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Manuscript_46c339126bab2a78a43b7135b7f80353

Quantitative Analysis of Erosion and Accretion (1975-2017) Using DSAS – A

Study on Indian Sundarbans
Rakesh Bera1 & Ramkrishna Maiti2
1-Senior Research Fellow (UGC) and 2- Professor
Dept. of Geography and Environment Management
Vidyasagar University, Midnapore 721102, West Bengal
Email Id: rge_rakesh@mail.vidyasagar.ac.in

Abstract
Sundarbans, world’s largest mangrove forest is now struggling to maintain its existence
in the face of severe erosion. Any management process to protect this vulnerable ecosystem
and to rescue millions of people living here, require place specific erosion measurement. This
paper attempted to asses point specific erosion/accretion rate between 1975-2017 using
LANDSAT Images. Permanent waterline was demarcated from the rectified images using the
algorithm Land Surface Water Index (LSWI) > Normalize Differential Vegetation Index
(NDVI). 178 inhabited Mouzas (smallest revenue unit) and 48 islands located along the major
estuaries from Hooghly to Raimangal are taken for predicting shore/bank movement using
the Digital Shoreline Analysis System (DSAS). 7723 transects along the main river and 855
along the coast are generated at an interval of 100m for calculating End Point Rate (EPR),
Net Shoreline Movement (NSM) and Land net Loss/Land Gain (LL/LG). From the EPR we
found 62% and 85% transects are eroding along the estuarine channels and coast respectively.
Multiplying mean EPR and transect interval (100m) between two transect, inter transects net
land loss or gain were calculated. Among the channels intensive erosion were observed along
the eastern bank of Muriganga in all successive years. Accretion increases landward from the
coast in almost all channels. A sharp difference of erosion/accretion observed between
reclaimed mouzas and islands covered by dense mangrove swamp. 54% mouza having
embankments are retreating at an average rate of 6.14 metre/year, contrary to this only 35%
mangrove islands are moving landward at a much slower rate (4.78 m/yr.) in comparison to
habitat areas. Process of new land formation is also very steady in mangrove areas (4.78
hec./yr.) than habited areas (6.84 hec./yr.) which indicates channel stability and erosion
resistance provided by Mangrove. Mangrove plantation can be a useful option for erosion
management.

Keywords: Keywords: DSAS; Permanent Waterline; Channel stability; Land formation;

Erosion

© 2019. This manuscript version is made available under the Elsevier user license
https://www.elsevier.com/open-access/userlicense/1.0/
1. Introduction
Coastal region provides all essential elements to set up human habitation and historically
became the most attractive place for human settlement. Recently coastal erosion became a
major concern for the planners and decision makers as > 37% of world’s population lives
within 100 km and 44% within 150km from the coastline (Syvitski et al., 2005). Stability of
shoreline depends on the ratio between sediment supply and accommodation space created by
sea level rise and subsidence. If sediment supply overtakes the rate of Relative Sea Level
(RSL) change (Eustatic SLR+Subsidence), delta progrades otherwise it retreats through
shoreline erosion (Craig et al., 1979; Allen, 1990; Syvitski et al., 2009; Al-Hatrushi, 2013).

Unavailability of sediment makes Indian part of Sundarbans estuary a net erosional

(Gopinath & Seralathan, 2005; Allison, 1997). Western part of Haringhata river has been
eroded by 140.9 km2 during 1792-1840 and 227.2 km2 during 1840-1984 with an average of
2.9 and 1.6 km2/year respectively (Mikhailov et al., 2006). Sagar island has been retreated by
> 10 km since 1777 and during 1917-2010 erosional area reached up to 430 Km2 which is
twice the depositional area of 220 Km2. This difference significantly increased in the
preceding decade (Rudra, 2014). Within a span of time (2001-2009), land area of Indian
Sundarbans is eroded by 44 Km2 with an average of 5.5 Km2 /year (Hazra, 2010). Among all
islands 12 are most vulnerable and may lose up to 15% by 2015 (WWF, 2010). All 14
islands except Nayachar are eroding and an area of 80 Km2 has been lost during last 32 years
(Chatterjee et al., 2015). Erosion is mainly concentrated on the southern part due to strong
tidal current contrary to the depositional area, located at the interior location, far away from
the coast (Ganguly et al., 2006; Purkait, 2009; Shoreline Change Atlas, 2014). Deforestation,
infrastructural development, clay mining, tourism, boating, post dam sediment deficit, human
induced subsidence are the anthropogenic factors responsible for erosion (Chatterjee et al.,
2015; Day et al., 1998; Gopinath & Seralathan, 2005; Gopinath et al., 2007). In the channels
sedimentation accelerated with the spill area reduction. New land formation in the form of
mudflat makes the upper catchment area of all channels a land surplus zone (WBSR, 2014.,
Hazra et al., 2010; Ghosh et al., 2015; Allison & Kepple, 2001; Allison, 1997; Hsu et al.,
2007; Nanson et al., 1994).

Most of the previous works focused on overall land loss or gain on a coastal environment
but not provide specific information about along channel coastal dynamics which are
responsible for erosion and accretion within a small distance (Ghosh et al. 2015). For availing
detailed information, this study focuses on point specific coastal changes along the open coast
& estuaries and along the forest boundary of Indian Sundarbans which are important
perspective of future planning. Long term shore dynamics can be scientifically monitored
though the RS and GIS (Al-Hatrushi, 2013). For the purpose of proper scientific management
of erosion, long term information regarding shoreline changes along the cross section is
required. DSAS an extension of ArcGIS is an important technique for monitoring point
specific shoreline changes using the End Point Rate (EPR), (Crowell et al., 1997; Thieler et
al., 2009; Sarwar & Woodroffe, 2013). Demarcation of water limit is an important parameter
in the study of shore dynamics as tide continuously changes the land-water interface. In
Sundarbans, erosion within the embankments is also important as various economic activities
as well as human settlement are located there. Considering that, we have focused on
permanent water areas and its changes over time. These parameters are taken as the indicator
of erosion/accretion. An algorithm (proposed by Xiao et al., LSWI > NDVI) is used for
differentiating the permanent water areas from seasonally flooded areas (Chen et al., 2016).
Historical Landsat images of past (from 1975-2017) are used for the study.

Although in Indian parts of Sundarbans various project are going on for strengthening
the embankment but unable to provide long term protection due to unavailability of historical
information regarding bank/shore movements. The objectives of this paper are to estimate
shoreline movement within 100m interval. It also provided past and future account of land
loss/gain at the smallest revenue unit scale.

2. Study area

Indian Sundarbans comprises of 19 blocks under the jurisdiction of North (6 blocks) and
South 24 Paraganas district (13 blocks). 48 islands, covered by dense mangrove swamp and
123 mouza located along the coast and on the bank of the river Hooghly, Muriganga,
Saptamukhi, Thakuran, Matla, Bidya, Gosaba, Harinbhanga, Gomdi, Raimangal and Kalindi
river are taken for the analysis of erosion/accretion (Fig. 1). Sundarbans is a low lying coastal
delta plain with an elevation less than 5m. Tidal creeks, mudflat, mangrove swamp and small
sand dunes are the major geomorphic features of this marshy land. The area is under
subtropical humid climate with average rainfall 1500-2000mm and most of its (74%) occurs
during the monsoon months (June to Sept.) Cyclone is a common phenomenon of this area
and 3-4 cyclones sucked over it annually. It is a meso-tidal region with tidal range of 2-4m.

