Modeling Earth Systems and Environment

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40808-018-0529-7

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Mapping and monitoring of mangrove along the Odisha coast based

on remote sensing and GIS techniques
Santanu Roy1   · Manik Mahapatra2 · Abhishekh Chakraborty1

Received: 20 August 2018 / Accepted: 9 October 2018

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2018

Abstract
Digital image processing techniques using multi-temporal satellite imagery are widely used to understand landscape dynam-
ics. In this study, we analysed the spatio-temporal changes of mangrove along the Odisha coast, India using Landsat satellite
images of four different time periods, i.e., Landsat-5 Thematic Mapper satellite images of 1990 and 2009, Landsat-7 Enhanced
Thematic Mapper Plus satellite images of 2000 and Landsat-8 Operational Land Imager satellite images of 2015. Normalized
Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), Soil-Adjusted Vegetation Index (SAVI) and Normalized Difference Wetland Index (NDWI)
are used to extract and classify the mangroves into three classes such as dense mangrove, sparse mangrove and open mangrove.
The study reveals that total mangrove of the study area increased from 18573.49 ha (1990) to 23871.49 ha (2015) during the
last three decades. This may be attributed to mangrove plantation, restoration and proper coastal zone management plan. The
paper highlights the importance of digital change detection techniques using NDVI, SAVI and NDWI for mangrove mapping
and monitoring along the Odisha coast. This study aids Odisha coastal zone management authority to take timely decisions for
conservation of mangrove and future mangrove plantation plans with help of satellite image processing in GIS environment.

Keywords  Mangrove · Remote sensing · NDVI · SAVI · NDWI · Odisha

Introduction et al. 2008) and important services such as recreation, tour-

Mangroves are coastal vegetation, distributed in inter-tidal
zone on tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world with
maximum extent between 25°N and 25°S latitude (Tomlinson
1986). Mangroves act as a natural barrier against natural haz-
ards such as hurricanes, cyclones, tsunamis etc (Alongi 2008)
and coastal-erosion processes (Dahdouh-Guebas et al. 2000).
Studies conducted soon after the cyclone crossed along the
Odisha coast on October 1999 and Indian Ocean tsunami on
December 2004 reveals that mangroves acted as bio-shields,
with villages located behind them suffering less damage than
ones directly exposed to the coast (Danielsen et al. 2005;
Das and Vincent 2009). Mangrove provides breeding and
nursing the grounds for marine and pelagic species such as
juvenile crabs, prawns, offshore fish, reef fishes (Nagelkerken
* Santanu Roy
roysantanu.rs@gmail.com
1
Department of Remote Sensing and GIS, Vidyasagar
University, Midnapore, India
2
National Centre for Sustainable Coastal Management,
Chennai, India
ism, good source of timber, fuel, fodder as well as maintain-
ing water quality (Walters et al. 2008). Mangroves play a
significant role in carbon balance in the coastal zone (Kris-
tensen et al. 2008). Recognizing it importance, the Ministry
of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MOEF & CC),
Government of India, declared that mangroves areas are eco-
logically sensitive and come under Coastal Regulation Zone
IA (CRZ-IA), which denotes that this area comes under the
protection of the highest order (CRZ Notification 2011). Sim-
ilar to other natural resources, mangroves are being degraded
or lost by both natural (e.g. coastal erosion, cyclone, tsu-
nami etc.) and anthropogenic factors, land use conversion,
population, urbanization, industrialization, unavailability of
freshwater (Giri et al. 2007; Gilman et al. 2008). Mangrove
ecosystems have an outstanding relevance to ecologically and
economically, therefore, retrieving up-to-date information
with regard to the extent and condition of mangrove ecosys-
tems is essential for conservation, restoration measures and
proper management of coastal zone (Kuenzer et al. 2011).
Remote sensing techniques play an important role due to
its ability of a synoptic view, repetitive coverage with cali-
brated sensors, multi-resolutions, multispectral, large-scale,

