Static Versus Dynamic Resistance

by Dennis L Feucht

The electronic circuits literature, beginning with textbooks, does not usually distinguish
clearly between static and dynamic resistance. This article explains the difference, why it
matters in design, and then offers some circuits with input resistances that at first might
seem hard to believe.

What adds to the confusion is another related pair of yet different quantities: total-
variable (or large-signal) versus incremental (or small-signal). This distinction arises
because of nonlinear circuit components, primarily semiconductors. Nonlinear circuits
are generally difficult to analyze. The most common approach is to approximate their
nonlinear functions with linear functions in the region of operation. This can be done by
either deriving the nonlinear equations for the entire nonlinear circuit, then linearizing the
result around the operating point, or (as is usually done) by linearizing the individual
components of the circuit and then doing a linear circuit analysis. The linear
approximations for nonlinear components -- mainly semiconductors -- depend on where
in the domain of the characteristic device function the linearization occurs. The accuracy
of the analysis then depends on maintaining minor, or incremental, variations around this
operating point.

Diode Resistances

Different kinds of resistance are better explained by a simple but common example, the
diode. Shown below is a graph of (nonlinear) diode current as a function of diode
voltage.

At the operating point, Q, the static (dc) current and voltage are I and V. Consequently,
the total-variable resistance is R = V/I. Because V and I are constant, R is also the static
resistance of the diode at Q. For incremental (small-signal) variations around Q, a change
 in v will produce a corresponding change in i. The resulting resistance is the incremental
resistance:
dv ∆v
r= ≅
di ∆i
Where, r is calculated at operating point Q. This incremental resistance is sometimes
referred to as the dynamic resistance because it involves changes in v and i.

As a point of notation, it is common in electronics literature to denote "a small change in

X" as lower-case x. Consequently, the total variables v and i as given above for the diode
must not be confused with these incremental lower-case quantities. If x is a total variable,
then the differential, dx, is the incremental variable. Confusion is avoided (in part) by
using upper-case subscripts on total variables, and lower-case subscripts on incremental
variables. Sometimes, no explicit distinction is made, and you are left to infer the kind of
variables being used.

Circuit analysis programs such as SPICE do total-circuit (total-variable) numerical

analysis to determine the static values of the components, then linearize component
incremental parameters around these static operating points and perform linear dynamic
circuit analysis with them. The resulting linearized parameters, such as incremental
emitter resistance for BJTs, are dependent upon the operating point and are calculated
there.

Dynamic means "varying" in contrast to static, which means "constant." To be complete

in the necessary distinctions, dynamic can refer to incremental real quantities, such as
"dynamic diode resistance," which is the incremental resistance, r. Or it can refer to
impedance, by inclusion of the mathematical imaginary quantities of reactance. To
distinguish, the historic electronics language refers to real, resistive (dissipative)
incremental quantities as "low-frequency". The science of thermodynamics developed
what is perhaps a better expression, quasistatic, for "low-frequency." Consequently, the
diode incremental resistance, r, is a quasistatic resistance because it does not involve
capacitance or inductance. Quasistatic analysis is consequently "low-frequency ac"
analysis, where "ac" no longer literally means "alternating current" but dynamic. And
"low-frequency" refers to real (resistive) analysis.

Confused? No wonder, if you are. Antiquated terminology has resulted in ambiguity in

concept definitions, where one word can trigger more than one possible concept in our
minds. The following table attempts to improve the language by replacing historic words
or expressions with preferred terminology.

Recommended
Old terminology Notes
terminology
dc (direct current) static constant quantities
ac (alternating current) dynamic ac can mean either bipolar or varying
low-frequency ac quasistatic real dynamics
large-signal total-variable complete model
small-signal incremental linearized model at op. pt.
Transconductance Amplifier Input Resistance

With these distinctions (and preferred language), consider a more involved example of
dynamic input resistance for the amplifier circuit shown above. The amplifier circuit is
linear and involves two capacitances. The (triangular) amplifier element has a
transconductance -Gm = io /vin, where, with -io, the Gm amplifier sinks current with positive
vin. What is the input resistance?