3. Methods and Techniques

 In order to extracting shoreline of different historical time, 8 Landsat imageries (MSS,
T.M, OLI for the year 1975, 1989, 2000 and 2017) have been collected from earth explorer
database of the USGS (Table. 1). All selected imageries have been acquired between
Novembers to January and are completely cloud free. Pixel value from raw image was
converted to spectral radiance using the equation given by Chander et al., 2009 (Eq. i).

= × + --------------------(i)
Where
= ---------------------------------(ii)

= !" −$ %− &'( -------(iii)

Where

Lλ = Spectral radiance at the sensor’s aperture [W/(m2 sr µm)]

Qcal = Quantized calibrated pixel value (DN)
Qcalmin = Minimum Quantized calibrated pixel value corresponding to LMINλ (DN)
Qcalmax = Maximum Quantized calibrated pixel value corresponding to LMAXλ (DN)
LMINλ = Spectral at sensor radiance that is scaled to Qcalmin [W/(m2 sr µm)]
LMAXλ = Spectral at sensor radiance that is scaled to Qcalmax [W/(m2 sr µm)]
G rescale = Band-specific rescaling gain factor [W/(m2 sr µm)/DN]
Brescale = Band-specific rescaling bias factor [W/(m2 sr µm)]

Radiance was converted into TOA reflectance using the following equation (Eq. iv)
(Chander et al., 2009).

*. .
.-
)" = ---------------------------------------(iv)
/01! . 2 34

Where
ρλ = Planetary TOA reflectance (unitless)
π = Mathematical constant equal to 3.14159 (unitless)
Lλ = Spectral radiance at the sensor’s aperture [W/(m2 sr µm)]
d = Earth-Sun distance (astronomical units)
EUSNλ = Mean exoatmospheric solar irradiance [W/(m2 µm)]
θs = Solar zenith angle (degrees9)

There are numbers of shorelines extraction methods such as manual digitization,

supervised classification, band rationing etc. Alesheikh et al. (2007) proposed band rationing
(dividing band 5 by band 2) for automatic demarcation of shoreline. In this method pixels
having 0 values are representing water area and > 0 represents land area. In coastal
environment fluctuation of land water interface is a continuous phenomenon and band
rationing is unable to minimize the temporal fluctuation of water limit which create
considerable errors. Although we used imageries having almost same acquisition time, it is
not enough to remove the errors due to differential tidal height throughout the lunar cycle. So
the tidal height of all imageries having a time span of 42 years (1975-2017) cannot be equal
due to diurnal changes of tidal periods. For limiting these errors we have employed an
algorithm (proposed by Xiao et al., 2002b) which uses two models LSWI and NDVI. In this
model an algorithm LSWI > NDVI was created using the band math tools of ArcGIS 10.1;
pixel value of > 0 representing permanent water area and 0 represent area flooded during high
tide/land area/intertidal area (Chen et al., 2016). Only for Landsat 4 we have used Normalize
Differential Water Index (NDWI) in place of LSWI as it has no SWIR band. Intertidal
mudflat and mangrove swamp is economically, socially and environmentally very important.
That why, encroachment of permanent water line is very crucial for understanding the actual
loss through erosion. So, permanent waterline is taken as the water boundary of different
historical imageries.

8 ( 09 :
567 = 8 (;09 :
-------------------- (v)

8 ( !:
NDWI = 8 (;! :
----------------------(vi)

!: : -
NDVI = ! :;: --------------------------(vii)

From the processed images we have manually digitized the shoreline/waterline of all
consecutive years (1975, 1989, 2000 and 2017) and this vector is taken as input of DSAS for
analysing changes in permanent waterline during last 42 years. These changes have been
analysed for all of the mentioned river banks and coast using DSAS. Transects are drawn at
an interval of 100m for both banks of the selected channels and coast extending from
Hooghly to river Raimangal. We used EPR and NSM for this analysis from the DSAS
generated bulk of dataset.

Land loss within two transects calculated using simple geometric method.

Area= Width × Length------------------------------(viii)

Where
Width = Average EPR of two consecutive transect
Length= Transect Interval which is 100 m

Mouza-wise net land loss/land gains were calculated by summing up all inter transect
land movement within any mouza boundary (Eq. viii). Applying this method we represented
spatial distribution land erosion and accretion (both in linear and areal dimension).

Shoreline location in 2050 is predicted using the equation given by Ferreira et al.,
2006 (Eq. ix). Here we assumed that the rate of erosion/accretion would be similar as we
found in past 42 years. EPR and annual rate of LL/LG is taken as the Shore Evolution Rate
(SER). Calculation has been done by taking present shoreline location as 0.

S2050 = S0 + SER × 33------------------------------------(ix)

Where
S2050 = Shoreline position in 2050 (33 years)
S0 = present position of shoreline
SER= Shore Evolution Rate

Details of the methodology are given in the flow chart (Fig. 2).

4. Result and Discussion

There are two basic attributes of erosion/accretion in Sundarbans. First, the trend along
the coastlines which is an important perspective in geomorphological study, and the other is
the intensity of erosion/accretion along all individual channels which is even more important
for management and future planning of this area. That is considered, one of the world’s most
problematic islands. Historically this area has been developed along the river bank and the
routes of developments are still based on river bank. So fluctuation of river bank has had
greater effect on natural and human system of this area and we should focus on both type of
erosion/accretion.

4.1 Erosion/Accretion along the Coast

Inhabited mouzas and islands located at the sea face of Bay of Bengal are threatened by
severe erosion (Ganguly et al., 2006; Hazra et al., 2010; Chatterjee et al., 2015). From the
Hooghly to Raimangal 855 transects were drawn at an interval of 100 m and 731 (85%) were
found in erosional state (Table. 2; Fig. 3). Every year about 128.9 hectares of land are lost
through erosion. All mouzas and islands except Gangasagar, Lakshmipur Abad, Fedric and
Henry islands are experiencing severe erosion. Highest erosion is observed in the central part
(>20 m/yr.) of the area under study which is far away from western (Hooghly) and eastern
(Ganga Brahmaputra river mouth at Bangladesh) sediment sources. Islands like Chulkati R.F
(Southern and Central part), Sundarban Reserve Forest (south), Island-I and Bhangadauni
located in between Matla and Gosaba river are eroding at a rate of 40.71, 24.57, 33.84, 33.78
and 16.57 metre/year respectively (Table 2, Fig. 4). Sediment deficit in the central part is one
of the main reasons for higher erosion as little sediment reached here from the Hooghly in the
west and active Ganga Brahmaputra river mouth located in the east (Allision, 1997; Allison
& Kepple, 2001; Kuehl et al., 1997).

4.2 Erosion/Accretion along the Main River

Erosion intensity varies along the channels and in all cases channel experiencing a net
accretion in landward direction and erosion towards the coast.

4.2.1 Along the Bank of Hooghly

Along the eastern bank of River Hooghly total 268 transects are drawn at an interval of
100 m and found that 104 (39%) are eroding and 164 (61 %) are accreting. 7 out of 11
mouzas except Beguakhali, Mahismari, Bamankhali and Sapkhali are found in a state of net
accretion. Accretion mainly dominated in the central parts and mouzas like Chandipur,
Naraharipur, Krishnanagar and Phuldabi are progradding at a rate of 21.28, 7.38, 6.68, 5.54
metre/year respectively. Rapid land loss were observed at Beguakhali, Mahismari,
Bamankhali and Sapmari at an average rate of 2.02, 1.87, 0.51 and 0.89 hec./yr. (Fig. 5a).
The combined effects of subsidence induced sea level rise, sediment deficit, deforestation,
infrastructural development, clay mining are responsible for erosion (Chatterjee et al., 2015;
Gopinath & Seralathan, 2005; Gopinath et al., 2007).