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long-term, and cost-effective for mapping and monitoring of
mangroves (Dahdouh-Guebas et al. 2000; Nayak 2002). A
huge number of researchers used remote sensing techniques
for mangrove mapping, monitoring and change detection.
There are various methods used for the identification or
extraction of mangrove forest, which are mainly includes vis-
ual interpretation (Selvam et al. 2003), supervised classifica-
tion (Everitt et al. 2010; Andriamparany and Francois 2010),
unsupervised classification (Giri et al. 2008, 2007; Ferreira
et al. 2009), neural network classification (Seto and Fragkias
2007; Mas 2004), object-based method (Wang et al. 2004),
etc. The features extracted from remotely sensed imagery for
mangrove forest identification are mostly the reflective spec-
tral characteristics, vegetation indices or ratio indices, such
as Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) (Giri
et al. 2007; Green et al. 1998; Jensen et al. 1991; National
Wetland Atlas 2011), soil adjusted vegetation indices (SAVI)
(Huete 1988; Ghorai et al. 2016; Wang and Zhang 2014)
and Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI) (Gao 1996;
Alsaaideh et al. 2013) etc. The present study aimed primarily
to mapping and monitoring of mangrove change of Odisha
coast, India over the three decades with the help of remote
Fig. 1  Location map of the study area
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Modeling Earth Systems and Environment
sensing techniques, which may help researcher, decision
maker and other stockholder to map and monitor the man-
grove in an easy and cost effective way toward sustainable
coastal zone management.
Study area
The study i.e., Odisha coast (22°33′49″N to 17°48′9″ lati-
tude and 87°28′58″E to 81°22′59″E longitude) located in
northeastern part of India area, with an extension of 480 km
long coastal long stretch. It extends from Subarnarekha river
in the northeast to border of Andhra Pradesh (Fig. 1). The
study area includes six coastal districts of Odisha namely
Baleshwar, Bhadrak, Kedapara, Jagatsinghpur, Puri and
Ganjam. The total population of these six coastal districts
is around 11.62 million which is distributed in an area of
21,887 km2 with a population density of 531 persons/km2
(census of India, 2011). The coastline of Odisha consists of
seven major river deltas, formed by the rivers Subarnarekha,
Budhabalanga, Baitarani, Brahmani, Mahanadi, Rushikulya
and Bahuda. The coast has a number of important ecological
Modeling Earth Systems and Environment

and environmentally sensitive areas such as Chilka lagoon
which is Asia’s largest brackish water lagoon, extensive Man-
grove forests, i.e., Bhitarkanika Reserve Forest, Hatmudia for-
est, and the Bitarkanika wildlife sanctuary; the world largest
known nesting of Olive Ridley sea turtles alongwith other
coastal wetlands like creeks, mud flats and beaches (SAC
2012). The coast has a number of ports (Dharma), Harbors,
Industries, major Power Plant (NTPC) etc. Odisha has a tropi-
cal monsoon climate, with hot summers and cool and pleasant
winters. The Rainfall is the main source of water in Odisha
that varies from 1200 to 1700 mm across the state. The coast
has frequently affecting by natural hazards like, cyclone and
associated flooding due to storm surge, tsunami etc.
Materials and methods
Digital number (DN) to radiance conversion
L𝜆 = ((LMAX𝜆 − LMIN𝜆 ) × (QCAL − QCALMIN))∕
(QCALMAX − QCALMIN) + LMIN𝜆 (1)
where ­L λ is the cell value as radiance (in watts/
(m2 × µm × ster)), QCAL = digital number, ­LMINλ = mini-
mum spectral radiance value of a given band (in watts/
(m 2  × µm × ster)), ­L MAX λ  = maximum spectral radi-
ance value of a given band (in watts/(m 2 × µm × ster)),
QCALMIN = the minimum quantized calibrated pixel value
(typically 1), QCALMAX = the maximum quantized cali-
brated pixel value (typically 255 for Landsat TM/ETM+ and
65,535 for Landsat 8 OLI).
Radiance to top of atmospheric (TOA) reflectance
conversion

Data used 𝜌p = (𝜋 × L𝜆 × d2 )∕(ESUN𝜆 × cos𝜃s) (2)

