Chuong 3

Học viện Hàng Không Việt Nam – Khoa Không lưu
CRUISE – CLIMB
– DESCENT
GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 1

Phần 1 Phần 2 Phần 3 Phần 4 Phần 5

Cruising Climbing Descending Gliding Turning
Flight Flight Flight Flight Flight

1. Crusing flight
❑ Cruising flight: Cruise is the level portion of aircraft travel where
flight is most fuel efficient.Technically, cruising consists of heading
(direction of flight) changes only at a constant airspeed and altitude.
D = T W
 T=
L = W CL CD

1. Crusing flight
W 2mg 2mg
V= =
 SC L
(5) Vstall =
1
 SC L  SC Lmax
2
In crusing flight, ρ, W, S = const and V

inversely proportional to (CL)1/2
2mg 2mg 1 1
V= =  = VEAS .
SCL oSCL  
1 2 1
L= V SCL = o VEAS
2
SCL
2 2
1 1
D = V 2SCD = o VEAS
2
SCD
2 2

1. Crusing flight
Exercise 1: An airplane weighing 150000 N has a wing area of 210

m2, and thrust of engine is 65.4 kN. At the altitude of 9 km (σ = 0.38),
its cruise speed is 170 m/s.
(a) What are the values of CL and CD of the airplane?
(b) If the maximum lift coefficient that the airplane can achieve when
fluing at the altitude of 9 km is 1.85, determine the "stall" speed of
the airplane.
Answer: a) CL = 0.106 and CD = 0.046 b). Vstall = 40.72 m/s

1. Crusing flight
Exercise 2: The Messerschmidt 109 was produced in huge quantities during
World War 2 and was a very able and dependable aircraft. Over 35,000 were
produced between 1936 and 1945.
The M109 has a wing area of 16m2 and a mass of 3000 kg.
(a) At a height of 6000 m, where ρ = 0.55ρ0 the M109 has a cruise speed of
V = 160 m/s. Calculate the corresponding lift coefficient, CL.
(b) If CLmax = 2.9, calculate the airspeed at stall at sea level.
Answer: a) CL = 0.213 b). Vstall = 32.2 m/s
Exercise 3: A Spitfire aircraft has wing area of 22.48 m2, a mass of 3000 kg
and a cruise speed of V = 139 m/s at an altitude of 4570 m, where the air
density ρ ≈ 0.7 kg/m3.
(a) Calculate the lift coefficient at the cruising speed.
(b) The stall speed is 32.6 m/s at sea level. Calculate CL,max at stall and also
calculate the stall speed at 4570m.
a) Answer: a) CL = 0.194 b). CLmax = 2.01 and Vstall, 4570 m = 43 m/s
1. Crusing flight
Exercise 4: An airplane weighing 50000 kg has a wing area of 210 m2,
and thrust of engine is 23.4 kN. At the altitude of 5.5 km (σ = 0.75), its
cruise speed is 100 m/s.
(a) What are the values of CL and CD of the airplane?
(b) Determine the stall speed of the airplane at this height if CLmax = 1.42
Answer: a) CL = 0.508 and CD = 0.0243 b). Vstall = 42.93 m/s

1. Crusing flight
CL2
CD = cd + = cd + kCL2
 eAR
1 k(mg) 2 B
D =  o VEASSCd +
2
= AVEAS
2
+ 2
2 1 VEAS
 o VEAS
2
S
2
Parasite drag Induced drag
A and B are constants, depending on

the shape and weight of the aircraft.

1. Crusing flight
❑Minimum drag condition
Combined with: L = W. We have:
D D C C 
D= L=  mg = D  mg  ( D min ) khi  D 
L L CL  C L  min
CD
Để min:
CL
d  Cd + kCL 2  Cd + kC L 2 − C L (2kC L )
 = 2
=0
dCL  CL  CL
 Cd = kCL 2

1. Crusing flight
❑Minimum drag condition
CD = Cd + kCL 2  C Dmd = 2Cd

Cd
C Lmd =
k
1/4
2mg  k 
VEASmd =
 oS  Cd 

1. Crusing flight
Power of the engine must provide to the aircraft in this case:
Preq = TV = DV
1 k(mg) 2 B
P =  o VEASSCd +
3
= AVEAS
3
+
2 1 VEAS
 o VEAS S
2
Parasite power Induced power

1. Crusing flight
❑Minimum power required condition
Combined with: L = W. We have:
C 
 ( Preq min ) khi  3D
CD CD 2mg
P=  mg  V=  mg  
CL CL  oSC L C 2 
 L  min
Để CD min:
3ൗ
C𝐿 2
5 3 1 3 5
 2  2 kC 2
− Cd CL + kC L 2
2
d Cd + kCL L
2 2
 = =0
dCL  C 23
 CL 2
 L 
 3Cd = kCL 2
1. Crusing flight
❑Minimum power required condition
CD = Cd + kCL 2  C Dmp = 4Cd

3Cd
C Lmp = = 3C Lmd
k
1/4
2mg  k  VEASmd
VEASmp = =
 oS  3Cd  3
1
4

1. Crusing flight
Exercise 5: An aircraft has a mass of 250000 kg and a wing area of
80 m2, and its drag polar is given by: CD=0.016+0.04CL2. At the
altitude of 10 km (σ = 0.337), Find:
(a) CD,CL at minimum drag flight condition and the corresponding
thrust, VEAS and VTAS.
(b) CD,CL at minimum power flight condition and the corresponding
thrust, power required, VEAS and VTAS.

