending on the
number of sectors, only downside of such method is that it increases hand-offs [ CITATION
drs \l 1033 ]

Figure 9 (left) one sector cell,(middle) 3 sectored cell, (right) 6 sectored cell

2. Cell splitting :
This method decreases the transmitting power of some of the BTSs which then creates a
small cell within a large cell and frequency reuse for non-contiguous cell groups, but this
method needs for each cell a BS also increases the system load and hand-offs [ CITATION drs \l
1033 ]

Figure 10 cell splitting

X
2.7 Shannon’s Equation

Before we move to how a cellular network work, one must know rules a network must follow.
When designing a network and setting its frequency one must consider to use Shannon’s
equation (C ≤ W log 2 (1+ SINR)), this equation states that the capacity of the network (C) is
measured by the bandwidth (W ) and the Signal to interference and noise ratio ( SINR ), this
equation is very important and no network is designed without it. [ CITATION htt1 \l 1033 ]

2.8 How Cellular Systems Work

The first thing that happens is the communication between MS and BTS and this call forward
channel or uplink and from BTS to MS this is called reverse link or downlink, after that the BTS
transmit the signal to the BSC thorough a network of microwave links and from the BSC to the
MSC, the MSC tells either the signal is a voice or packet and depending on that routes the signal
to its distention while the BSC monitors and controls the traffic through hand-off [ CITATION

Figure 11 cellular network

drs \l 1033 ]

XI
Now that we know everything there is on the cellular network form the infrastructure to how it
works, we are going to move to the next chapter which will discuss the mobile generation

XII
 Chapter 3 – Mobile Generations and Architecture

3.1 First Generation of Cellular Network (1G)

the first generation of cellular network came out in 1979, it introduced a new way of
Communicating with each other with a mobile device [CITATION htt \l
1033 ]

the system had many names like AMPS in North America and TACS
in the U.K, this system an analog based system and only preformed
voice call using FDMA as its multiple access technique which lets
each subscriber have a unique frequency [ CITATION drs1 \l 1033 ]
the 1G operated in the 800MHZ band with the band 824MHz to
849MHz for the downlink and 869MHz to 894MHz for the uplink Figure 12 realization of FDMA
[ CITATION drs1 \l 1033 ]

this system provides voice call for 10Km to 25Km, but in terms of security the system was weak
due to signal being not encrypted also the network was limited carrying only a few users at a
time.[CITATION htt \l 1033 ]

3.2 Second Generation of Cellular Network (2G)

The second generation of cellular network came out in 1991 and was named GSM, this time the
system was digital based using TDMA as its multiple access technique which lets users share the
same frequency but each at a different time slot [CITATION htt \l 1033 ]
The 2G operated at 800MHz, 900MHz, 1800MHz and 1900MHz which
provide a spacing of 200KHz for each downlink and uplink and since
this system is digital based this gave the option to encryption calls,
efficient use of the radio spectrum and send SMS [ CITATION drs1 \l
1033 ]

This system was later improved to 2.5G which is known as GPRS, this
system used the a packet-switched domain in addition to the a circuit-
Figure 13 realization of TDMA
switched domain which allowed the use of data, with speed up to
50Kbps, and voice call, then came the 2.75G which was named EDGE which improved the data
speed 3 times of GPRS, EDGE used 8PSK as its modulation scheme
for a good connection while uses GMSK for bad connections
[ CITATION drs1 \l 1033 ]

XIII

Figure 14 realization of CDMA

A final version of 2G was made but was based on CDMA which allowed the system to have
power control to solve near-far effect, this new technique is done by give each use a unique code
which represents the give time slot and frequency [ CITATION drs1 \l 1033 ]

3.3 Third Generation of Cellular Network (3G)

The third generation of cellular network also known as UMTS was a huge step toward the ear of
technology, it provided enhanced voice calls and higher data speeds, up to 21.6 Mbit/s, also added
video calls together the three are called triple play.[CITATION htt \l 1033 ]

