HYDROMETEOROLOGY

INTRODUCTION
Hydrology – study of waters of the earth
(occurrence, circulation, distribution, properties,
reaction with environment)

Meteorology – study of the atmosphere

Hydrometeorology – study of the waters of the

earth and the atmosphere
INTRODUCTION
Sources of water
• Atmospheric water – precipitation

• Surface water – lakes, rivers, seas, oceans

• Subsurface water - groundwater

INTRODUCTION
 EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE
• an envelop of gases surrounding the earth and
bound to it permanently by gravitational force
• composed of clean dry air, water vapor and
impurities
 EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE
Composition of clean dry air
EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE
 EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE
Water vapor
• changes phase easily because critical pressure and
atmosphere are above atmospheric ranges
• 0 – 4 % by volume
• agent or medium of heat transfer in the atmosphere
• polar regions have lesser distribution compared to the
equatorial regions
 EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE
Water vapor
• changes phase easily because critical pressure and
atmosphere are above atmospheric ranges
• 0 – 4 % by volume
• agent or medium of heat transfer in the atmosphere
• polar regions have lesser distribution compared to the
equatorial regions
WEATHER AND CLIMATE
Weather- condition of the atmosphere at a
particular place over a short period of time

Climate - refers to the weather pattern of a

place over a long period, long enough to yield
meaningful averages
 WEATHER AND CLIMATE
ATMOSPHERIC CONDITIONS
• Solar radiation
• Temperature
• Humidity
• Atmospheric Pressure
• Wind
• Rainfall (precipitation)
• Evaporation
• Cloud cover or State of the sky
 HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
Water is transported:
• Evaporation – from free water surfaces or land surfaces to the
atmosphere

• Transpiration – from plants to the atmosphere

• Precipitation – from the atmosphere to land and/or water surfaces

• Runoff – surface or subsurface

• Infiltration – entry to soil surface

• Groundwater flow – capillary action, interflow

 HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
Hydrologic Cycle
➢ the cycle should not give the impression of a continuous
mechanism through which moves steadily at a constant rate
➢ movement of water through the cycle is erratic both in time
and over area
• Drought
• Torrential rains
• El Niño//La Niña episodes
 HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
Hydrologic Cycle
➢ the cycle should not give the impression of a continuous
mechanism through which moves steadily at a constant rate
➢ movement of water through the cycle is erratic both in time
and over area
• Drought
• Torrential rains
• El Niño//La Niña episodes
PRECIPITATION
• About one-fourth of the total precipitation that
falls on continental areas is turned to the seas by
direct runoff and underground.

• The Philippines receives an average of 2,360

mm of rainfall every year. However, this amount
is not evenly distributed over time and space.
PRECIPITATION
• The rainfall pattern in the Philippines is
affected by the major streams, by the
movement of the ITCZ, and by the cyclonic
disturbances.