1. Crusing flight
Giải
C Dmd = 2Cd = 0.032
Cd 0.016
C Lmd = = = 0.632
k 0.04
𝐷 𝐿
Minimum drag condition: ⇒ min ⇒ 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐿 𝐷
L L CLmd 1
  =  = = = 19.76
 D  md  D  max CDmd 2 kCd
In this case, the thrust of the engine is:
W 250000
T= = = 12651.822 ( N )
(L D) max
19.75

1. Crusing flight
Giải
VEAS, VTAS
250000  2
VEASmd = = 88.733 ( m / s )
0.632  80  1.2256
VEASmd
VTASmd = = 152.988 ( m / s )


1. Crusing flight
Giải
C Dmp = 4Cd = 0.064
3Cd
C Lmp = = 3C Lmd = 1.094
k
L CLmp 3
  = = = 17.711
 D  mp CDmp 4 kCd
In this case, the thrust of the engine is:
W 250000
T= = = 14115.521( N )
(L D) mp
17.711

1. Crusing flight
Giải
VEAS, VTAS
250000  2
VEASmp = = 68.274( m / s )
1.094  80  1.2256
VEASmd
VTASmd = = 117.713( m / s )

Power required is:
P = TVTASmd = 1661580.323(W)

1. Crusing flight
Exercise 6: An aircraft weighs 56,000 lbs and has a 900 ft2 wing area.
Its drag polar is given by: CD=0.01575+0.03334CL2.
(a)Find the minimum thrust required for cruising flight and the
corresponding airspeeds at sea-level and at 30,000 ft
(b) Find the minimum power required and the corresponding true
airspeeds for cruising flight at sea-level and at 30,000 ft.
Answer:
a) Tmin = 2833.4 lbs, Vmd, MSL = 287.7 ft/sec, Vmd, 30000 ft = 470.2 ft/sec
b) Tmin = 3271.7 lbs, Vmp, MSL = 218.6 ft/sec, Vmd, 30000 ft = 357.3 ft/sec

1. Crusing flight
Exercise 7: An aircraft has a mass of 14000 kg and a wing area of 18
m2, sải cánh =13.41 m, its drag polar is given by: CD=0.015+
1.2*CL2/(πAR). Find;
(a) Equivalent airspeeds if the thrust of the engine at mean sea level
is 11000 N..
(b) CD,CL at minimum drag flight condition
(c) CD,CL at minimum power flight condition
Answer:
a) VEAS = 62.54 m/s or VEAS = 160.04 m/s

1. Crusing flight
❑Cruise Performance
Best range cruise
Range refer to distance aircraft can fly on a given amount of fuel.
The maximum range means to fly the greatest possible distance with
available fuel.
Specific Range (SR) express the range performance of the aircraft at

a moment in time.
NM/hour Knots
Specific Range = = (best ratio of velocity to fuel flow)
Fuel/hour Fuel Flow

1. Crusing flight
Best range cruise
The specific range (SR) is the distance covered per fuel unit.
Basically speaking, the specific range is equal to:
Considering air distance, the specific range is equal to:

1. Crusing flight
Best range cruise

1. Crusing flight
Best range cruise

1. Crusing flight
Best range cruise
The optimum cruise altitude is that at which a given thrust setting
results in the corresponding maximum range speed. The optimum
altitude is not constant and changes over the period of a long flight as
atmospheric conditions and the weight of the aircraft change.
Weight  = Optimum altitude 

Temperature  = Optimum altitude 
(A small change in temperature will not significantly alter the optimum altitude)

1. Crusing flight
Best range cruise

1. Crusing flight
Best range cruise

1. Crusing flight
Best range cruise
Pwr Reqd.
Power
Velocity (TAS)

1. Crusing flight
Best range cruise
If we have a 20kt headwind:
Pwr Reqd.
Power
20kt
Velocity (TAS)

1. Crusing flight
Best range cruise
If we have a 20kt headwind:
Pwr Reqd.
Power
20kt
Velocity (TAS)

1. Crusing flight
Best range cruise
If we have a 20kt tailwind:
Power
Pwr Reqd.
Velocity (TAS)
20kt
1. Crusing flight
Best range cruise
Comparison of wind conditions on range:
Pwr Reqd.
Power
Headwind
Nil Wind
Tailwind
Velocity (TAS)
20kt 20kt
1. Crusing flight
Best range cruise

1. Crusing flight
Best range cruise
Maximum Cruise Altitude: Each engine has a limited Max-Cruise
rating. This rating depends on the maximum temperature that the
turbines can sustain. As a result, when outside temperature increases,
maximum thrust decreases:

1. Crusing flight
Best range cruise

1. Crusing flight
Best range cruise

1. Crusing flight
Best range cruise

1. Crusing flight
Best endurance cruise
Endurance is the time that aircraft can remain airborne with the
fuel available.
In other words, how long an aircraft is able to remain airborne on a
given amount of fuel.
It will be greatest when the fuel is used at the lowest possible rate, that
is, the fuel flow is minimum.
Specific Endurance will have units of time/units of fuel.
Flight hours/hour 1
Specific Endurance = =
Fuel/hour Fuel Flow

1. Crusing flight
Best endurance cruise
Pwr Reqd.
Power
Wind has no significant

effect on endurance as
the distanced covered
is not important.
Velocity (TAS)

1. Crusing flight
Best speed cruise
The maximum speed means to fly the greatest possible velocity with
available fuel.

1. Crusing flight
Short Range Jetliner
Characteristics Boeing 737-300 Airbus 320
Passengers (pax) 149 150

Maximum Fuel 20,000L 22000L
Maximum Range 4,180 km 4,815 to 5,555 km
Cruise Speed 910km/hr 845 km/hr
Service Ceiling 40,000ft 39,000 ft

1. Crusing flight
Medium Range Jetliner
Characteristics Boeing 767-300 Airbus 330
Passengers (pax) 218 in three 253 in three

classes classes
Maximum Fuel 90,770 L 139,090 L
Maximum Range 11,320 km 11,850 km
Cruise Speed 850 km/h 880 km/h
Service Ceiling 39,000 ft 39,370 ft

1. Crusing flight
Long Range Jetliner
Characteristics Boeing 747- 400 Airbus 380
Passengers (pax) 416/524 525 (max:800)

Maximum Fuel 216 800 L 310 000L
Maximum Range 13 450km 15 200km
Cruise Speed at FL35 910km/hr 900km/hr
Service Ceiling 41,000 ft 42,980 ft

1. Crusing flight
❑Factors Affecting Range and Endurance
There are several factors will have effect on the maximum possible
range and speed: which are aircraft’s mass and speed, altitude and
wind.
Aircraft Mass
Increased aircraft mass, increases the drag.
This requires greater thrust to balance the drag, which increases the
fuel flow and reduces the specific range.
Since fuel flow increases, endurance also decreases.

1. Crusing flight
❑Factors Affecting Range and Endurance
Air density (altitude)
Altitude   Density   Drag   fuel flow decrease and range increase
Wind
The best range will be reduced in a headwind condition.

The opposite occurs in a tailwind condition, the best range will be
increased.

1. Crusing flight

1. Crusing flight

1. Crusing flight

1. Crusing flight

1. Crusing flight
❑Avoid wake turbulence

2. Climbing flight
In aviation, a climb is the operation of increasing the altitude of an
aircraft. It is also the logical phase of a typical flight (the climb phase
or climbout) following takeoff and preceding the cruise. During the
climb phase there is an increase in altitude to a predetermined level.

2. Climbing flight
T − D − W sin  = 0

 L − W cos  = 0
T −D T 1
Climb angle (góc leo): sin  = = −
W W L
D
The climb angle is usually very small (<10o = 0.175 rad):
sin     T − D  W 

cos   1  L  W
2. Climbing flight

2. Climbing flight
Can you actually SEE
- Longer Time
BUT!
what angle they are
- Shorter Distance talking about?
This plane’s flight path stayed

Vy
above the other plane’s flight
path the entire time - Shorter Time
Vx
So… had there been an - Longer Distance
obstacle at just the right
height… This plane climbed higher
in that amount of time
It also covered more

distance, because Vy is a
higher airspeed than Vx
Best Angle of Climb (Vx)
Most altitude in least
Same starting point horizontal distance
(used for obstacles) Same amount of time passed
Ex. 7 - Climbing Best Rate of Climb (Vy)
Most altitude in least time
(used on normal take-off)
2. Climbing flight
VX < VY

2. Climbing flight DISADVANTAGES of Vx DISADVANTAGES of Vy

 poor forward visibility slightly higher fuel burn
Optimal combination of:  engine may overheat! increased time spent in
✓ climb performance low altitude turbulence
✓ visibility best rate = Vy

Cruise climb (or
✓ engine cooling best angle = Vx normal climb)

2. Climbing flight

2. Climbing flight
❑ TH1: Thrust is Constant with Airspeed (T = const)
Rate of climb “speed” (tốc độ leo):

T − D
RC = V sin  = V  
 W 
which at a given altitude will be a function of V only. Then the
airspeed for maximum rate of climb is given by the solution to the
equation:
dRC T − D V  T D 
= +  −  = 0 ( *)
dV W W  V V 
In order to solve this equation, we would need the mathematical
models for T and D. As you might suspect, there are special cases
where we can find the solution to equation (*), either directly or by
taking another approach.
2. Climbing flight
▪ The maximum rate of climb (Leo với RC lớn nhất)
For the case that thrust is a constant with airspeed, , and the above
equation becomes:
T −D V  D 
+ 0 − =0
W W V 
D
 T − D −V = 0 (**)
V
For this special case we have:
B
D = AV + 2
2
V 1 kW 2
where A = Cd  S ; B =
D 2B 2 1
S
 = 2 AV − 3
V V 2

