IV- 1

IV. SOIL EROSION MEASURES AND STRATEGIES

Soil conservation measures involve the use of vegetation, engineering structures,

or a combination of both.

A. Vegetative Method

Vegetation absorbs the energy of falling water and reduces the runoff volume
and erosive velocity. The effectiveness of vegetation in controlling erosion varies
according to density, composition, and structure.

1. Cover cropping

Cover cropping is the growing of crops to cover the soil and protect it from
the impact of raindrops which causes soil detachment and dispersion. It increases
the permeability and infiltration rate through biological loosening effect of the
root system. In critical slopes of the field, grasses and legumes should be used.

2. Crop Rotation

Crop rotation is the systematic planting of different crops in succession on

the same piece of land. Generally, a grain crop should be followed by a legume,
and a shallow rooted crop should be followed by a deep rooted crop. This practice
promotes the build-up of organic matter, improves soil structure and promotes
rapid infiltration of water. It also enhances the water holding capacity of the soil.

3. Contouring

This practice is that of performing field operations, such as plowing,

planting, cultivating, and harvesting on the contour. It reduces surface runoff by
impounding water in small depressions and decreases the development of rills.

4. Strip Cropping

Strip cropping is the growing alternate strips of different crops in the same
field. For controlling water erosion, the strips are always on the contour. The three
general types of strip cropping:

a) Contour Strip Cropping - The growing of row crops and soil-conserving

crops planted alternately on strips laid on the contour or on the level across the
slope. One strip is planted to a crop with a close-growing habit and the next
strip is planted to a row crop.

b) Field Strip Cropping – the strips of uniform width are placed across the
general slope. This practice may also be used for wind erosion control.

c) Buffer Strip Cropping - designed to work on rolling topography with

irregular slope gradients. It has strips of grass or legume crop between contour
strips crops. Buffers may be irregular in width and placed on critical slope
areas of the field. The main purpose of buffer is to give protection from erosion
or allow for areas of deposition.
 IV- 2

Figure 1. Contour Figure 2. Buffer

5. Mulching

Mulching is the covering of the soil with crop residues such as straw, corn
stalks, and standing stubbles to protect both crop and soil from damage by water
erosion. The mulch absorbs the energy impact of raindrops and prevents runoff
from gaining speed. To be effective, mulch should cover 70-75% of the soil
surface.

6. Multiple Cropping

Multiple cropping involves either sequential cropping (crop rotation

discussed above), the growing of two or more crops a year in sequence, or
intercropping, the growing of two or more crops on the same piece of land at the
same time. This practice aims to increase productivity while providing protection
of the soil from erosion.

The common practice in multiple cropping is the combination of grain and

legume crops, such as corn and peanut.

7. Hedgerows

Hedgerows is the planting of perennial crops close together, usually

along the contour of the sloping land, to form a living wall. This wall will slow
down surface runoff and deposit or trap the eroded soils at the base of the
hedgerows.

8. Wattling

Wattling consists of interwoven fences of brushwood in shallow trenches

where pegs/stakes are driven between in which sprouting branches of species
like wild sunflower and lantana are woven. Wattling is done across the slope of
the field. It stabilizes the slope of the field and the soil is kept right in place by its
retaining stability.
 IV- 3

Wattling
Contour Hedgerows

Figure 3. Contour Hedgerows Figure 4. Wattling

9. Reforestation/Afforestation

Reforestation is the planting of forest trees to bring back vegetation on

denuded areas. Trees produce heavy, deep, and broad spreading root system that
help to hold soil particles together. Litters from the trees absorb the large
quantities of rainfall and enables a great amount of it to be stored in the soil. Trees
are very effective in holding water and releasing it gradually into streams.

B. Engineering Method

In more advanced stages of erosion where vegetation methods of control may

not be applicable, the installation of engineering structures will have to be resorted to.

1. Terrace

Terrace is a broad channel constructed across the slope of rolling land to

control runoff in areas of high rainfall and for conservation of water in low
rainfall areas. Terraces are used where simple and less expensive measures will
not provide adequate control of erosion. Runoff water is collected in the channel
and conveyed from the field in such a way that erosion is kept under control.