• The country has a mean annual number of

about 175 rainy days.
PRECIPITATION
• A large majority of the stations in the
eastern coastal areas have mean annual
of rainy days more than the average for
the Philippines while the majority of the
stations in the western coastal areas have
values less than the average.
PRECIPITATION
PRECIPITATION
Requirements for precipitation to occur
• cooling of the air mass sufficient to bring it to or
near saturation
• presence of condensation or freezing nuclei on
which the droplets or crystals form
• growth of water droplets and ice crystals until
their falling speeds exceed the ascent rate of
the air
PRECIPITATION
Hydrometeor – any product of condensation of
atmospheric water vapor in the free air or at
earth's surface.
 PRECIPITATION
Forms of precipitation
• drizzle or mist – consists of tiny liquid water droplets, usually
with diameters between 0.1 and 0.5 mm, has slow settling
rate.
 PRECIPITATION
Forms of precipitation
• rain – consists of liquid water drops mostly larger than 0.5 mm
in diameter
 PRECIPITATION
Forms of precipitation
• glaze – the ice coating formed on exposed surfaces by the
freezing of supercooled water deposited by rain or drizzle
 PRECIPITATION
Forms of precipitation
• rime – white, opaque deposit of ice granules more or less
separated by trapped air and formed by rapid freezing of
supercooled water drops impinging on exposed objects
 PRECIPITATION
Forms of precipitation
• snow – composed of ice crystals, chiefly in complex,
branched hexagonal form, and often agglomerated into
snowflakes
 PRECIPITATION
Forms of precipitation
• hail – precipitation in the form of balls of ice,
produced in convective clouds
PRECIPITATION
 PRECIPITATION
Forms of precipitation
• sleet – consists of transparent,
globular, solid grains of ice
formed by the freezing of
raindrops or refreezing of
largely melted ice crystals
falling through a layer
subfreezing air near the earth’s
surface
 PRECIPITATION
Types of precipitation according to lifting mechanism
• Convective – caused by unequal heating of land masses
• Orographic – mechanical lifting over mountain barriers
• Frontal – lifting of warm air on one side of a frontal surface
over colder, denser air on the other side
front – bounding surface between two distinct air
masses
• Cyclonic – lifting of air converging into a low-pressure area
 PRECIPITATION
Types of precipitation according to lifting mechanism
• Convective
 PRECIPITATION
Types of precipitation according to lifting mechanism
• Orographic
 PRECIPITATION
Types of precipitation according to lifting mechanism
• Frontal
 PRECIPITATION
Types of precipitation according to lifting mechanism
• Cyclonic
 PRECIPITATION
Rainfall characteristics
• Intensity – expressed in mm/hr
▪ very intense storms last for short periods and cover small areas
▪ not frequent in areas having high total annual rainfall
• Duration
• Frequency
return period or recurrence interval – period within which the
magnitude of a hydrologic event will be equaled or exceeded once
on the average
 PRECIPITATION
Basic Probability Concepts in Hydrology
•Probability of exceedance – refers to the percentage of
observed events that are equal to or greater than a given
event within a period of time. This may be calculated on the
rank of the event in a given sample of data as
𝒎
𝑷 𝒙>𝒂 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑵+𝟏
Where: 𝑷 𝒙 > 𝒂 = probability of exceedance (%)
m = rank of event in the sample, with highest given a
rank, m = 1, the second largest m = 2, etc.
N = sample size
 PRECIPITATION
Basic Probability Concepts in Hydrology
•Probability of non-exceedance – is the percentage of
observed events that are less than a given event within a
period of time.
 PRECIPITATION
Basic Probability Concepts in Hydrology
•Return period or recurrence interval (T)– is the average interval
of time in years within which the magnitude of a given event
will be equaled or exceeded at least one on the average

𝟏
𝑷= 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑻
 PRECIPITATION
Basic Probability Concepts in Hydrology
•Probability that an event will not occur in any year
𝟏
𝑷= 𝟏− 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑻
•Probability that an event will not occur for n consecutive years
𝒏
𝟏
𝑷= 𝟏− 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑻
 PRECIPITATION
Basic Probability Concepts in Hydrology
•Probability that an event will not occur in any year
𝟏
𝑷= 𝟏− 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑻
•Probability that an event will not occur for n consecutive years
𝒏
𝟏
𝑷= 𝟏− 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑻
 PRECIPITATION
Basic Probability Concepts in Hydrology
•Risk or Probability that an event will occur at least once in n
successive years
𝒏
𝟏
𝑷= 𝟏− 𝟏− 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑻
EXAMPLE

1. What is the (a) probability of occurrence of a 25-

year flood in the current year if that same
magnitude flood just happened last year? (b)
probability that an event will not occur in any
year?(c) probability that an event will not occur for
next 10 years?