2. Climbing flight
Then substituting into Eq. (**) we have:
B  2B 
0 = T − AV − 2 + V  −2 AV + 3 
2
V  V 
B
= T − 3 AV + 2
2
V
 T  2 B
=V −
4
V −
 3A  3A
Solving the equation:
2
T 1  T  4B
V =2
   +
6 A 2  3A  3A

2. Climbing flight
As with previous discussions, there are alternate ways to arrive at
similar results. Here we want to focus on coefficients. We can write the
rate of climb as:
W T − D W −1  T CD 
RC = V sin  =   = C L
2
 − 
1
 SC L  W  1
 SC L  W C L 
2 2
W  T − 1 C + kC 2 
=  C L 2 − d 3 L  = f (C L )
1  CL 2 
 SC L  W
2
T
The result is: kC L2 +C L − 3Cd = 0
W
1  T 
2
 T 
 −    + 12Cd k 
 CL =
2k  W W  
 

2. Climbing flight
▪ The maximum angle of climb (Leo với góc leo lớn nhất)
T − D T CD
sin  = = −
W W CL
𝑇 𝐶𝐷
Because = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡,γ max when min.
𝑊 𝐶𝐿
 Minimum drag flight condition
C D(L/D)max = Cd + kCL 2  C D(L/D)max = 2Cd

Cd
C L(L/D)max =
k

2. Climbing flight
❑ TH2: Power Available Constant with Airspeed
▪ The maximum rate of climb (Leo với RC lớn nhất)
VT − VD Pavai − Preq
RC = V sin  = =
W W
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑞
Because = const, , RC max when min.
𝑊 𝑊

2. Climbing flight
We have: Preq DV DV cos 
= =
W W L
=
CD
cos 
2mg cos   Minumum power condition
CL  CL S
CD 2mg
3/2 (
= cos  )
3/2
( CL ) S
CD = Cd + kCL 2  C Dmp = 4Cd
3Cd
C Lmp = = 3C Lmd
k
1/4
2mg  k  VEASmd
VEASmp = =
 oS  3Cd  3
1
4

2. Climbing flight
▪ The maximum angle of climb (Leo với góc leo lớn nhất)
1
T − D Pavai CD Pavai
 SCL C
sin  = = − = 2 − D
W WV CL W W CL
1 Cd + kCL2 Pavai 1
= A  CL 2
− where A = 3 S
CL W 2 2
Derivative of sin γ with respect to the CL and set it equal to zero:
4 A 3
k CL − C L − Cd = 0
2

2. Climbing flight
Exercise 8: Consider our aircraft, W = 200000 N, wing area is 50 m2,
the thrust of the engine is 40000 N and the parabolic drag polar is
CD=0.014+0.05CL2
a) Find angle of climb and rate of climb. If Aircraft’s velocity at mean
sea level is 150 m/s (Assume L = W)
b) Find the max angle of climb, and the climb rate under that flight
condition
c) Find the max rate of climb, and the angle of climb under that flight
condition
Answer:
a)  = 0.137 rad, RC = 20.589 m/s
b)  max = 8.46 deg, RC = 16.33 m/s
c) Rcmax = 21 m/s,  = 6.67 deg.
2. Climbing flight
Exercise 9: Consider our aircraft is flying, W = 160000 N, Wing area
is 42 m2, power aivailabe of engine is 2 MW and the parabolic drag
polar is CD=0.014+0.05CL2
a) Find angle of climb and rate of climb. If Aircraft’s velocity at mean
sea level is 120 m/s (Assume L = W)
b) Find the max angle of climb, and the climb rate under that
condition
condition
Answer:
a)  = deg, RC = m/s
b)  max = deg, RC = m/s
c) Rcmax = ft/min,  = deg.
2. Climbing flight
Exercise 10: Consider our executive jet, W = 20000 lbs, S = 250 ft2,
T = 5000 lbs and the parabolic drag polar is CD=0.02+0.05CL2
a) Find the max angle of climb, and the rate of climb under that
condition
b) Find the max rate of climb, and the angle of climb under that flight
condition
Answer:
a)  max = deg, RC = ft/min.
b) Rcmax = ft/min,  = deg.

2. Climbing flight
❑ For Jet-driven aircraft (turbo engine)

2. Climbing flight
❑ For Propeller-driven aircraft:

2. Climbing flight
We can sacrifice accuracy to obtain (max speed) by

assuming that the thrust for a jet-driven aircraft is
constant with speed or that the power available (the
product of the equivalent shaft power and propeller
efficiency) for a propeller driven aircraft is constant.

2. Climbing flight
In fact, the rate of climb is the
maximum value at the position
where excess power is greatest.

2. Climbing flight
▪ Time to Climb Between Two Altitudes (thời gian leo giữa
2 độ cao)
dh dh
dt = =
RC V sin 
t2 h2
dh
  dt = t2 − t1 =  V sin 
t1 h1
However, in order to evaluate the above integral, we need to know

V(h) và γ(h) or in general, the rate of climb as a function of altitude.