4.2.2 Along the Banks of Muriganga River

279 transects were drawn along the western bank of the Muriganga river and 192 (69
%) were found accreting. 9 out of 12 mouza except Muriganga (-1.78 m/yr.) and Kachuberia
(-1.78 m/yr.) of Sagar island are in an accretional state ranges up to 15 metre/year (Fig. 5b).
Accretion mainly dominated in areas having low energy (Purkait, 2009) and thick mangrove
cover (Jayappa et al., 2006) which absorbs energy and deposit eroded materials coming from
both river and tidal flow. Meandering shape and unavailability of mangrove cover at
Muriganga and Kachuberia enhances erosional capacity of tide coming from Hooghly, which
results into net land loss.

Eastern bank of Muriganga river is highly erosion prone, 357 (96%) transects were
experiencing severe erosion. Mouza like Budhakhali, Kakdwip, Debnagar, Mousani are
eroding at a rate of 16.48, 15.37, 13.96 and 13.84 m/year respectively. Only 1400 metre bank
located at Kalinagar is accreting and rest of the area are well-acquainted with regular land
loss. Every year about 36.82 hectares of land is engulfed by river Muriganga and Hooghly.
Problem is alarming in mouzas like Budhakhali (4.58 hec./yr.), Kakdwip (4.56 hec./yr.),
Sibkalinagar (3.80 hec./yr.), Nadabhanga (3.56 hec./yr.) (Fig. 5c). Boating activities and
direct wave attacks due to its arc like shape is responsible for higher erosion.

4.2.3 Along the banks of Saptamukhi River

Western bank of Saptamukhi river comprises of two islands and 6 mouzas under the
jurisdiction of Namkhana block. A mix result with marginal dominancy of accretion is the
key feature. Among 232 transects 127 (55%) are eroding and net result is land gain at an
average rate of 3.8 hec./yr (Fig. 5d). Erosion at Henry island is mainly for the direct wave
attacks during falling tide. Thick mangrove covers and low wave energy is responsible for
accretion in areas like Fedric island, Dakshin Chandanpiri, Debnibas, etc.

Total 343 transect are drawn along the eastern bank of Saptamukhi river among them
176 (51%) are eroding and net result is annual land gain of 11.05 hectare. Mouzas like Plot G
Portion, Indrapur, Baradapur, Durbachati, Radhakrishnapur, Bhagabatpur and Krishnapur are
eroding at a rate of 13.79, 2.02, 1.67, 1.05, 0.98 and 0.78 m/year respectively. Significant
amount of new land area (>1 hec./yr.) is added to Buraburir tat, Paschim Surendraganj,
Dakshin Surendraganj and Plot 6 Portion (Fig. 5e). Erosion dominated mouzas are directly
exposed to wave attacks due to its small intertidal area without significant mangrove covers.

4.2.4 Along the Banks of Thakuran River

A mix result with accretion dominancy in the central and northern part is the key
feature along the western bank of Thakuran river. Among 327 transects 122 (37%) are
eroding and erosion mainly concentrates on mouzas like Purba Sripatinagar (2.9 m/yr.), Plot
L Southernportion (2.94 m/yr.), Achintya Nagar (1.73 m/yr.) and Paschim Sripatinagar (0.27
m/yr.). Mouzas like Upendranagar, Rakhalpur, Sridhar Nagar are gaining considerable
amount of new land with an average rate of 8.76, 7.12 and 2.54 hec./year respectively (Fig.
5f).

Along the eastern bank of Thakuran river 4 inhabited mouzas and 5 islands named
Chulkati, Dhulibhasani and Ajmalmari reserve forest were selected for the study. 376
transects were drawn and 286 (76%) found to be eroding. Erosion is mainly concentrated in
Southern and northern parts. South (4.36 m/yr.), middle (5.27 m/yr.) and northern (6.81
m/yr.) parts of Chulkati R.F is highly erosion prone. Inhabited mouzas like Baikunthapur,
Bhubaneswari Char are also eroding in a considerable rate of 6.1 and 4.1 m/year respectively.
New land were formed at Ajmalmari R.F, Dhulibhasani R.F and Kishorimohanpur with an
average rates of 0.75, 0.7 and 0.32 hec./year respectively (Fig. 5g).

4.2.5 Along the Banks of Matla River

Erosion in the lower to lower middle part and accretion in the upper parts, nearer to
Canning town is observed along the western bank of River Matla. Out of the total 950
transects, 472 (49.68 %) are facing erosion. Erosion is accelerated towards easting. Southern,
middle and northern part of Chulkati R.F, located adjacent to Bay of Bengal, are eroding at a
rate of 11.43, 19.29 and 8.53 m/year respectively. Other forested areas like Dhulibhasani R.F
(1.53 m/yr.), Lot 121 (1.42 m/yr.), Lot 120 (0.69 m/yr.) and inhabited mouzas like Deulbari
Debiur (1.11 m/yr.), Kaikhali (-2.16 m/yr.) also in a state of net erosion. Higher accretion
observed at mouzas like Garkhali (22.82 m/yr.), Dabu (19.24 m/yr.), Banibadabele Khal
(7.45 m/yr.), Dighirpur (11.22 m/yr.), Nikhraghata located extreme north and R.F area like
Ajmalmari (1.22 m/yr.) and LOT No-118 (1.73 m/yr.) (Fig. 5h).

Similar to the western bank, eastern bank of Matla too experiences erosion. Slight
erosion is observed only at Trtultala (0.23 m/yr.) and Naliakhali (0.67 m/yr.) located at the
extreme north. Out of total 799 transects drawn, about 529 (66%) are eroding. Higher erosion
rate is observed at Dalhousi island (5.26 m/yr.), Southern (-5.85 m/yr.) and Northern (3.22
m/yr.) parts of Sundarbans R.F, Lot no 124 (8.18 m/yr.), Laskarpur (3.62 m/yr.), Parbatipur
(2.86 m/yr.) Birinchi Bari (4.43 m/yr.) and Nafarganj (4.59 m/yr.). Accretion predominates
from Garan Bose and continued up to Kathalberia except Tetultala which is slowly eroding at
an average rate of 0.23 m/year (Fig. 5i).

4.2.6 Along the Banks of Bidyadhari River

 Erosion in the southern parts and accelerated accretion in the landward direction has
been noted at the western bank of Bidyadhari river. Among 256 transects 173 (83%) are
eroding. Erosion accelerates southward and it reaches up to 10.92 m/year at Lot No 124,
located at the confluence of Matla. Areas like Birinchi Bari, Lot No 126, Parbotipur and Lot
No 125 are also eroding at an average rate of 4.33, 3.42, 3.11 and 0.32 m/year respectively.
Mouzas like Harekrishnapur (8.97 m/yr.), Gadkhali 3.95 m/yr.), Jyotishpur (0.89 m/yr.) and
Radharanipur (0.15 m/yr.), located far away from the coast, are in an accreting stage. Annual
land loss from 6 southernmost units (Lot No 124 to Birinchi Bari) is 5.99 hectare which is not
replenished by the creation of new land (2.43 hec.), developed in between Radharanipur and
Gadkhali (Fig. 5j).