This system was based on 2 schemes CDMA and WCDMA, CDMA helps the system to have backward
computability with that of 2G while WCDMA helps the system to have higher capacity, better quality of
services and better life time of devices due to lower mobile transmit power also a new technique called
soft hand-off which states that the mobile creates a connection with a new BTS before disconnecting from
the previous BTS [ CITATION drs2 \l 1033 ]

Later came new versions of like 3.5G, 3.75G each offering a higher data speed from 14 Mbps to 42 Mbps
but the last version 3.9G was the one to change the standers, it came under the name LTE and used
OFDMA which saved bandwidth and provided higher data speed of 100Mbps with carrier bandwidth of
20MHz.[CITATION htt \l 1033 ]

3.4 Fourth Generation of Cellular Network (4G)

This system came out in 2010 and it was named LTE which was considered as 3.9G it didn’t
give the expected performance of the expected 4G system.[ CITATION htt1 \l 1033 ]
Later the system was improved to LTE-A which gave the expected performance using OFDAM
for downlink and SC-FDMA for uplink, SC-FDMA like other multiple access techniques it
assigns shared resources to user like TDMA and FDMA.[ CITATION htt1 \l 1033 ]

Figure 15 (left)OFDMA and (right)SC-FDMA

XIV
The only downside of 4G is that due to OFDMA having near bands power consumption is high,
A later enhancement was made in form of LTE-Pro which gave us a data rate of up to 3Gbps.
[ CITATION htt1 \l 1033 ]

3.5 Fifth Generation of Cellular Network (5G)

This system is the most anticipated and life changing of the previous generation, the 5G will deal
with an increased number of BS so that every IP device can be connected this means a huge band
must be available to support such traffic which current low frequency bands can’t support due to
them being stacked, thus the targeted band for the 5G will be in VHF within 20GHz to 96GHz.
The 5G cellular network will provide two major improvements like very high data rates, which
will be 1000 times more than of 4G, and low latency that is important for the new applications
such as IoT [ CITATION 5gr \l 1033 ]
To provide such system a group of requirements must be available:
1. Mm wave :
In order to use the proposed band, mm waves must be used but the only, but they only travel
from short distances thus an increase of short-range BS will appear called Small Cells, but
this can have Hazardous effects on human life thus it is still under study. [ CITATION 5gr \l 1033
]

2. Massive MIMO :
For the BS to establish a connection with every IP device in its area a large group of antennas
must be available, a MIMO system is used in the 4G cellular network, which have 12
elements, but the number of users now is not like the expected number of users in 5G thus a
group of 64 to 256 element will be used and will be called massive MIMO. [ CITATION 5gr \l
1033 ]

3. Beam forming :
This technology will help monitor the traffic and assign signal strength depending on the
usage also other users can help boost signal for users. [ CITATION 5gr \l 1033 ]

XV
 Figure 16 system improvements from 4G to 5G

The previous requirements are key for the system success although no standards where set, but
the target will be to data speeds of 10Gbps with low latency and in terms of power due to small
cells and short-range mm wave power consumption will be 90% less than 4G.[ CITATION 5gr \l
1033 ]

3.6 Basic Architecture

After discussing all the generation and their specs, one must know the architecture of each
generation of cellular network.

Figure 17 evolution path of cellular architecture

As shown in figure 17, with each new generation the network changes to fit the new standers but
the basic elements stay the same which are
1. Access network :
This part checks for if the subscriber can access the network or not, is made up of BSC or
RNC according to the generation but both sever the same purpose of managing radio
resources and mounting traffic on network also BTS, NobeB or eNobeB serve as the
collector of signal from MS, the AUC, HLR and VLR are used for the authentication process
to verify and store Permanent and temporary information, off courses the call is Encrypted
by a set of numbers like IMSE and TMSE[ CITATION cel \l 1033 ]

XVI
 2. Core network :
This part deals with the main parts of the network and helps call go to their destination
through a series of severs and gateways depending on the purpose of the received signal
[ CITATION cel \l 1033 ]