2. Climbing flight
if we assume the curve of h vs RC with a series of straight lines:
RC = a + bh
1  a + bh2 
t2 h2
dh
t dt = t2 − t1 = h a + bh = b ln  a + bh1 
1 1

2. Climbing flight
Exercise 11: Consider our executive jet, W = 10000 lbs, S = 200 ft2, T
= 2000 lbs and the parabolic drag polar is CD=0.02+0.05(CL)2
a) Find the max climb angle, and the rate of climb under that
condition at mean sea level
b) Find the max rate of climb, and the climb angle under that
condition at mean sea level
condition at the altitude = 20000 ft. Assume Thrust decreases with
altitude reasonably linearly.
d) Using a single straight line to approximate the altitude vs rate of
climb curve. Find the time to altitude from sea-level for to 10000
and 20000 ft using a “maximum rate of climb“.
e) When the RC becomes 500 ft/min. Find độ cao cao nhất mà tàu
bay đạt được trong giai đoạn này.
2. Climbing flight
Answer:
a)  max = 7.86 deg, RC = 2115.5 ft/min
b) RCmax = 44.4 ft/s,  = 6.58 deg
c) RCmax = 16.6 ft/s,  = 2.30 deg
d) t10000 ft = 270.2 s = 4.5 min and t20000 ft = 707.9 s = 11.8 min
e) hsc = 25942 ft

2. Climbing flight
Exercise 12: An aircraft is powered by a turbojet engine where the
thrust is independent of speed. The aircraft weighs 35000 lbs and its
wing area is 500 ft2. The drag polar is given by CD=0.016+0.045(CL)2.
At sea level the maximum rate of climb is 5250 ft/min and occurs at a
flight speed of 500 ft/sec. Calculate the rate of climb at the same
angle of attack with a rocket motor giving 10,000 lbs additional thrust.

2. Climbing flight
Ceiling (trần bay): is the maximum
❑Climb Management
pressure altitude an aircraft can
Climb Ceiling reach under a set of conditions.
• Absolute ceiling: is the altitude at
which the (maximum) rate of climb
goes to zero.
• Service ceiling: is where the rate

of climb drops below a prescribed
value. The service ceiling is the
maximum usable altitude of an
aircraft.

2. Climbing flight
❑Climb Management
Climb Ceiling

2. Climbing flight
❑Climb Management
Climb Ceiling

2. Climbing flight
❑Climb Management
Climb Ceiling

2. Climbing flight
❑Climb Management
Climb Ceiling
• Propulsion ceiling: Is that altitude that the available thrust provided
by the engines permits to reach. It is usually lower than the
aerodynamic ceiling.
• Design ceiling: It is the maximum altitude that the aircraft can
reach taking into account the structural limits (maximum differential
pressure, etc).
• Cruise ceiling: is the altitude at which the maximum climb rate is
300 ft/min.
• Combat ceiling: is the altitude at which the maximum rate of climb
is 500 ft/sec or 2.5 m/s. Sometimes this is called a “service ceiling”
for jet powered aircraft.

2. Climbing flight
❑Climb Management
Climb Ceiling

2. Climbing flight
❑Climb Management
Thrust Setting
The standard climb rating is
called “Maximum Climb
Thrust”. At the reduction
altitude, pilots have to reduce
thrust from take off power to
climb power by setting the thrust
throttles to the climb (CL) gate.
This must be done prior to a
maximum time of 5 minutes
after brake release.

2. Climbing flight
❑Climb Management
Energy Sharing
Aircraft energy is provided by the engines. To fly, an aircraft needs:
̶ Kinetic energy: Energy necessary to maintain speed and accelerate.
̶ Potential energy: Energy necessary to maintain altitude and climb.
The FMGS manages this energy sharing during the climb (70% for
speed, 30% for altitude). As a result, when:
̶ TAS increases: The climb gradient and the rate of climb decrease, as
potential energy is converted into kinetic energy.
̶ TAS decreases: The climb gradient and rate of climb increase, as
kinetic energy is converted into potential energy.

2. Climbing flight
❑Climb Management
Cabin climb
As the cabin is pressurized, a cabin pressurization system adjusts
cabin altitude to provide passengers with a comfortable flight.
During normal operations, the cabin altitude is limited to a maximum

value, which depends on the aircraft type. The purpose of this is to
limit differential pressure ∆P (between the inside and outside) to a
maximum value. For instance:
- A320 family : Max cabin altitude = 8,000 feet , ∆P max = 556 hPa
(8.06 PSI)
- AA340-200/300 : Max cabin altitude = 7,350 feet , ∆P max = 593
hPa (8.6 PSI)
2. Climbing flight
❑Climb Management
Cabin climb

2. Climbing flight
❑Climb at Given IAS/Mach Law
A climb is generally operated at a constant IAS and Mach Number.
For instance, a standard climb profile for the A320 family is:
- Below 10,000 feet: Climb at constant IAS = 250 knots. The
speed is limited by Air Traffic Control (ATC) laws.
- Above 10,000 feet: Climb at constant IAS = 300 knots (limited to
M0.78). At 10,000 feet, the aircraft accelerates to a more optimum
climb speed (300 knots), which is maintained as long as the Mach
number remains under 0.78.
- Above the crossover altitude: Climb at constant Mach = M0.78.
The crossover altitude is the altitude where 300 knots IAS is equal
to M0.78. Above this altitude, a constant ratio between the TAS and
the sound velocity must be maintained to avoid high speed
buffeting.