5 islands and 5 inhabitant mouzas, located along the eastern bank of Bidyadhari river,
are selected for the study. About 230 transects are drawn at an interval of 100 metre, among
them 209 (91%) are found to be eroding. Mathurakanda is the only island experiencing
slower accretion at a rate of 0.49 metre annually. Highest erosion is observed at Reserve
Forest-2 (R.F 2; 4.05 m/yr.) which is open for direct wave attack especially during rising tide.
Inhabited mouzas like Bally, Amlamathi and rest of the islands, located at the Sundarbans
Reserve Forest, having erosion rates exceeding 2 m/year. 6.01 hectares land has been eroding
annually from that area where annual land gain through accretion is only 0.07 hectares. So,
the area is in a state of net annual land loss of 5.94 hectares (Fig. 5k).

4.2.7 Along the Banks of Gosaba River

Western bank of Gosaba river is totally under reserve forest, without any human
construction and almost stable with mixed erosion accretion. Among 449 mouza 260 (56%)
are eroding and 199 (44%) are accreting. Throughout the area both erosion and accretion do
not exceeds 1m except ‘Island 7’ which is accreting at a rate of 3.70 m/year (Fig. 5l).

Eastern bank of Gosaba river is more erosion prone than the western bank. 80% of
transects are eroding at a significant rate. Highest erosion is observed at Reserve Forest-1
(R.F-1; 4.05 m/yr.) located adjacent to Bay of Bengal. Smaller amount of accretion (0.13
m/yr.) found at R.F-2 which is located at the middle. Slight erosion is also observed at
Reserve Forest 3 (R.F-3; -1.56 m/yr.), located in the northernmost part. Annually 7.25
hectares of land is lost through erosion whereas only 0.014 hectares new land is formed
through accretion. So, annual deficit is 7.10 hectares which is very important from ecological
point of view (Fig. 5m).
4.2.8 Along the Banks of Gomdi River

Gomdi is a branch of River Bidya. Two ends of its western bank is experiencing
erosion where accretion is mainly dominated in the central part. Total 192 transect are drawn
among which 147 (77%) are found to be eroding. Maximum erosion is observed at
Amlamethi (2.39 m/yr.). Mathurakhanda and Bijoynagar are others mouzas having erosion
rate of > 1 m/yr. Rangabalia undergoes rapid accretion with an average rate of 10.79 m/year.
Mouzas like Pakhiraloy, Dumki and Sonagarh are also accreting. Inspite of erosion in major
portion of this area its intensity is very low in comparison to accretion which is going on in
fewer locations. So, there is a net land gain of 0.77 hectares per year (Fig. 5n).

Low to moderate erosion is observed along the eastern bank of Gomdi river. Among
190 transects, 161 (85%) are eroding but erosion does not exceeds the rate of 2 m/year.
Highest rate of erosion is observed at Dayapur (1.58 m/yr.), the southernmost habited mouza,
located at the margin of Sundarbans Reserve Forest. Mouzas like Satzalia and mangrove
areas like Saznekhali R.F-1 and Saznekhali R.F-2 are also eroding at an average of 1.37, 1.33
&1.11 m/yr. respectively (Fig. 5o). Annual land loss is 1.8 hectares which is not as high as
we found in the western channels having dense habitation.

4.2.9 Along the Banks of Haribhanga River

Almost entire area of the western bank of Haribhanga is eroding except R.F-8, R.F-9
and Lahiripur. Out of total 611 transects, 497 (81%) are in erosional state. Highest rates of
erosion observed at Reserve Forest-3 (R.F-3) is about 5.61 m/yr. Mangrove islands like R.F-
2 (5.59 m/yr.), R.F-4 (4.35 m/yr.), R.F-6 (3.08 m/yr.), R.F-5 (2.89 m/yr.), R.F-7 (2.70) have
erosion rate of >3 m/year. Among inhabited mouzas, Satzalia (0.7 m/yr.), Kalidaspur (0.51
m/yr.), Chota Mollakhali are eroding and Lahiripur (1.70 m/yr.) and Hetalbari (1.53 m/yr.)
are slowly accreting. Inspite of erosion throughout the courses, it is manageable as it does not
exceed 6 m/year (Fig. 5p). A southward increasing trend of erosion also found here which is
very common for the entire Sundarbans. Annual net land loss from this bank is about 15.12
hectares where total erosion-accretion is 15.85 and 0.73 hectares respectively.

In the eastern bank of Haribhanaga river erosion is the dominant process though it
does not exceed 3 m/yr. 65 % transects are found to be eroding and all 4 forested areas (
Forest-1, Forest-2, Forest-3, Forest-4) along with inhabited mouza like Kumirmari are getting
eroded. Highest erosion is observed at R.F-4 with an average of 2.39 m/yr. Annual land loss
from this area is 2.04 hectare (Fig. 5q).

4.2.10 Along the Banks of Raimanagal River

In this study Raimangal and its upper segment known as Sahebkhali khal is taken as a
single unit named Raimangal. Among 538 transects, 364 (68 %) are eroding and erosion
mainly dominated in the southernmost parts inspite of having thick mangrove covers. Erosion
is also observed in the extreme north at the confluence with River Kalindi. Accretion mainly
concentrated in the middle part from Puinjali to Khetrachak. Higher erosion is observed at
Kumirmari (2.43 m/yr.). R.F-4 (2.10 m/yr.), R.F-2 (1.77 m/yr.), R.F-5 (1.08 m/yr.),
Sarapkhati (0.83 m/yr.) and khosbas (0.55 m/yr.) which are located nearer to Bay of Bengal.
Highest accretion is found at Chimta (7.70 m/yr.). Mouzas like Sitalia (2.16 m/yr.),
Hatgachha (1.49 m/yr.), Manipur (1.13 m/yr.) are having accretion rate > 1 m/year. 4.5
hectares of land eroded annually from that area and only 2.73 hectares added through
accretion. So, Annual net land loss from this area is 1.77 hectares (Fig. 5r).

Eastern bank of Raimangal river is highly erosion prone. About 83 % transects

recorded erosion and annual land loss is 5.674 hectare. Higher rate of erosion is observed at
Madhabkati (5.67 m/yr.), Pukuria Chak (2.38 m/yr.), Ramapur (1.97 m/yr.), Jogesganj (1.39
m/yr.) and all other inhabitant mouzas except Hemnagar and Putimathbari which are
accreting at a rate of 0.59 and 0.009 m/year respectively. Mouzas like Chota Sahebkhali (0.33
m/yr.) and Dulduli (0.03 m/yr.) are facing with slow rate of erosion < 0.5 m/year (Fig. 5s).

4.2.11 Along the Bank of Kalindi River

Erosion in the southern part adjacent to the coast and northward trend of accretion
(inland direction) has been found along the western bank of Kalindi river. Among 319
transects 175 (55%) are eroding and annual land loss is 0.677 hectare which is not as high as
that found in the western channels. Except inhabited mouzas like Samsernagar (-0.16 m/yr.),
Kanaikati (-2.09 m/yr.) and the single forested islands (-1.27 m/yr.), all mouzas are slowly
prograding at a rate of < 1 m/year. (Fig. 5t).