3. Transport network :
Is basically any part of the network that is used for transporting signal cables or anything
with air interface like MS to BTS or microwave links between BTS and BSC. [ CITATION cel \l
1033 ]

Chapter 4 – Topics in Modern Wireless

4.1 Bluetooth

This system was made to connect devices wirelessly together to transmit data in a short range,
Bluetooth uses UHF radio waves at 2.4GHz with bandwidth of 85MHz.[ CITATION blu \l 1033 ]
On the Bluetooth release it used GFSK, but with Bluetooth 2 they started using DQ-PSK and
later in another version they used 8-DPSK, there are 5 version of Bluetooth with each version the
data rate, power consumption and speed of Transmission.[ CITATION blu \l 1033 ]
When establishing a connection the slave device sends a page signal with its FHS packet, then
the master device scans it and adds it to the list of FHS packets that are in range, the page signal
is made of a special ID globe address and a device scans for it every 1.25ms, a master device can
connect up to 7 device to create a network called “piconet”.[ CITATION blu \l 1033 ]
The Bluetooth packet is made up of 3 parts :
 Access code :
This part is used for time synchronization, offset compensation and paging
 Header :
This part has the packet acknowledgement, flow control and slave address
 Payload :
This part has the information can be data, voice or both

Figure 18 Bluetooth data packet

XVII
In terms of error correction there are two techniques Froward error correction, and this adds bits
to the packet and through an application error is corrected, the other technique is Automatic
repeat request, and this check the received packet and requests the missing bits. [ CITATION blu \l
1033 ]

The security method used in Bluetooth is a simple question like “trusted device” and in some
application that require a high security only some authorized devices can connect and transmit,
the security in Bluetooth is not that strong so it’s mostly used in commercial application like
speakers and headsets. [ CITATION blu \l 1033 ]

4.2 RFID (Radio Frequency Identification)

This technology uses electromagnetic waves to identity an item or a person through a specific
tag, the system is made of tags and a reader and the tags are link to a system to track their
location and give update states on them.[ CITATION RFI \l 1033 ]
The system operates in 3 different bands depending on the range of operation and the amount of
data.[ CITATION RFI \l 1033 ]
 (100KHz to 500KHz)
This band is used for short range application that need low data rates and its cost and power
consumption is low
 (10MHz to 16MHz)
This band is used for medium range application that need medium data rate
 (850MHz to 950MHz) and (2.4GHz to 5.8GHz)
Both bands can be used for high range application with high data rate but high-power
consumption

Figure 19 the full RFID system overview

A system can have one or many tags and one or many readers or one reader with one or many
antennas.[ CITATION RFI \l 1033 ]

XVIII
The system reader are created to service one purpose scan tags and report the information to the
main system, I made up of a microprocessor, a transceiver, antenna and a network interface,
while the system tag are classified as 3 types passive (get power from reader), active (has a
battery) or semi-passive, tags can be made to read only from or read and write, tags are made up
of an microchip that carries information, and an antenna.[ CITATION RFI \l 1033 ]
The RFIS system is a high speed with high accuracy system but can cost a lot and is affected by
interference, the system is mainly used in supply chain racking and access control. [ CITATION RFI1
\l 1033 ]

4.3 Li-Fi (Short for Light Fidelity)

This system uses VLC to run a network of wireless communication that travel in the speed of
light to transmit data, the same concept of Wi-Fi but instead of using radio waves it uses the light
of and LED to transmit data.[ CITATION lif \l 1033 ]
The system is made up multiple LEDs that are connected to data steam and is detected through a
photo detector that get the steam of light and converts the steam to data for example one means
light is one and zero means light is off.[ CITATION lif \l 1033 ]

Figure 20 realization of Li-Fi system

Comparing Li-Fi to Wi-Fi, Li-Fi is more secured, faster transmission of data, a wider range and
more traffic control.[ CITATION lif \l 1033 ]