2. Climbing flight
❑Climb at Given IAS/Mach Law

2. Climbing flight
❑Factors Affecting the Climb performance (Climb Angle
and Rate of Climb)
Wind Aircraft Weight
Temperature Speed and

& Air Density Acceleration
Retraction of flap
and landing gear

2. Climbing flight
and Rate of Climb)
Speed and Acceleration
When the aircraft is accelerating during climb some portion of the
excess thrust is required for the acceleration, so there will be less
excess thrust and therefore reduce climb angle.

2. Climbing flight
and Rate of Climb)
Weight
At given PA, given TAS
m  climb angle 
rate of climb 

2. Climbing flight
and Rate of Climb)
Weight

2. Climbing flight
and Rate of Climb)
Temperature
The higher the air temperature, less thrust can be produced by the
engines. Because of that the difference between the thrust and the
drag during climb is smaller. Therefore the climb angle & the rate of
climb will be reduced.
Temp   climb angle 

rate of climb 

2. Climbing flight
and Rate of Climb)
Air Density
Altitude increase (density decrease)
 the climb angle & the rate of
climb will be reduced.

2. Climbing flight
and Rate of Climb)
Air Density

2. Climbing flight
and Rate of Climb)
Wind
In wind conditions, headwind or tailwind will have affect on the
aircraft’s ground speed.
So, a headwind will reduce the ground speed and therefore reduce the
horizontal distance that an aircraft travels in comparison to the no wind
conditions. Therefore a headwind gives increased climb angle, while a
tailwind affects in opposite direction and gives reduced climb angle.
Crosswind component has no effect on the climb gradient.
WIND HAS NO AFFECT ON THE RATE OF CLIMB

2. Climbing flight
and Rate of Climb)
Wind

2. Climbing flight
and Rate of Climb)
Retraction of flap and landing gear
When the flap and landing gears are retracted, the drag is reduced,
resulting in an increase in excess thrust, therefore the rate of climb is
increased.

2. Climbing flight

2. Climbing flight

2. Climbing flight
▪ Avoid wake turbulence

3. Descending flight
A descent during air travel is any portion where an aircraft decreases

altitude, and is the opposite of an ascent or climb.

T − D + W sin  = 0
 (*)
 L − W cos  = 0
D −T
sin  =
W
RD = TAS  sin 


Best rate of descent

Furthest distance per altitude lost
Best descent angle

Most time in air per
altitude lost
- Longer Time - Shorter Time

- Shorter Distance - Longer Distance

❑Top of descent point
The top of descent point or TOD is the point for an aircraft to initiate a
descent to a lower level for arrival at the destination airfield. The
aircraft is leaving the cruise phase of the flight and start a descent
phase to the first approach altitude expected at one approach fix.

❑Rule of 3
In aviation and based on a 3° descent rate, transport pilots adopted a
formula to assure a slow, steady and comfortable descent for their
passengers: the rule of three or "3:1 rule of descent".

❑Descent rate
Fly a groundspeed of 180 knots, Descend at 1,000 feet per minute (fpm)

❑Descent rate

❑Descent rate

❑Descent rate

❑Descent at Given MACH/IAS Law
A descent is generally operated at a constant Mach Number and
Indicated Air Speed (IAS). TAS variations during descent are
illustrated (A320 family):

❑Cabin Descent
The cabin pressure rate is optimized during descent, so that it
reaches the landing field pressure + 0.1 psi just prior to landing.
Depending on the initial cabin and destination airport altitudes, the

FMGS calculates the necessary cabin descent time. This time is
obtained from the selected cabin rate of descent, defaulted to –350
feet per minute in the FMGS, but which can be modified up to a
maximum of –750 feet per minute.
As soon as the cabin descent time is longer than the aircraft descent
time, a repressurization segment is necessary, during which the
aircraft vertical speed is limited to permit cabin repressurization

❑Cabin Descent

❑Cabin Descent
Note that, in some particular cases (landing at high altitude airports) ,
the cabin pressure at cruise level is higher than the pressure at the
landing airport. Therefore, the cabin pressure has to decrease during
descent, which means that the cabin’s vertical speed is positive while
the aircraft’s vertical speed is negative.

❑Factors Affecting the Descent performance
Wind Aircraft Weight
Temperature Speed and

& Air Density Acceleration
Aircraft
Configuration

Speed
In general, rate of descent increases with increasing speed and
increasing drag.
Rate of descent = V x (DRAG - THRUST) / WEIGHT
Optimum speeds required for the best descent performance.