4.3 Erosion/accretion over the entire Indian Sundarbans:

Like other coastal environments Sundarbans also experiences with the regular
phenomena of erosion and accretion though its intensity changes over time. Channel wise
study reveals that erosion accelerates seaward and channels are getting silted in the landward
direction due to the deposition of sediments coming through the rising tide. Instances of
alarming land loss are observed at Dalhousi island (38.08 hec./yr.), Bangadauni island (27.17
hec./yr.), southern (25.23 hec./yr.) and central parts of Chulkati R.F (15.17 hec./yr.) located at
the South eastern ends of Indian Sundarbans adjacent to Bay of Bengal. Whole mangrove
area, eastern bank of Muriganga river, north eastern and Southern parts of Sagar island,
Southern parts of Basanti, central portion of Matla river (Western bank), forest fringe area of
Gosaba and Hingalgunj are eroding at a low to moderate rate. Accretion is mainly dominated
in the western parts and away from the coast. Intensive accretion observed at Chemagari
(16.1 hec./yr.), Chandipur (5.41 hec./yr.), Mandirtala (4.52 hec./yr.) located at Sagar island;
Gopalganj (9.21 hec./yr.), Dakshin Garankati (6.67 m/yr) of Kultali, Upendra nagar (8.76
hec./yr.), Rakhalpur (7.12 hec./yr.) of Patharpratima and Garkhali (8.41 hec./yr.) located at
Canning. Moderate to low moderate accretion is found in the central parts of Sagar island
(along the bank of Hooghly), Dakshin Kashinagar and Haripur and Paschim Surendranagar at
the western bank of Saptamukhi river, Purba Surendranagar, Dakshin Kashinagar, Sridhar
Nagar and Buraburir Tat, located at the western bank of Thakuran river, Narayantala,
Bhangonkhali, Dighirpur, Hincha, Sonakhali, located at the bank of Matla river adjacent to
Canning town (Table 3, Fig. 6). Most of the mouzas located far away from the sea are
experiencing a net accretion due to in channel sedimentation (Hazra et al., 2010; Chatterjee et
al., 2015). During high tide sediment enters to the channels as well as eroded materials from
the banks increases sediment concentration to the tidal channels. Unavailability of sufficient
spill area increases the resident time of sediment within the active channel. Head loss of tidal
channel through the process of reclamation significantly reduces the neap velocity and
increased the rate of in-channel sedimentation. Pockets of accretion are found in the concave
bank of river meander and area having thick mangrove cover which act as a natural resistance
and also accelerates sedimentation (Jayappa et al. 2006). Upper central part of Indian
Sundarbans is experiencing higher accretion after decaying of Bidyadhari channel which
significantly reduces low tide velocity (Raha et al., 2012). Human intervention in the form of
deforestation, construction, clay mining is highly responsible for erosion in the western parts
of Indian Sundarbans having human habitation (Chatterjee et al., 2015). Sediment deficit and
subsidence induced sea level rise are responsible for higher land loss in islands like
Bhangadauni, Chukati inspite of thick mangrove covers (Allison, 1997; Allison & Kepple,
2001, Kuehl et al., 1997; Hazra et al., 2010). Afforestation can be an effective management
for habitation areas as areas covered with thick mangrove swamp are either slowly eroding or
experiencing a net accretion (Jayappa et al., 2006).

4.4 Areas Experiencing Continuous Erosion throughout the Period (1975-2017)

Severe erosion (> 1500 m) during the entire study period have been observed at the
eastern parts of South Chulkati reserve forest (12 spot), south eastern parts of Middle
Chulkati reserve forest (28 spot), southern parts of Dalhausie (10 spots) and Bhangadauni
island (43 spot). Places located at the southern parts of Kakdwip (9 spot), parts of Mousani (5
spts) and Debnagar (3 spots), southern parts of South Chulkati R.F (17 spot) and Dalhausie
island (43 spot), south eastern parts of middle Chulkati R.F (13 spot), south western parts of
Bhngadauni island (13 parts) have been retreated about 1000-1500 metre since 1975. Almost
the entire eastern bank of Muriganga river and reserve forest area located in between Gosaba
and Haribhanga river were retreated about 500-100m during the study period. All river banks
except Muriganga were not accustomed with continuous erosion with longer stretches,
although few places especially southern banks of Matla, Bidya Muriganga and Haribhanga
river were eroded at a low to moderate rate (< 500 m) (Fig. 7). Sharp reduction of sediment
input especially from Hooghly due to multiple reservoirs created a sharp disparity between
sediment availability and its demand to fill the accommodation space. Insufficient sediment
supply is highly responsible for higher rate of prolonged erosion in central Reserve Forest
area. Erosion in the eastern bank of Muriganga is associated with the higher frequency of
machine boat. Erosion rate has been significantly reduced in almost entire habited areas after
2000. Embankment strengthening and large scale afforestation programme is significantly
reduced the erosion rate.

4.5 Field Verification

A field visit has been conducted at Bhubaneswari Char, Baikunthapur,

Kishorimohanpur, located on the eastern bank of Thakuran river and Deulbari Debipur,
Kaikhali are located on the western bank of Matla river for verification. Among the
mentioned mouzas, only Kishorimohanpur was found in a state of accretion. This result
significantly matched with the DSAS result (Plate 1). We also conducted an opinion survey
regarding past erosion on Kumirmari, Kalidaspur, Hetalbari, Satjelia, Luxbagan, Sadhupur,
Hamiltion Abad, Pakhiralay, Sonagar, Bijoynagar, Bally, Mathuraknda of Gosaba, Deulbari
Debipur of Kultali and Samsernagar, kalitala, Parghumti, Hemnagar of Hingalgunj. The
DSAS result highly matched with the people experience except Deulbari Debipur and
Sonagar.

4.6 Future prediction of Erosion/Accretion:

Prediction of future shoreline is very important for any type of management. We

predicted the position of waterline (shoreline) and also calculated area loss or gain till 2050
using the equation given by Ferreira et al., 2006 (Eq. ix). Result shows that Beguakhali of
Sagar will be the worst affected mouza where shoreline may be eroded up to 1146.7 metre
landward. Dalhousie island, central and southern parts of Chulkati R.F, Bhangadauni island,
Budhakhali, Sibpur, Kakdwip may be transgressed up to 500-1000 metre. Landward shore
movement about 300-500 metre will be observed in mouzas like Nadabhanga, Debnagar,
Mousani, Rajnagar Srinathgram, Durganagar, Kusumtala located on the bank of Muriganga
river of Namkhana block; Sibkalinagar of Kakdwip, Sitarampur of Patharpratima; Lot No
124 of Kultali; Mahismari of Sagar (Table 3; Fig. 8). More than 80 % area of Narayanganj
located at Namkhana block will be engulfed by River Muriganga. Mousani, Nadabhanga of
Namkhana; Sibkalinagar of Kakdwip; Muriganga of Sagar; Bhangadauni of Gosaba predicted
to lose up to 30-80% of their present area (Table 3; Fig. 9). Highest predicted land
advancement is 969.21 metre would likely to be found at Narayantala located in the Basanti
block. Accretion over 500 metre will be at Ananda Abad, Chemagari, Rakhalpur, Garkhali,
Upendranagar, Dakshin Garankati, Uttar Battala, Chandipur, Gopalganj, Dabu and Sonakhali.
Accelerated accretion in the interior area reduces the risk of bank erosion or embankment
breaching in normal situation but during cyclonic events it became most vulnerable as all
channels rapidly losing their carrying capacity due to the siltation. Rapid erosion and land
loss in mouzas located at the eastern bank of Muriganga, southern and north western parts of
Sagar islands will effect on the verse habitation. Govt. and planners should realise this and
location of upcoming embankment (if planned) should be on the basis of predicted extent of
waterline. Planners should also plan for rehabilitation for the people especially those who are
living on the bank or within the banks in erosion prone region.