Landsat-5 Thematic Mapper (TM) satellite images (1990,
2009), Landsat-7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+)
satellite images (2000), Landsat-8 Operational Land Imager
(OLI), satellite images (2015), are downloaded from Earth
Explorer site (https​://earth​explo​rer.usgs.gov/). Green, Red,
NIR, SWIR bands (with 30 m spatial resolution) has been
selected for the present study (Table 1).
Methodology
Pre‑processing of satellite images
The selected spectral bands have been converted into radi-
ance from digital number based on Eq. 1 and calibration
coefficients, the details available in the metadata. The radi-
ance has been converted to top of atmospheric (TOA) reflec-
tance using Eq. 2. This conversion helps to achieve better
accuracy for mangrove identification, as the digital numbers
are found similar for two or more different objects while
reflectance from those objects are not the same (NASA
2011). The details conversion process is given below.
where ρp = Unit-less planetary reflectance, which is “the
ratio of reflected versus total power energy” (NASA 2011),
­Lλ = Spectral radiance at the sensor’s aperture (at-satellite
radiance), d = Earth-Sun distance in astronomical units,
­ESUNλ = the band-specific radiance emitted by the Sun
(these values are taken from table given by Chander et al.
2009), θs = Solar zenith angle in degrees, which is equal to
θs = 90° − θe where θe is the Sun elevation.
The converted spectral bands have been stacked using layer
stack tools in ERDAS Imagine 10.0 software. Image registra-
tion at sub-pixel accuracy is very much needful to understand
the temporal changes of mangrove cover. The geo-coded Land-
sat images of 1990 have been taken as base image and all the
others images (2000, 2009 and 2015) were co-registered with
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) projection system and
World Geodetic System (WGS) coordinate system based on
the base image. The study area was clipped from the mosaic
datasets and made ready for further analysis. The broad meth-
odology is given in Fig. 2.

Table 1  The details of the used Sl. No. Satellite/sensor Date of acquisition Path/row Spatial resolu- Data source
satellite image tion (m)

1 Landsat5/TM 23/12/1990 139/45 30 USGS

2 Landsat5/TM 23/12/1990 139/46 30
3 Landsat7/ETM 10/12/2000 139/45 30
4 Landsat7/ETM 10/12/2000 139/46 30
5 Landsat5/TM 11/12/2009 139/45 30
6 Landsat5/TM 11/12/2009 139/46 30
7 Landsat8/OLI_TIRS 10/1/2015 139/45 30
8 Landsat8/OLI_TIRS 10/1/2015 139/46 30

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Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)
NDVI is widely and popular vegetation index to assess vegeta-
tion cover and condition, from satellite images such as Landsat
MSS/TM/ETM+/OLI, and SPOT (Liu et al. 2004). The index
has computed with a simple formula.
NDVI = (𝜌NIR − 𝜌Red)∕(𝜌NIR + 𝜌Red)
where ρNIR is the reflectance value of the near infrared
band; ρRed is the reflectance value of the red band.
As the index give the information of chlorophyll consecra-
tion of vegetation. In the present study, NDVI has considered
as mangroves identification or extraction parameter using local
threshold values.
Soil‑Adjusted Vegetation Index (SAVI)
SAVI developed by Huete (1988) to extract of non-vegeta-
tion land cover. The SAVI is calculated using the following
formula,
SAVI = ((1 + L) × (𝜌NIR − 𝜌Red))∕(𝜌NIR + 𝜌Red + L)
where ρNIR is the reflectance value of the near infrared
band, ρRed is the reflectance value of the red band, and L is
the soil brightness correction factor. The value of L varies
Fig. 2  Flow chart of the methodology
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Modeling Earth Systems and Environment
by the amount of green vegetation. In very high vegetation
regions, L = 0, and in no green vegetation regions, L = 1. In
the present study L = 0.5 value was used.
The SAVI has been used to restrict the intrusion of non-
vegetation features in the vegetation. The non-vegetation fea-
tures have been delineated based on local threshold values.
The extracted binary has been used to subtract non-vegetation
feature from the mangrove.
Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI)
The Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI) proposed by
Gao (1996), was used to assess the vegetation water content
using remote sensing data. NDWI is very sensitive to moni-
tor vegetation water content. It is considered as independent
vegetation index, which was developed to delineate vegeta-
tion water content features and to enhance their presence in
remotely-sensed digital imagery (Alsaaideh et al. 2013).
NDWI is expressed as following
NDWI = (𝜌NIR − 𝜌SWIR)∕(𝜌NIR + 𝜌SWIR)
where NIR is the reflectance value of the near infrared band;
SWIR is the reflectance value of Shortwave Infrared band
(1.55–1.75 µm).
Modeling Earth Systems and Environment