Weight
At given PA, given TAS
m  descent angle 
rate of descent 

Density
ρ  descent angle 
rate of descent 

Wind Headwind: reduce the horizontal
distance => increased descent
NO
TAILWIND
HEADWIND
WIND angle
x x x

Wind
But, wind has no affect on the rate of descent.
The rate of descent is independent from the wind speed, because it is
always considered in reference to the airspeed not the groundspeed.
Crosswind component has no effect on the descent gradient.

Aircraft configuration (flap/slat and landing gear)
 More lift: can safely descend at lower airspeeds
 More drag: steeper descent given same
airspeed
 More nose-down attitude: better forward
visibility given same airspeed
Airspeed must be
in white arc before
flaps are extended!


4. Gliding flight
In the ultimate situation,

there is no power at all; in
this case, the airplane will
be in gliding.

4. Gliding flight
No engine ⇒ 𝑇 = 0
Equation (*) becomes:
 − D + W sin  = 0

 L − W cos  = 0
D CD
 tan  = =
L CL
CD CL
 sin  = ;cos  =
(C 2
L + CD2 ) (C 2
L + CD2 )

4. Gliding flight
The rate of descent (Vận tốc giảm độ cao):
 
 W cos  
RD = V sin  =   sin 
1
  CL S 
2 
 
 W  CD
=   2
 S  ( L D)
3
1
C + C 2 4
2 

4. Gliding flight
▪ The smallest glide angle (Bay xuống với góc lượn nhỏ nhất)
C  C 
 = ( )min   D  or  L  or ( Glide ratio )max
 C L  min  C D  max
It has been found possible to represent the relationship between drag

and lift coefficients by the following parabolic form:
C2L
C D = Cd +
π.AR.e
 CL  1  π.AR.e  C L(L/D)max = π.AR.e.Cd
  =   
 D  max
C 2  C d  C D(L/D)max = 2.Cd

4. Gliding flight
Speed of the glider in this case,
2.W
V= .cos 
ρ.S. π.AR.e.C d
RD of the glider in this case,
W 2 4 Cd
RD = . . .cos 3

S ρ ( π.AR.e ) 2
3
The airplane will cover the longest

distance along the ground, before
contacting the ground.

4. Gliding flight
1 Cd
tan = =2
( CL
CD ) max
π.AR.e
Maximum distance covered in a steady glide

h h
R max,glide = =
tan Cd
2
π.AR.e
2.W 3
Vh_max glide range = V cos  = cos 2 
ρ.S. π.AR.e.Cd

4. Gliding flight
Exercise 13: An aircraft has the following specifications: W = 24000
lbs, S = 600 ft2, Cd = 0.015 and k = 0.056. This aircraft has run out of
fuel at an altitude of 30,000 ft.
(a) Find the initial and final values of its airspeed for best range glide
(b) Find the glide angle for best range
(c) Find the rate of descent at 30,000, 15,000 ft, and sea level
(d) Estimate (find) the time to descend to sea level. (use RD at
15000 ft)
Answer:
a) Vmd, SL = 255 ft/s, Vmd, 30 = 416.8 ft/s
b)  = 0.0579 rad = 3.32 deg
c) RDSL = 887 ft/min, RD15 = 1117.9 ft/min, RD30 = 1449.6 ft/min
d) tof = 1610 s = 26.84 min

4. Gliding flight
Exercise 14: An glider has the following specifications: W = 300000
kg, S = 14.1 m2, Cd = 0.015, wingspan = 15m and e = 0.82. This
aircraft has run out of fuel at an altitude of 2000 m.
(a) Find the initial and final values of its airspeed for best range glide
(b) Find the glide angle for best range
(c) Find the rate of descent at 30,000, 15,000 ft, and sea-level
(d) Estimate (find) the min time and max time to descend to sea
level.
Answer:
a) Vmd, SL = ft/s, Vmd, 30 = ft/s
b)  = rad = deg
c) RDSL = ft/min, RD15 = ft/min, RD30 = ft/min
d) tof, min = s = min, tof, max = s = min

4. Gliding flight
▪ The minimum rate of descent (Lượn với vận tốc RD nhỏ nhất)
C W 2 C2D
RD = V.sin = V. D .cos = . . 3 .cos3 
CL S ρ CL
Assumed that the angle  will be sufficiently small to use the approximation:
cos() = 1.
C 3 2 = 3π.AR.e.Cd
C 3
C 
3/2  L(L /D ) max
RD min  L

2
= L
   C3  3π.AR.e 3π.AR.e
 C  max  D  max
D C  2 
L
=
 C D  max 16 Cd
Design features which are conductive to low descent rates

are: high aspect ratio and low zero-lift drag coefficient.