2. Determine a risk of a 100-Year Flood Over 30-Year

Period.
 PRECIPITATION
Estimating missing data
• Arithmetic Mean Method – the simple average of the
precipitation at the index station is obtained if the normal
annual precipitation at each of the index stations is within 10%
of that for the station with the missing record

𝑃𝐴+𝑃𝐵 +𝑃𝑐
𝑃𝑥 =
3
Normal Precipitation - It is the average value of precipitation at a particular date, month or year over a
specified 30 year period.
 PRECIPITATION
Estimating missing data
• Normal-ratio Method – if the normal annual precipitation at
any of the index stations differs from that at the station in
question by more that 10%, the amounts at the index stations
are weighted by the ratios of the normal-annual-precipitation
values
𝑁𝑥 𝑁 𝑁
𝑃𝐴 +𝑃𝐵 𝑥+𝑃𝐶 𝑥
𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐵 𝑁𝐶
𝑃𝑋 =
3
where N is the normal precipitation
 PRECIPITATION
Estimating missing data - SAMPLE PROBLEM

Precipitation station X was inoperative for part of a

month during which a storm occurred. The respective
storm totals at three surrounding stations A, B, and C,
were 98, 80, and 110 mm. The normal annual
precipitation amounts at stations X, A, B, and C are,
respectively, 880, 1008, 842, and 1080 mm. Estimate the
storm precipitation for station X.
 PRECIPITATION
Estimating the average rainfall over an area

• Thiessen Polygon Method – allows for non-uniform distribution of gage by

providing a weighting factor for each gage; connecting lines are drawn
between stations on a map then perpendicular bisectors are drawn on
these lines in such a way that the bisectors enclose areas referred to as
Thiessen polygons the area of which is determined by planimetry

𝑃𝐴𝐴𝐴+𝑃𝐵𝐴𝐵+⋯+𝑃𝑁𝐴𝑁
𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑃 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
PRECIPITATION

THIESSEN POLYGON METHOD

 PRECIPITATION
Estimating the average rainfall over an area

• Isohytal Method – most accurate method; contours of equal

precipitation are drawn then the average precipitation is
computed by weighting the average precipitation between
successive isohyets by the area between isohyets

𝑃𝐴𝐴𝐴+𝑃𝐵𝐴𝐵+⋯+𝑃𝑁𝐴𝑁
𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑃 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
PRECIPITATION
Area of Polygon Average Rainfall Rainfall Volume
Station
(sq. km) (mm) (mm-sq. km)
A 570 8.8

B 920 7.6

C 720 10.8

D 620 9.2

E 520 13.8

F 550 10.4

Total
Average Precipitation
PRECIPITATION

ISOHYTAL METHOD
PRECIPITATION
Isohyets Area between Average Rainfall Rainfall Volume
(mm) Isohyets (sq. km) (mm) (mm-sq. km)
125 33.28 125
100 197.12 112.5
75 296.96 87.5
50 501.76 62.5
25 494.11 37.5
less than 25 79.36 21
Total
Average Precipitation
 INFILTRATION
• Infiltration - passage of water into the soil surface
• Percolation – movement of water through the soil profile
• Infiltration rate – infiltration per unit time; expressed in volume
per unit time per unit area or depth per unit time
• Hydraulic conductivity – velocity of flow caused by a unit
gradient; flow through soils in any direction
• Permeability – used interchangeably with hydraulic
conductivity
INFILTRATION
INFILTRATION
Darcy observed the following:

1. Q is proportional to the head loss, Δh, Q ∝ Δh

2. Q is proportional to the cross-sectional area of flow 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 , 𝑄 ∝ 𝐴
1
3. Q is inversely proportional to the length of flow path, Δl; 𝑄 ∝ ∆𝑙
4. Q is influenced by the nature of the sand; 𝑄 ∝ 𝑐 , where c is the flow
medium parameter
INFILTRATION
Darcy equation (For one-dimensional flow of water through a saturated
homogeneous soil)

Q = k h A/L
Where: Q = flow rate (L3/T)
K = hydraulic conductivity (L/T)
h = head or potential causing flow (L)
A = cross-sectional area of flow (L2)
L = length of the flow path (L)
INFILTRATION
In case of heterogeneous soil (2 layers):