Conclusion

Coastal erosion is a global concern as large numbers of people and allied economic
activities are nourished by the coast. Earlier works focused on erosion along the coast but
erosion along the estuarine channel is also important for management in areas like
Sundarbans. In Sundarbans a large numbers of people are living on the bank of the channel
and even some houses are within the banks, far away from coast and we can’t predict
erosion/accretion of that particular area on the basis of only shoreline movement. Estimating
erosion or accretion along the bank of all channels is very crucial for future planning. Present
study identified specific locations of erosion and accretion as well as future scenario for all
major channels and the coastline. Here we have only represented special dimension of
erosion accretion which is not sufficient for scientific management. Dominating process
operating and the factors responsible for erosion/accretion of a particular area have to be
understood. Creation of thick mangrove covers may be an alternative option for sustainable
management.

Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank University Grant Commission (UGC) for their financial assistance. The authors
are also thankful to the USGS for providing Landsat Imageries.

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Fig. 1. Selected area for the Study (Parts of Indian Sundarbans)

Fig. 2. Methodological Flow Chart

Fig. 3. Net shoreline movement (1975-2017) in Indian Sundarbans

Fig. 4. Net erosion and accretion (1975-2017) along the coastline of Indian Sundarbans

Fig. 5.A. Net erosion and accretion (1975-2017) along the banks of Hooghly (5a); Muriganga(5b,c);
Saptamukhi (5d,e); Thakuran (5f,g); Matla (h)

Fig. 5.B. Net erosion and accretion (1975-2017) along the banks Matla (i); Bidya (5j,k); Gosaba
(5l,m); Gomdi (5n,o); Haribhanga (5p)

Fig. 5.C. Net erosion and accretion (1975-2017) along the banks Haribhanga (5q); Raimangal (5r,s)
and Kalindi river(5t)

Fig. 6. Net erosion and accretion (1975-2017) over the entire Indian Sundarbans

Fig. 7. Areas experiencing continuous erosion (1975-2017)

Fig. 8. Predicted land advancement/retreat in 2050

Fig. 9. Predicted land loss/gain in 2050

Plate 1. (a) Erosion at Baikunthapur; (b) Erosion at Deulbari Debipur; (c) Accretion at
Kishorimohanpur; (d) Erosion at Bhubaneswari Char; (e) Erosion at Kaikhali
 Landsat Data (1975,1989,2000,2017)

DN value to TOA Reflectance

Band Ratio (NDVI, NDWI, LSWI)

LSWI/NDWI NDVI

Land-Water Interface (LSWI>NDVI)

DSAS

Transects with 100m

Land advancement/retreat Land loss/gain

Mouza-wise Result

Future Prediction
Table 1. Information about Landsat imageries used in this study
Image Sensor Path & Date of Spatial
Row acquisition resolution
EMP148R45_2M19751205 Landsat2 (MSS) 148, 45 05/12/1975 80
ETP138R45_4T19890103 Landsat4 (TM) 138, 45 03/01/1989 30
ELP138R045_7T20001117 Landsat7 (ETM+) 138, 45 17/11/2000 30
LC81380452017008LGN01 Landsat8 (OLI_TIRS) 138, 45 08/01/2017 30

Table 2. Erosion accretion along the coast

Mouza/Island name Net movement Net land Transect Transect
(East to west) (m/yr.) loss/land gain eroding (%) accreting (%)
(hec./year)
Sagar -2.87 -0.56 55 45
Ganga Sagar +10.34 +1.34 0 100
Dhablat -4.54 -1.52 58 42
Sibpur -16.55 -2.49 100 0
Chemagari -9.85 -1.14 100 0
Laksmipur Abad +0.91 +0.21 47 53
Fedric Island +8.43 +1.42 0 100
Henry Island +2.88 +0.53 27 83
Baliara -17.86 -1.79 90 10
Lothian Island -2.94 -1.72 88 12
Plot G Portion -23.60 -1.94 100 0
Gobardhanpur -4.12 -0.46 100 0
Sitarampur -11.11 -1.94 94 06
Island-I -33.78 -6.39 100 0
Chulkati R.F (South) -40.71 -20.22 92 08
Chulkati R.F (Middle) -24.57 -11.17 100 0
S.R.F (S) -33.84 -30.41 100 0
Bhangadauni -16.57 -27.16 100 0
Gosaba W-I -8.20 -1.96 100 0
Gosaba E-1 10.13 -2.09 100 0
Island-2 -6.34 -4.83 79 21
Gosaba-2 -12.11 -4.88 100 0
Harin-W -18.71 -9.73 100 0
Table 3. Erosion/accretion in Indian Sundarbans