XIX
Light can pass through wall making it more secure that Wi-Fi so, for it can be used in
government building, Li-Fi requires that light must be always on thus the light are dimmed to
that humans can’t see it [ CITATION lif1 \l 1033 ]
The best uses for Li-Fi is in underwater communication due to the dissipation of radio waves and
in cellular Communication in the streets due to lights being on 24/7, but the system is affected by
the environment like fog and pollution also is expensive to install.[ CITATION lif1 \l 1033 ]

4.4 WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access)

The system was made to provide media access control, the system was made to give data speed
of 30Mbps to 40Mbps but in 2011 the system was updated to provide up to 1Gbps for fixed
station. WiMAX uses several bands that can vary from 2.3GHz to 5GHz depending on the
region.[ CITATION w1 \l 1033 ]
The system uses OFDM and OFDMA as its modulation scheme, supports both TDD which lets
user’s uplink and downlink in one channel but different times and FDD with gives the user a
channel for uplink and channel for downlink.[ CITATION w1 \l 1033 ]
The network of WiMAX is made up of MS which is the referred to as subscriber station like a
laptop or a mobile, a BS which provides air interface for MS and preform hand-off and mange
radio resources, and lastly the Authentication, Authorization and Accounting server (AAA)
which check for user Authority and account for number of users on the system. [ CITATION w2 \l
1033 ]

XX
 Figure 21 WiMAX network

The network can support either fixed or mobile MS, the fixed network used OFDM and supports
FDD and TDD and can use multiple modulation schemes like single carrier modulation, while
the mobile network uses OFDMA and can preform hand-offs and the BS use MIMO for their
antenna system. [ CITATION w2 \l 1033 ]
The WiMAX is a Standardized technology that is fast growing and can give high data rates with
a secure line but it costs a lot specially for urban places, have high latency and use multiple
frequency bands, but it can be used the educational and medical field providing high internet
speeds for e-learning and remote surgery.[ CITATION w2 \l 1033 ]

4.5 GPS (Global Positioning System)

This system help provide location and time using satellites that are synced together to provide
such information.[ CITATION GPS \l 1033 ]
The GPS is a system that uses 30+ navigation satellites that orbit the earth at 20,000 Km,the GPS
receiver get 4 or more signal and translate them to the location and time of the receiver.
[ CITATION GPS \l 1033 ]

The received signal is made up of trilateration and triangulation, the trilateration set the location
of the user by using three distances, which are created by sphere at the center of the Satellite and
where they intersect is the location, and the triangulation is used to measure the angles of the
receiver and location one wants to go and get the distance between them.[ CITATION GPS \l 1033 ]

Figure 22 trilateration and triangulation

XXI
There are many applications for the use of GPS from Telecommunications to military
applications the range is wide for such system.

XXII
 References

[1] d. s. el-dyaste, EC529 modern wireless comm. lect 1.

[2] [Online]. Available: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shannon%E2%80%93Hartley_theorem.

[3] [Online]. Available: https://bebusinessed.com/history/history-cell-phones/.

[4] d. s. el-dyate, EC529 modern wireless comm. lect 2.

[5] d. s. el-dyaste, EC529 modern wireless comm. lect 3.

[6] "5g req," [Online]. Available: https://www.electronics-notes.com/articles/connectivity/5g-mobile-

wireless-cellular/requirements.php.

[7] "cellular newtork," [Online]. Available: https://www.coai.com/indian-telecom-infocentre/telecom-

infrastructurenetworks.

[8] "bluetooth," [Online]. Available: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bluetooth.

[9] "RFID1," [Online]. Available: https://rfid4u.com/rfid-basics-resources/rfid-basics-what-is-rfid/.

[10] "RFID2," [Online]. Available: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Advantages-and-disadvantages-

of-RFID_tbl2_232575248.

[11] "lifi1," [Online]. Available: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li-Fi.

[12] "lifi2," [Online]. Available: www.lifi-centre.com/about-li-fi/applications/.

[13] "w1," [Online]. Available: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WiMAX.

[14] "w2," [Online]. Available: https://www.electronics-

notes.com/articles/connectivity/wimax/network-architecture.php.

[15] "GPS," [Online]. Available:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Positioning_System#Basic_concept_of_GPS.

XXIII