L
K = -------------------
L1/K1 + L2/K2
 INFILTRATION
SAMPLE PROBLEM
If the elevation of 𝒉𝟏 is 35 m and the elevation of 𝒉𝟐 is 0 m, what is the hydraulic
gradient if the distance from 𝒉𝟏 to 𝒉𝟐 is 5.6 km? (Express you answer in m/km)
 INFILTRATION
SAMPLE PROBLEM

Find the velocity of the water in the picture above if the hydraulic
conductivity is 114m/day
 INFILTRATION
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Calculate the composite hydraulic conductivity of a 0.9 m soil
profile having three soil layers. The top soil layer is 0.3 m thick and
has a vertical saturated hydraulic conductivity of 15 mm/h, and
that of the middle layer (0.2 m thick) and bottom layer (0.4 m
thick) are 2.0 and 8.0 mm/h, respectively.
 INFILTRATION
Horton’s Equation

f = fc + (fo – fc) e-kt

Where: f = infiltration capacity or the maximum rate at which soil under a
given can take water through its surface (L/T)
fc = the constant infiltration capacity as t approaches infinity (L/T)
fo = infiltration capacity at the onset of infiltration (L/T)
k = a positive constant for a given soil and initial condition
t = time (T)
INFILTRATION- SAMPLE PROBLEM

Assuming that the Horton infiltration is

valid,(a)determine the constant
infiltration rate if fo = 50 mm/hr, f at 10
min is 13 mm/hr, and k = 12.9. (b)What is
the infiltration rate at 20 min?
 INFILTRATION- SAMPLE PROBLEM
The initial infiltration capacity of a watershed is estimated
as 1.5 in/hr, and the time constant taken to be 0.35 hr -1.
The equilibrium capacity is estimated as 0.2 in/hr.
(a) What are the values of f at t = 10 min, 30 min, 1 hr, 2
hr, and 6 hr, and
(b) what is the total volume of infiltration over the 6 hour
time period?
 EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
• Evaporation – water returned to the air from a liquid to
a gaseous state
• Transpiration – evaporation from plants
• Evapotanspiration – evaporation + transpiration
• Consumptive use – used interchangeably with
evapotranspiration but technically, it refers to the sum
of ET and water used by the plant for tissue building
processes
 EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
• Evaporation – water returned to the air from a liquid to
a gaseous state
• Transpiration – evaporation from plants
• Evapotanspiration – evaporation + transpiration
• Consumptive use – used interchangeably with
evapotranspiration but technically, it refers to the sum
of ET and water used by the plant for tissue building
processes
 EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
Methods on determining ET
▪ Blaney-Criddle Method
f (temperature, daytime hours)
▪ Hargreaves Equation
f(average temperature, incident solar radiation)
▪ Jensen-Haise Method
f(temperature, incident solar radiation)
▪ Penman Method
f(temperature, pressure, radiation, wind speed, sunshine
duration)
DETERMINATION OF EVAPOTRANSPIRATION USING
LYSIMETER:
(𝑨 − 𝑩−𝑪 )
𝑬𝑻 =
𝑻

Where:
A = cropped and bottomless tank
B = cropped and bottomless tank
C = uncropped with and bottom tank
CROP COEFFICIENT APPROACH
In the crop coefficient approach the crop evapotranspiration, ETc, is calculated by
multiplying the reference crop evapotranspiration, ETo, by a crop coefficient, Kc:

𝐸𝑇𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑝 = 𝐸𝑇𝑅 + 𝐾𝑐

Where:
𝐸𝑇𝑅 = 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐾𝑐 = 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
CROP COEFFICIENT APPROACH
 EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
Three tanks are installed side by side in a filed to measure the
evapotranspiration of rice. Tank A is bottomless and is cropped.
Tank B is bottomless but is uncropped. Tank C has a bottom and
is uncropped. If the water losses after 2 rainless days are as
follows:
Tank A – 14.0 mm
Tank B – 10.0 mm
Tank C – 5.0 mm
Determine the actual evapotranspiration of the crop.
 RUNOFF AND STREAMFLOW
• Runoff - processes and pathways through which excess
water becomes streamflow; excess water is the part of
the total rainfall amount which runs off the land
surface, and that which drains from the soil and is not
consumed in evapotranspiration.
• Channel Interception - pathway in which rain falls
directly into stream channel.
• Surface Runoff or overland flow – pathway in which
water flows over the soil surface.
 RUNOFF AND STREAMFLOW
• Subsurface flow or interflow – pathway in which excess
water infiltrates into the soil but then arrives at a stream
channel in a short enough period of time.
• Direct runoff or stormflow – sum of interception, surface
runoff and interflow
 RUNOFF AND STREAMFLOW
• Streamflow hydrograph – a tabular or graphical
representation of streamflow discharge against time.
 RUNOFF AND STREAMFLOW
Measurement of Streamflow
•Control section – section of a stream for which a rating
will be developed
•Staff gage – a graduated staff used for the visual
observation of water level
 RUNOFF AND STREAMFLOW
PEAK RUNOFF RATE ESTIMATION BY RATIONAL METHOD
q = 0.0028 CIA
where
q = peak runoff rate, m3/s or cms
C = runoff coefficient, ratio
(typically 0.35 for bushy lands with 3-5% slope, 0.99 for concrete
pavement, 0 for sand)
I = rainfall intensity, mm/hr
A= area, hectares or has.
RUNOFF AND STREAMFLOW
RUNOFF VOLUME ESTIMATION
Q = 0.5qT
where
Q = Runoff volume, m3
q = peak runoff rate, m3/s or cms
T = Duration of runoff, s
RUNOFF AND STREAMFLOW
RUNOFF TIME OF CONCENTRATION
Tc = 0.02 L0.77 S-0.385
where
Tc = time of concentration, minutes
L = length of slope, m
S = slope or gradient, ratio
RUNOFF AND STREAMFLOW

What peak runoff in a 10 ha

watershed corresponding to a
rainfall intensity of 50 mm/hr and
a runoff coefficient of 0.8?
RUNOFF AND STREAMFLOW

Estimate the peak runoff rate

from a 20-hectare drainage basin
if rainfall depth for 6 hours
reached 60 mm. Use typical
runoff coefficient of 0.35.
 RUNOFF AND STREAMFLOW

The recent monsoon rains have

posted a nearly uniform rainfall
intensity of 30 mm/hr over a 1,500-
hectare watershed area in Central
Luzon. If the runoff coefficient is 0.15,
what is the runoff in m /sec?
3
 RUNOFF AND STREAMFLOW

What is the peak runoff rate in cu. m/s of

a 15 ha watershed with a rainfall intensity
of 30 mm/ hr and a runoff coefficient of
0.35?
 RUNOFF AND STREAMFLOW

For a watershed of 360 ha, the peak

runoff rate for a 0.5 cm/ hr rain intensity
(at the time of concentration) was
observed as 2.5 cu. m/s. What is the
runoff coefficient?
 RUNOFF AND STREAMFLOW

Estimate the runoff volume in liters per

day from a 50-hectare drainage basin if
rainfall depth for 5 hours reached 50 mm
and duration of runoff is about 3 hours.
Use typical runoff coefficient of 0.40.
 RUNOFF AND STREAMFLOW
Measurement of Streamflow Velocity
•Float Method - the time required for a floating object
that is tossed into the stream to travel a specified
distance on the surface of water is observed.
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑉𝑠 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑉𝑠
𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
0.8 𝑡𝑜 0.85
 RUNOFF AND STREAMFLOW
Measurement of Streamflow Discharge
•Float Method - the time required for a floating object
that is tossed into the stream to travel a specified
distance on the surface of water is observed.
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑉𝑠 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑉𝑠
𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
0.8 𝑡𝑜 0.85
 RUNOFF AND STREAMFLOW