Net land
Net Predicted Predicted land % of area
JL loss/land
Mouza_name movement movement in loss/gain_2050 loss/gain in
no gain
(m/yr.) 2050 (m) (hec) 2050
(hec/yr.)
67 Narayantala 29.37 2.64 969.21 83.82 42.51
148 Jyotishpur 0.89 1.12 29.37 36.3 14.48
133 Charanikhali 10.2 1.1 336.6 35.64 13.14
68 Bhangonkhali 9.77 2.19 322.41 65.01 9.79
145 Harekrishnapur 8.97 1.28 296.01 41.91 7.79
127 Dakshin Narayantala 10.54 1.13 347.82 36.96 6.82
131 Uttar Battala 22.5 1.86 742.5 61.05 6.40
132 Harbhangi 8.08 1.27 266.64 41.91 5.14
161 Ananda Abad 28.28 1.07 933.24 34.32 5.09
74 Kathalberia 3.96 1.27 130.68 41.58 4.00
144 Gadkhali 3.95 1 130.35 33 3.36
130 Amratala 4 0.59 132 19.47 3.23
134 Sonakhali 17.63 1.85 581.79 60.06 2.38
167 Parandar 7.13 0.82 235.29 24.75 2.33
192 Goran Bose 0.3 0.18 9.9 5.61 0.93
149 Radharanipur 0.15 0.04 4.95 1.32 0.05
129 Tetultala -0.23 -0.005 -7.59 -0.264 -0.01
128 Naliakhali -0.67 -0.04 -22.11 -1.65 -0.24
174 Laskarpur -3.31 -0.94 -109.23 -31.68 -1.58
172 Nafarganj -4.59 -0.64 -151.47 -21.45 -2.26
175 Lot no 126 -0.29 -0.69 -9.57 -23.43 -2.67
173 Parbatipur -2.99 -0.73 -98.67 -27.39 -2.90
193 Birinchi Bari -4.43 -1.46 -146.19 -51.15 -5.12
176 Lot no 125 -0.5 -1.9 -16.5 -64.35 -10.40
177 Lot no 124 -9.55 -5.89 -315.15 -198 -48.83
122 Nikarighata Khali 7.13 1.43 235.29 46.86 27.28
105 Garkhali 22.82 8.41 753.06 234.96 22.74
126 Dabu 19.24 3.27 634.92 94.05 15.95
121 Dighirpur 11.22 2.27 370.26 72.27 6.66
170 Madhu Khali 3.17 0.53 104.61 16.83 6.35
125 Banibadabele khal 7.45 1.36 245.85 42.57 5.77
168 Budh Khali 1.33 0.48 43.89 14.52 1.24
171 Kripa Khali 0.66 0.15 21.78 4.95 0.40
123 Hincha 1.63 0.05 53.79 1.65 0.18
169 Gola Bari -0.71 -0.35 -23.43 -11.88 -0.32
92 Rangabalia 10.79 1.44 356.07 47.19 22.81
NA Dalhousie Island -19.55 -38.08 -645.15 -1256.64 19.30
57 Chimta 7.7 1.04 254.1 33.66 9.32
NA Forest 3.08 1.82 101.64 58.74 6.93
104 Lahiripur 1.7 0.6 56.1 19.47 4.97
85 Bijoynagar 4.45 1.6 146.85 52.47 4.35
59 Puinjali 0.88 0.53 29.04 17.49 2.63
NA Forest 0.7 0.23 23.1 6.93 1.92
NA Forest 0.34 0.2 11.22 6.27 1.68
NA Forest 0.57 0.15 18.81 4.62 1.04
58 Amtali 0.47 0.06 15.51 1.65 0.62
NA Forest 0.27 0.11 8.91 2.64 0.32
96 Hetalbari 0.98 0.11 32.34 3.63 0.27
100 Chhota Molla Khali 0.25 0.08 8.25 2.31 0.26
NA R.F-2 0.68 0.04 22.44 0.99 0.23
NA Forest 0.13 0.01 4.29 0.264 0.03
89 Sonagar 0.07 0.02 2.31 0.33 0.01
NA Forest -0.02 -0.008 -0.66 -0.33 -0.04
88 Mathurakhanda -0.41 -0.01 -13.53 -0.66 -0.14
94 Uttar Danga -0.37 -0.05 -12.21 -1.98 -0.17
NA Forest -0.16 -0.08 -5.28 -2.64 -0.24
NA Forest -0.39 -0.15 -12.87 -5.28 -0.26
84 Birajnagar -0.32 -0.05 -10.56 -1.65 -0.29
61 Kalidaspur -0.51 -0.08 -16.83 -2.64 -0.40
NA Saznekhali R.F1 -1.33 -0.32 -43.89 -11.55 -0.44
NA Forest -0.96 -0.96 -31.68 -32.67 -0.61
93 Bagbagan -0.98 -0.08 -32.34 -2.97 -0.71
90 Dulki -0.99 -0.09 -32.67 -3.63 -0.75
NA Forest -0.22 -0.3 -7.26 -9.9 -0.77
NA Forest -0.97 -0.3 -32.01 -9.9 -0.78
NA Forest -0.63 -0.16 -20.79 -5.94 -1.07
NA Forest -0.46 -0.3 -15.18 -9.9 -1.10
83 Arampur -1.42 -0.11 -46.86 -3.96 -1.54
NA Forest -5.61 -2.67 -185.13 -90.75 -1.55
NA Saznekhali R.F2 -1.11 -0.4 -36.63 -13.53 -1.55
NA Forest -0.89 -1.7 -29.37 -56.1 -1.61
NA Forest -2.1 -1.05 -69.3 -34.65 -1.68
NA R.F-4 -2.13 -0.41 -70.29 -13.53 -1.76
91 Pakhiralay -1.41 -0.42 -46.53 -14.52 -1.82
102 Luxbagan -0.8 -0.18 -26.4 -6.27 -1.90
NA Forest -0.67 -0.35 -22.11 -11.55 -2.29
NA Forest -7.09 -6.09 -233.97 -209.22 -2.40
NA Forest -5.59 -1.64 -184.47 -54.78 -2.51
98 Dayapur -1.58 -0.59 -52.14 -21.12 -2.75
NA Forest -2.93 -0.99 -96.69 -33 -2.76
NA R.F-1 -3.55 -0.45 -117.15 -15.84 -3.73
NA Forest -1.77 -0.87 -58.41 -29.37 -4.26
87 Amlamethi -2.28 -1.33 -75.24 -45.87 -4.37
NA Forest -1.56 -3.1 -51.48 -103.29 -4.42
60 Kumirmari -1.49 -1.05 -49.17 -35.31 -7.16
NA Forest -10.92 -11.84 -360.36 -398.64 -7.57
NA Forest -1.08 -1.11 -35.64 -37.95 -7.78
NA Gosaba_2 -12.11 -4.88 -399.63 -194.37 -8.57
86 Bally -1.69 -2.87 -55.77 -99 -8.90
97 Satjalia -0.6 -1.39 -19.8 -47.19 -9.82
Sundarbans R.F
NA -5.85 -6.34 -193.05 -390.72 -9.89
(South)
NA Forest -2.89 -2.75 -95.37 -94.71 -11.10
NA Forest -4.35 -2.4 -143.55 -82.5 -19.32
NA Bhangaduni Island -16.57 -27.17 -546.81 -1256.64 -19.33
NA Island 2 -6.34 -4.83 -209.22 -160.05 -25.38
Sundarbans R.F
NA -3.22 -3.91 -106.26 -150.48 -27.03
((North))
NA Forest -4.52 -3.56 -149.16 -117.48 -41.95
NA R.F-3 -4.05 -1.66 -133.65 -55.11 -83.23
121 Malekanghumti 0.7 0.37 23.1 10.56 1.50
112 Kanaikati 0.05 0.21 1.65 6.93 0.99
102 Chhota Sahebkhali 0.06 0.03 1.98 0.66 0.79
118 Hemnagar 0.59 0.14 19.47 4.29 0.65
105 Lebukhali 0.99 0.14 32.67 4.62 0.64
111 Charalkhali 0.34 0.13 11.22 3.96 0.32
104 Ketarchak 0.15 0.02 4.95 0.66 0.21
110 Sahebkhali 0.23 0.05 7.59 1.32 0.21
120 Shridhar kati 0.045 0.008 1.485 0.198 0.07
106 Putiamathbari 0.009 0.006 0.297 -0.066 -0.01
102 Chhota Sahebkhali -0.33 -0.06 -10.89 -2.64 -0.09
101 Khosbash -0.55 -0.003 -18.15 -0.165 -0.13
94 Amberia -0.11 -0.002 -3.63 -0.099 -0.22
117 Jogesganj -1.39 -0.3 -45.87 -10.56 -0.29