As stated above, the NDWI has been used to map vegeta- been clipped with the mangrove extent. The clipped raster
tion health as it can give the information about water content has been classified into three mangrove classes such as dense
in vegetation. mangrove, sparse and open mangrove using iso cluster cal-
The above indices are considered to extract mangrove with cification techniques with a local threshold value. Quality
its category more accurately. The extracted NDVI binary has analysis of the classified images has been carried out by a
been subtracted with SAVI (non-vegetation features) to get limited filed visit, high resolution freely available satellite
sharper mangrove extent. The subtracted binary has been image and published literatures. The districts wise as well
considered as mangroves extent. The NDVI and NDWI of as year wise mangroves area were extracted and calculated
the mangroves area (mangrove extent binary) have been using raster calculator in GIS environment.
merged to categorized mangroves on the basis of Chlorophyll
concentration and leaf water content. The merged raster has
Result and discussion
Table 2  District wise mangrove status of Orissa coast from 1990 to
2015 The study reveals that the mangrove area increased gradu-
ally from 18573.49 ha in 1990 to 20689.29 ha in 2000 and
District Category Year wise area (Ha)
it further increased to 23871.49 ha in 2015 due to planta-
1990 2000 2009 2015 tion, awareness and coastal zone management plan. The
Baleshwar Dense 0 0 0 0 district wise temporal statistics of mangroves are shown
Sparse 47.25 66.33 34.02 100.89 in Table 2 and Fig. 3. In 2015, the dense mangrove com-
Open 284.22 284.85 303.3 434.88 prises 7146.14 ha, sparse mangrove is 12327.76 ha and open
Total 331.47 351.18 337.32 535.77 mangrove covers an area of 4397.6 ha, whereas the dense
Bhadrak Dense 598.77 1156.95 1120.14 2260.26 mangrove, sparse and open mangrove area was 6019.14 ha,
Sparse 462.51 399.78 516.78 657 8145.22 ha, and 4409.13 ha respectively in 1990 (Fig. 4). The
Open 569.25 479.79 1103.22 492.21 mangroves are observed mainly in the four districts of Odi-
Total 1630.53 2036.52 2740.14 3409.47 sha namely Kendapara, which contain 80.49% of total man-
Kendapara Dense 5360.7 7380.09 9367.65 5284.8 grove followed by Bhadark (13.28%), Jagatsinghpur (3.5%),
Sparse 7549.6 9281.7 7945.02 12055.32 Baleshwar (2.09%) and Puri (0.63%) in the year 2015.
Open 3387.9 1249.29 1485.27 3320.55 Kendapara district has a coastline of 83 km. which has
Total 16298.2 17911.08 18797.94 20660.67 the largest covered of mangrove forest (SAC 2012). The
Jagatsingpur Dense 59.67 71.64 82.8 138.96 mangrove area gradually increased from 16298.2  ha in
Sparse 85.86 216.45 212.67 442.44 1990 to 17911.08 ha in 2000, which has further increased
Open 167.76 102.42 402.03 318.24
to 19214.42 ha in 2015. The major mangrove ecosystems
Total 313.29 390.51 697.5 899.64
are observed in the creeks and mudflats of Mahanadi and
Grand Total 18573.49 20689.29 22572.9 25505.55
Brambhani-Baitaani delta area (Fig. 5).

Fig. 3  District wise mangroves

area from 1990 to 2015

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 Modeling Earth Systems and Environment

Fig. 4  Density wise mangrove

status of Orissa from 1990 to
2015

Fig. 5  Changes of mangrove density in Bitarkanika from 1990 to 2015 (a 1990, b 2000, c 2015)

The Bhitarkanika wildlife sanctuary/National park Brambhani-Baitarani deltaic area (SAC 2012). Another
is the second largest mangrove block formation in the major mangrove patch, the Hatamudia Reserve forest
country, which is the home of diverse flora and fauna in is located in Mahanadi and Buma river mouth (Fig. 6).