Measurement of Streamflow Discharge

•Float Method - the average velocity multiplied by
the cross-sectional area of the stream to estimate
the streamflow discharge

𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑒
 RUNOFF AND STREAMFLOW

Measurement of Streamflow Discharge

•Current meter method – an instrument in which a
wheel is made to rotate about its axis by the force
of the current.
•The speed of the rotation depends upon the
velocity of the water.
 RUNOFF AND STREAMFLOW

Measurement of Streamflow Discharge

•Current meter method – in general relationship between the
number of revolutions and the velocity of the streamflow is
represented by

𝑉 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑁
Where V – streamflow velocity
a – starting velocity
b – proportionality constant
N – number of revolutions
 RUNOFF AND STREAMFLOW
Discharge Stage, h
Streamflow in a river was measured at a (cu.m/s) (m)
various stages using a current meter. 27.2 3.7

The result are given in the table. The 21.7 2.8

stage-discharge relation is in the form 78.4 5.4

𝑞 = 𝑎𝑏 ℎ is to be developed. Based on 9.7 1.9

the observation data, what are the 166.7 7.9

values of a and b 128.1 6.3

159.6 7.1
129.5 7.0
78.7 4.8
32.7 3.6
 RUNOFF AND STREAMFLOW

Measurement of Streamflow Discharge

•Weirs
Head - height of water above the crest
Crest – Edge or surface which the water flows
 RUNOFF AND STREAMFLOW

Measurement of Streamflow Discharge

• Types of Weirs
Rectangular of Francis Weir - Q = .0184LH3/2
where Q = lps; L = cm; H = cm
Trapezoidal or Cipolleti Weir - Q = 0.0186LH3/2
where Q = lps; L = cm; H = cm
Triangular or V-notch Weir - Q = 0.0138H5/2
where Q = lps; H = cm
 RUNOFF AND STREAMFLOW

A rectangular lined canal will be used

to irrigate 60 has. If a Francis weir of
0.4m crest will be used to control the
flow, what would be the depth of
water over the crest in order to supply
2 lps/ha?
RUNOFF AND STREAMFLOW

Determine the amount of water

flowing in Francis weir having a
crest length of 50 cm. The the
maximum water head is half the
length of crest.
RUNOFF AND STREAMFLOW

With the same discharge,

what will be the head above
the crest if a V-notch is
installed somewhere along
the same canal?
RUNOFF AND STREAMFLOW

Determine the water head (in

meters) for measuring a flow of
1000 gallons per min with a 90° V-
notch weir.
RUNOFF AND STREAMFLOW

The capacity of a certain canal will

be measured using a Cipolleti weir
having a length of 0.5m. If the height
of the flowing water above the crest
is 13 cm, what is the channel
capacity in lps?
 RUNOFF AND STREAMFLOW

What is the depth of water in Cipolleti

weir with a side slope of 2 and
carrying a 2.5 cu. m/s water flow? The
crest length is 1.2 m.
 RUNOFF AND STREAMFLOW

Measurement of Streamflow Discharge

• Use of Pre-calibrated Structures – artificial open
channels built to contain streamflow within the designed
cross-sectional area and length.
RUNOFF AND STREAMFLOW
Parshall Flume
RUNOFF AND STREAMFLOW
Cutthroat Flume
RUNOFF AND STREAMFLOW
Trapezoidal Flume
 RUNOFF AND STREAMFLOW

Measurement of Streamflow Discharge

• Use of Empirical Formula
Manning’s equation
𝟏 𝟐/𝟑 𝟏/𝟐
𝑽= 𝑹 𝒔
𝒏
where V – Velocity, m/s
n – roughness coefficient,
R – Hydraulic radius, m
s – slope, m/m
 RUNOFF AND STREAMFLOW