119 Parghumti -1 -0.08 -33 -2.64 -0.32
107 Dulduli -0.03 -0.02 -0.99 -0.66 -0.42
123 Samsernagar 0.16 -0.08 5.28 -2.64 -0.57
114 Ramapur -1.97 -0.83 -65.01 -28.71 -0.76
122 Kalitala -2.09 -0.44 -68.97 -14.85 -0.93
103 Sarapkathi -0.83 -0.2 -27.39 -7.59 -1.08
115 Madhabkati -5.67 -3 -187.11 -102.3 -1.37
NA Forest -1.18 -1.7 -38.94 -56.76 -1.69
108 Pukuriachack -2.38 -0.48 -78.54 -16.83 -3.82
17 Manmathapur 3.86 1.26 127.38 41.58 3.56
33 Harendranagar 1.93 0.12 63.69 3.63 0.78
6 Sibkalinagar -13.74 -3.8 -453.42 -129.03 -1.63
10 Kalinagar 1.25 -0.52 41.25 -19.47 -2.67
9 Kasinagar -5.62 -0.71 -185.46 -24.09 -3.72
39 Kakdwip -15.37 -4.56 -507.21 -159.39 -8.86
152 Dakshin Garankati 22.65 6.67 747.45 178.53 42.11
153 Gopalganj 20.86 9.21 688.38 289.08 33.69
NA Ajmalmari R.F 1.65 1 54.45 30.03 23.35
169 Lot-118 1.73 1.01 57.09 33 5.35
121 Dongajora 1.94 0.75 64.02 20.13 2.34
168 Kishorimohanpur 0.92 0.32 30.36 9.9 0.91
159 Lot-121 -1.42 -1 -46.86 -33.33 -0.48
170 Bhubaneswari Char -4.21 -1.02 -138.93 -34.65 -0.68
160 Lot-120 -0.69 -0.36 -22.77 -13.2 -0.89
158 Deulbari Debipur -1.11 -0.23 -36.63 -9.57 -1.35
154 Kaikhali -2.16 -0.52 -71.28 -17.16 -2.50
167 Baikuntapur -6.1 -0.65 -201.3 -22.44 -4.33
NA Dhulibhasani R.F -0.42 -1.01 -13.86 -33.66 -10.40
NA Chulkati R.F (North) -7.67 -12.08 -253.11 -500.61 -12.68
NA Chulkati R.F(South) -18.83 -25.23 -621.39 -896.61 -31.21
NA Chulkati R.F(Middle) -16.37 -15.17 -540.21 -832.59 -34.87
133 Damkal 1.08 0.19 35.64 5.94 0.35
67 Haripur 2.7 1.59 89.1 49.17 17.75
71 Lakshmipur Abad 14.02 0.86 462.66 27.06 8.99
76 Fedric Island 8.43 1.42 278.19 45.54 8.54
56 Dakshin Kashinagar 5.09 1.61 167.97 52.8 6.43
55 Uttar Chandanpiri 1.67 0.61 55.11 19.8 2.22
68 Debnibas 3.67 0.19 121.11 6.27 1.17
54 Dwariknagar 0.47 0.07 15.51 1.98 0.26
48 Iswarpur 0.7 0.02 23.1 0.66 0.15
43 Rajnagar Srinathgram -12.95 -1.69 -427.35 -56.1 -0.69
72 Bagdanga -6.13 -1.07 -202.29 -36.63 -0.94
52 Debnagar -13.96 -3.18 -460.68 -117.48 -1.86
73 Kusumtala -8.99 -1.6 -296.67 -54.12 -2.38
62 Mousani -13.84 -6 -456.72 -200.97 -3.92
46 Durganagar -11.44 -1.59 -377.52 -52.8 -7.35
51 Narayanganj -6.16 -1.67 -203.28 -55.77 -7.50
63 Baliara -4.82 -2.29 -159.06 -76.23 -8.40
40 Budhakhali -16.48 -4.85 -543.84 -161.04 -9.75
NA Lathian Island -2.94 -1.72 -97.02 -56.76 -11.23
75 Henry Island -5.47 -1.72 -180.51 -61.71 -15.43
44 Nadabhanga -14.19 -3.56 -468.27 -125.4 -30.26
199 Upendra nagar 22.81 8.76 752.73 277.53 69.46
201 Sridhar Nagar 10.04 2.54 331.32 74.91 29.34
212 Buraburir Tat 6.84 1.96 225.72 61.38 22.76
200 Rakhalpur 25.16 7.12 830.28 220.11 21.36
176 Plot 6th Portion 6.01 1.18 198.33 37.29 13.06
194 Purba Surendranagar 13.2 1.97 435.6 64.68 9.93
216 Burge Island 7.75 1.38 255.75 44.88 9.50
Paschim Suredra
166 11.73 1.78 387.09 56.76 9.10
Nagar
210 Dakshin Surendraganj 6.99 1.29 230.67 42.24 7.61
196 Dakshin Kashinagar 4.42 1.45 145.86 47.85 6.12
214 Gobardhanpur 7.42 0.17 244.86 4.95 2.64
165 Jameson Island 1.78 0.51 58.74 15.84 1.93
173 Paschim Dwarakapur 1.07 0.21 35.31 6.93 0.85
164 Durbachati -1.67 0.11 -55.11 3.63 0.75
167 Harikrishnapur 0.31 0.02 10.23 0.66 0.35
206 Brojaballabpur 0.51 0.21 16.83 6.6 0.18
163 Krishnapur -0.78 -0.02 -25.74 -0.99 -0.10
186 Achintya Nagar -1.73 -0.06 -57.09 -1.98 -0.45
175 Bhagabatpur -0.98 -0.12 -32.34 -4.95 -0.47
198 Paschim Sripatinagar -0.27 -0.03 -8.91 -1.32 -0.93
211 Indrapur -1.71 -0.41 -56.43 -13.86 -1.94
162 Radhakrishna Nagar -1.05 -0.19 -34.65 -6.6 -2.72
215 Plot G 6th Portion -13.79 -1.43 -455.07 -48.18 -3.74
197 Purba Sripatinagar -2.96 -1.15 -97.68 -43.89 -4.35
218 Plot L Southernportion -2.94 -3.13 -97.02 -104.94 -15.24
174 Baradapur -2.02 -0.68 -66.66 -22.44 -16.17
213 Sitarampur -11.11 -1.95 -366.63 -69.96 -48.49
13 Mandirtala 2.5 4.52 82.5 107.91 38.54
42 Chemagari 28.12 16.1 927.96 303.93 34.88
33 Chandipur 21.28 5.41 702.24 149.16 26.13
8 Sikarpur 8.06 0.91 265.98 29.7 22.39
9 Ramkrishnapur 14.99 0.9 494.67 28.38 18.41
30 Naraharipur 7.83 2.85 258.39 87.12 14.75
38 Gangasagar 5 1.26 165 38.94 12.71
29 Krishnanagar 6.68 1.45 220.44 47.52 9.47
4 Kastala 14.15 2.54 466.95 83.82 8.05
14 Phuldubi 5.54 1.72 182.82 53.13 7.64
17 Gobindapur 9.15 1.49 301.95 47.85 6.94
32 Radha Krishnapur 3.92 1.12 129.36 36.96 4.89
19 Kaylapara 6.82 1.02 225.06 33.33 4.44
21 Mritunjoynagar 1.63 0.41 53.79 12.87 3.12
18 Debimathurapur 5.58 1.08 184.14 35.31 3.03
22 Sumatinagar 2.58 0.59 85.14 17.49 2.64
23 Bankimnagar 1.17 0.39 38.61 12.21 1.31
6 Kachubaria -1.78 -0.29 -58.74 -9.9 -0.29
37 Sagar -2.82 -0.68 -93.06 -22.77 -0.45
12 Bamankhali -4.75 -0.51 -156.75 -17.16 -2.02
35 Mahishamari -9.72 -1.87 -320.76 -62.7 -2.48
5 Sapkhali -1.74 -0.89 -57.42 -31.02 -5.35
36 Beguakhali -34.75 -2.5 -1146.75 -88.11 -6.01
46 Dhablat -4.75 -1.55 -156.75 -52.47 -7.20
7 Muri Ganga -6.66 -2.12 -219.78 -75.57 -9.21
43 Sibpur -16.33 -2.31 -538.89 -79.2 -9.25
41 Sitalia 2.16 0.44 71.28 13.53 3.77
40 Hatgachha 1.49 0.48 49.17 15.84 1.75
56 Manipur 1.13 0.3 37.29 7.59 1.08
42 Atapur 0.6 0.08 19.8 2.64 0.21