13
Modeling Earth Systems and Environment
Mangrove of the coastal stretch is extended to seaward side
due to shoreline accretion. The temporal analysis of satel-
lite data reveals that the mangroves area has significantly
increased in the river intertidal zone and mudflats region,
whereas some portion of mangrove cut down for aquacul-
ture, agriculture and other human activities.
The Bhadrak district, with a coastline of 53 km, the extent
of mangrove cover is gradually increased from 1630.53 ha
in 1990 to 3170.81 ha in 2015 (Fig. 7). The mangrove cov-
ers are observed in a linear pattern along the coast, near
Mohanpur to Coconut Island, near Dharma Port. Mangroves
are observed in the estuarine part of Devi River, Baranaula
and Akumi River in Jagatsingpur district (59 km coastline).
The satellite data analysis reveals that there has a significant
increase of mangrove cover in the Devi river mouth, whereas
Fig. 6  Mangrove cover changes at Hatamudia (a 1990, b 2015)
some mangrove area has been converted into aquaculture in
Baranaula and Akumi River mouth.
The mangrove area has increased by an area of 523.38 ha
from 1990 to 2015 in the coast. From 1990 to 2009 there was
no mangrove in Puri district, which has the longest coastline
(136 km) in Odisha. In 2015, mangrove is observed in the
river mouth near Sahana, Sudhikeswar Village, which has
an area of 151.33 ha.
Least mangrove is observed in Baleswar district (86 km
coastline). The mangroves are observed mainly in inter-tidal
zones of the Subarnarekha River, which is the main river
of the district (Fig. 8). Mangroves are also located in the
Panchapara river mouth and Burhabalang river estuary of
the district.
In Jamka Nadi mouth and Kanbans river mouth, man-
groves are observed in 2015 but earlier it was not present.
13

Fig. 7  Changes of mangrove cover at Bhadrak coast from 1990 (a) to 2015 (b)
The mangrove covered was 331.47 ha in 1990 which has
increased to 351.18 in 2000, while it has decreased in 2009
by an area of 13.86 ha due to several natural catastrophes,
whereas it has further increased by 498.27  ha in 2015.
Although the overall mangrove of Odisha is increasing, the
mangroves along the Odisha coast are threatened due to high
density of population and high demand of land for agricul-
ture and prawn farming and encroachment of the sparse/
open mangrove area.
The present study approaches an integrated methodol-
ogy to extract the mangroves using remote sensing and GIS
techniques, which is mainly involved with indexes (bands
13
Modeling Earth Systems and Environment
ratio). It may help to map and monitor in long-term basis
for mangroves health and growth.
Conclusion
In this study, we analyzed decadal changes of mangrove at
the district level using NDVI, SAVI and NDWI. The result
indicates that the total mangrove cover gradually increased
from 18573.49 ha in 1990 to 23871.49 ha in 2015 due
to newly plantation, restoration of mangroves at several
locations in the Odisha coast, as well as awareness and
Modeling Earth Systems and Environment
Fig. 8  Mangrove cover change near Subarnarekha river mouth (a 1990, b 2015)
coastal zone management plan. The significant regenera-
tion of mangrove is observed in shoreline accreted areas of
Kendapara and Bhadrak district, whereas some mangrove
is deforested due to some anthropogenic activity. The pre-
sent study provides a comprehensive status and changes
of mangroves in Odisha coast in district level. The study
has some limitation toward the extracted result, which may
due to lack of information, threshold defined by authors,
satellite image availability (seasonal) etc. The above inte-
grated methodology may help to the researcher, decision
maker and other stockholders to map and monitoring of
mangrove, as well as sustainable coastal zone management
by proper conservation of mangrove and future mangrove
plantation plans. The methodology may be enhanced and
automate in future toward mangroves studies.
Acknowledgements  The authors express their sincere gratitude to Dr.
Ashis Kumar Paul Professor, Vidyasagar University for providing valu-
able guidance, support and constant encouragement. The authors are
also thankful to Dr. Ramkrrishna Maiti, Professor, Vidyasagar Univer-
sity and Dr. Jatisankar Bandyopadhyay, Assistant Professor, Vidyasagar
University for providing valuable guidance.
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