Measurement of Streamflow Discharge

• Use of Empirical Formula
Chezy’s equation
𝑽 = 𝑪(𝑹𝑺)𝟏/𝟐
where V – Velocity, m/s
C – Chezy’s resistance coefficient
R – Hydraulic radius,
s – slope, m/m
 RUNOFF AND STREAMFLOW

Water flows in a rectangular

concrete open channel that is
10 m wide at a depth of 2 m.
The channel is ¾ full. The
channel slope is 0.002.
Determine the discharge if the
roughness coefficient of a lined
concrete canal is 0.0130.
 GROUNDWATER

Groundwater
•Result predominantly from precipitation that has reached the
zone of saturation in the earth through infiltration and
precipitation
•Has the lowest priority on the water from precipitation hence, its
utilization is limited
•Sources of recharge are surface waters
 GROUNDWATER

Zone of Aeration
•The pores contain both air and water in varying amounts; the
water in the upper layers of this zone is called the soil moisture
Zone of Saturation
•The pores of the soil and rock are filled with water the water in
this zone is called groundwater
 GROUNDWATER
Aquifer
•A geologic formation which contains water and transmit it at a rate sufficient to be
economically developed for pumping
Aquiclude
•A geologic formation which contains water but transmit it at a rate insufficient to be
economically developed for pumping
Aquitard
•A geologic formation of rather impervious nature, which transmits water at a slow rate
compared to an aquifer
Aquifuge
•A geologic formation with no interconnected pores and hence can neither absorb nor
transmit water
GROUNDWATER
 GROUNDWATER
Types of Aquifer
•Unconfined or water table aquifer – has a water
table serving as the upper surface of the zone of
saturation
•Confined Aquifer or artesian aquifer – one where
the ground water is confined by a relatively
impermeable layer
 GROUNDWATER
Types of Aquifer
•Semi-confined or leaky aquifer – the upper
confining layer is leaky or semi-permeable
•Perched aquifer – its lower limit is relatively
impermeable layer while its upper surface is a free
water surface on water table
GROUNDWATER
 GROUNDWATER
Threats to Groundwater
Overdraft – Occurs when groundwater is removed faster than
recharge can replace it. This can result in
- permanent loss of a portion of its storage capacity
- A change that can cause water of unusable quality to
contaminate good water
- in coastal basins, salt water intrusion can occur
 GROUNDWATER
Threats to Groundwater
Drawdown – differs significantly from overdraft. It results in
a temporarily lowered water table generally caused by
pumping. In this situation, the water table recovers when
the supply is replenished.
 GROUNDWATER
Threats to Groundwater
Subsidence – result from over pumping. As the water
table declines, water pressure is reduced. This causes the
fine particles that held water to become compacted. In
addition to permanently reducing storage capacity, the
land above the aquifer sink from a few inches to several
feet causing a sinkhole. This can damage property and
fields.
 GROUNDWATER
Unconfined aquifer Where
K – permeability/ hydraulic
𝝅𝑲(𝒉𝒐 𝟐 − 𝒉𝒘 𝟐 ) conductivity
𝑸= 𝒓𝒐
𝒍𝒏 𝒓 B – Thickness of the confining
𝒘 layer
Confined Aquifer ℎ𝑜 - height of water in the area
ℎ𝑤 - height of water in the well
𝟐𝝅𝑲𝑩(𝒉𝑶 − 𝒉𝒘 )
𝑸= 𝒓𝒐 𝑟𝑜 - radius of influence
𝒍𝒏
𝒓𝒘 𝑟𝑤 - radius of the well
GROUNDWATER

What discharge can be expected

from an unconfined well 200 mm in
diameter if the drawdown is 5 m in an
aquifer saturated to a depth of 18 m?
Assume the permeability and the
radius of influence to be 20 m/day
and 150 m, respectively.
GROUNDWATER

An artesian well has a diameter of

10 cm. Under steady state condition,
what is the expected discharge (lps) if
the drawdown is 2.5 m and the radius
of influence is 120 m? The aquifer’s
hydraulic conductivity and thickness
are 75 m/day and 4 m, respectively.