4. Gliding flight
Minimum rate of descent:
W 32 Cd
RD min = . .
S 3.ρ.π.AR.e 3.π.AR.e
Maximum time in the air of the glider:
h h
t max in the air = =
RD min W 32 Cd
. .
S 3ρ.π.AR.e 3π.AR.e

4. Gliding flight
lbs, W/S = 12.5 lbs/ft2, CD= 0.01 + 0.022CL2. This aircraft will be
gliding at an altitude of 1000 ft.
(a) Find the rate of descent and descent angle at this flight condition
(b) Find the distance along the ground of the glider in this case.
(c) Estimate (find) the max time to descend to sea level at this flight
condition.
Answer:
a) RD = 3.27 ft/s,  = 1.96 deg
b) R = 29200 ft.
c) tof = 306 s

4. Gliding flight
kg, S = 14.1 m2, Cd = 0.015, wingspan = 15m and e = 0.82. This
aircraft has run out of fuel at an altitude of 2000 m.
(a) Find the rate of descent and descent angle at this flight condition
(b) Find the distance along the ground of the glider in this case.
(c) Estimate (find) the max time to descend to sea level at this flight
condition.
Answer:
a) RD = ft/s,  = deg
b) R =
c) tof =

5. Turnning flight
This maneuver is used to change the aircraft heading. The turn is
initiated by using the ailerons or spoilers to roll, or bank, the aircraft to
one side. Vertical Component of Lift
Keeps aircraft in air (opposes
Lift
weight)
Centrifugal Force Centripetal Force

Imaginary force that Horizontal component of lift,
pulls aircraft outside of pulls aircraft into turn
turn (is really inertia)
Angle of Bank
Weight
5. Turnning flight
Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge_FAA

5. Turnning flight
❑Effect of Airspeed
When airspeed is
increased in a turn the
following occurs:
• Slower rate of turn
• Larger radius of turn
Radius:

5. Turnning flight
❑Effect of Bank Angle
If Bank angle is increased
in a turn, the following
occurs:
• Higher rate of turn
• Smaller radius of turn
• Higher stall speed

5. Turnning flight
❑Load factor in turn
During a turn, an aircraft is not only
subjected to its weight (W), but also to a
horizontal acceleration force (Fa). The
resulting force is called “apparent weight”
(Wa), and its magnitude is equal to the
load factor times the weight (nz.W).
So, as soon as the aircraft is
The load factor (nz) can be expressed
banked, the load factor becomes
versus the bank angle (Φ) as follows:
greater than one. This induces a
loss of climb gradient, as the climb
angle can be expressed as follows:

5. Turnning flight
The Aeroplane Flight
Manual generally
provides a climb
gradient decrement for
a 15° bank turn. For
bank angles of less than
15°, a proportionate
amount should be
applied, unless the
manufacturer or
Aeroplane Flight Manual
has provided other data.

5. Turnning flight
Angle of bank increase = Load factor
increase
60° bank = 2 G's
Dangers
High load factor = Possible structural
failure (overload)
Increased load factor = Increased

stall speed

5. Turnning flight
❑Spiral dive
Definition: Steep descending turn in
which airplane has excessive nose
down attitude
Characteristics:
Excessive angle of bank
Rapidly increasing airspeed
Rapidly increasing rate of descent
Structural damage can occur if

airspeed increases beyond limits

5. Turnning flight
❑Spiral dive

5. Turnning flight
❑Spins
Definition: Auto-rotation which develops
after aggravated stall
• When The wing that stalls first will drop:
− increasing its angle of attack and
deepening the stall.
− The other wing will rise, decreasing its
angle of attack, and the aircraft will yaw
towards the more deeply stalled wing.
− Drag on down wing increases, further
increasing angle of attack. The aircraft to
continue yawing. Wing stalls further, nose
drops, auto-rotation starts.

5. Turnning flight
❑Spins

5. Turnning flight
❑Spins
• Spin:
– Aircraft stalled
– Airspeed constant and low
• Spiral Dive:
– Aircraft not stalled
– Airspeed increasing rapidly

5. Turnning flight
❑Spins

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Học viện Hàng Không Việt Nam – Khoa Không lưu

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 1

Phần 1 Phần 2 Phần 3 Phần 4 Phần 5

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 2

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 3

In crusing flight, ρ, W, S = const and V

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 4

Exercise 1: An airplane weighing 150000 N has a wing area of 210

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 5

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 7

A and B are constants, depending on

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 8

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 9

CD = Cd + kCL 2  C Dmd = 2Cd

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 10

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 11

CD = Cd + kCL 2  C Dmp = 4Cd

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 13

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 14

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 15

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 16

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 17

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 18

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 19

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 20

Specific Range (SR) express the range performance of the aircraft at

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 21

Considering air distance, the specific range is equal to:

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 22

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 23

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 24

Weight  = Optimum altitude 

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 25

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 26

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 27

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 28

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 29

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 30

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 33

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 34

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 35

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 36

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 37

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 38

Wind has no significant

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 39

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 40

Characteristics Boeing 737-300 Airbus 320

Passengers (pax) 149 150

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 41

Characteristics Boeing 767-300 Airbus 330

Passengers (pax) 218 in three 253 in three

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 42

Characteristics Boeing 747- 400 Airbus 380

Passengers (pax) 416/524 525 (max:800)

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 43

Increased aircraft mass, increases the drag.

Since fuel flow increases, endurance also decreases.

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 44

Altitude   Density   Drag   fuel flow decrease and range increase

The best range will be reduced in a headwind condition.

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 45

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 46