The real component of Zin is the input resistance. Dynamic in this case refers to
incremental resistance resulting from varying quantities. Beginning with the static
resistance, the ideal Gm amplifier element with voltage input will have infinite input
resistance. It is shunted by Cf, which statically is an open circuit. Consequently, with both
paths infinite in static resistance, the input static resistance is infinite. However, the
dynamic resistance is not.

To find the dynamic input resistance, an incremental input current, iin, is caused by an
incremental input voltage, vin, which causes Gm vin of current to be sunk by the Gm
amplifier output. This incremental current splits between the two capacitances (assuming
no load on the amplifier). Summing currents at the output node, in the s-domain,
− Gm ⋅ vin = s ⋅ C L ⋅ vout + s ⋅ C f ⋅ (vout − vin )

Solving this equation for the overall amplifier voltage gain, it is:
vout ( s ) − s ⋅ Rm ⋅ C f +1
=−
vin ( s ) s ⋅ Rm ⋅ (C L + C f )
Where, Rm = 1/Gm. The closed-loop voltage gain has a pole at the origin and a right-half-
plane (RHP) zero. Now the quantity of interest, Zin, can be derived as vin/iin, where:
 v 
iin = i f = − s ⋅ C f ⋅ (vout − vin ) = s ⋅ C f ⋅ 1 − out  ⋅ vin
 vin 
Solving for Zin by substituting the voltage gain, and putting the result in continued
fraction form:
1 1
Z in = =
 v  1
s ⋅ C f ⋅ 1 − out  s ⋅ (C f || C L ) +
 vin  C 
Rm ⋅  L + 1
C 
 f 
Where, || refers to the mathematical operation for parallel component values and not
circuit topology. From the Zin expression, the equivalent circuit (a) for the input
impedance (b) is shown below.

From the input, the two capacitances are in series, as shown in (b). (Keep in mind that the
output of the Gm amplifier is a current source, which presents infinite resistance in
parallel with the capacitances.) In parallel with these capacitances, as seen from the input,
is a resistance -- a dynamic resistance -- of value Rm (CL/Cf + 1). This resistance is not the
static resistance, which is infinite, but a resistance that occurs only due to changing
electrical quantities. As vin changes, the output current of the Gm amplifier is input to a
capacitive current divider. The fraction of this current, which is if , is proportional to vin,
thus causing the input to effectively appear to have a resistive component in Zin.

Discrete BJT Gm Amplifier

The transconductance amplifier of the previous circuit can be implemented with a single
BJT with static current-source collector load. For simplicity of analysis, assume that the
transistor is ideal (infinite β, zero re). Then the transconductance is 1/RE and Rm = RE. For
the circuit values shown, the series capacitances present to the input 0.9 pF.

The dynamic resistance is:

C   9 pF 
rin = RE ⋅  L +1 = 1kΩ⋅  +1 = 10 kΩ
C   1 pF 
 f 

This mathematical result has an intuitive causal explanation. Suppose a 1-V step is
applied to the input. The collector will sink 1 mA, divided between the capacitances
according to the current-divider formula. Then 0.9 mA will flow through CL and 0.1 mA
through Cf. The resistance corresponding to this current is 1 V/0.1 mA, or 10 kΩ.

In addition to the current generated by the transistor, the series-C path is also a parallel
component of Zin and presents a non-inverting, non-amplifying, feed-forward path to the
output. The contribution to the output voltage from this path corresponds to the RHP
zero.

Closure

It is necessary to distinguish between static and dynamic resistances. An amplifier with

infinite static resistance can have a much lower dynamic resistance -- not reactance, but
resistance. Being dynamic, this resistance cannot be sustained indefinitely, for the active
devices giving rise to it have finite ranges beyond which gain ceases, and dynamic
resistance along with it. As long as a slewing voltage in the above circuits can continue to
produce a capacitive current, a dynamic resistance appears. A dual effect with inductance
can be devised.

Dynamic resistance appears in such circuits as capacitance multipliers, ramp generators,

and anywhere the Miller effect occurs. Now that a general example has been given for
calculating its value, the general concept can be used to determine amplifier loading and
network impedance-matching involving circuits where dynamic resistance is of design
interest.