2. Grassed/vegetated Waterways

Grassed/vegetated waterways are natural depressions or channels

constructed to serve as drainageways. These waterways are stabilized by planting
close-growing grasses and legumes. The cross-sectional shape of the waterways
may be parabolic, trapezoidal, or triangular.

3. Diversion Ditch

A diversion ditch is a channel is designed to intercept runoff water from

upper areas and carry it away at non-erosive velocity so that it will not cause
damage to lower lying areas. Diversion channels are usually constructed at the top
or the foot of steep slopes or on property line to protect productive soil from
erosion or inundations.

4. Drop and Chute structures

Drop structures are small dams used to stabilize steep waterways. They are
placed at interval along the channel to stabilize it by changing its profile from
 IV- 4

continuous steep gradient to series or more gently sloping reaches which will slow
down the velocity of flowing water.

A chute structure is designed to carry flow down a steep slope through a

concrete-lined channel rather than by dropping the water in a free overfall. It is
used for the control of elevation changes up to 6 meters.

Figure 5. Diversion Ditch Figure 6 .Drop Structure

5. Checkdams

Checkdams are structures constructed across the natural waterway to

temporarily store runoff water and raise the waterhead. These structures are used
when vegetation in the waterway cannot be established and runoff rates are very
high. At uniform slope waterways, check dams are constructed at regular interval
to prevent gully erosion from developing by slowing down the velocity of
water.

6. Farm Pond

Farm ponds are designed to store runoff water and minimize the potential
runoff that may cause soil erosion. The farm pond must have adequate capacity to
handle runoff from the drainage area. If necessary, it must be provided with
vegetated flood spillway to handle excess runoff.

7. Riprap Structure

Riprap structures are stones/rocks fitted or filed on top of each other to

from retaining walls. Riprap structures are constructed on necessary points of
hillsides in order to reduce the slope incline, support collapsible slopes, prevent
washout of grading soil, and preserve drainage work.

Figure 7. Check Dam Figure 8. Riprap Structure

 IV- 5

8. Contour Stone/Rock Walls

Stones/rocks are filed along the contour of the sloping areas to form a wall.
This is used in areas with abundant rocks and where terracing is not appropriate.
A one meter wide area along the contour is leveled to provide a good base for the
wall. The height of the wall is from 30-50 cm, depending upon the slope gradient.

9. Jetties

A jetty is a structure built to direct the current of a stream/river away from

the bank. A jetty begins in the bank and extend out in the stream for a short
distance in a down-stream direction. Jetties are set at various angles with the
current, ranging from as small as 10 or 15 degrees to a right angle.

Contour Rockwalls

Figure 9. Contour Rockwall Figure 10. Jetty

C. Vengineering Methods

Vengineering is the combination of vegetation and engineering control

approaches utilizing the capability of both vegetative and engineering/structural
measures. This is used when the soil movement cannot solely be stopped by
engineering structure. Normally, engineering structures are constructed first. As the
disturbed area stabilizes, vegetative measures are done.

D. Terracing

Terracing is a method of erosion control accomplished by constructing broad

channels across the slope of rolling land. Terracing should be considered only where
other cropping and soil management practices, singly or in combination, will not
provide adequate erosion control.

Terrace Classification

1. Broadbase Terrace

A broadbase terrace is a broad surface channel or embankment constructed

across the slope of rolling land. The main function of this type of terrace is to
remove or retain water on sloping land.
 IV- 6

Classification of broadbase terrace according to function

a) Graded or Channel-type Terrace

The primary purpose of this type of terrace is to remove excess water in

such a way as to minimize erosion, by reducing the slope length and conducting
the intercepted runoff to a safe outlet at a nonerosive velocity.

b) Level or Ridge-type Terrace

The primary purpose of this type of terrace is moisture conservation. In

low-to-moderate rainfall regions they trap and hold rainfall for infiltration into
soil profile.

2. Bench Terrace

Bench terrace is consists of a series of flattened shelf-like areas that converted

a steep slope of 20 to 30 percent to a series of level, or nearly level, benches.

a) Conventional bench terrace

Terrace consists of series of benches across the sloping land with slopes of
up to 30% with the main function is to provide more efficient distribution of
irrigation water.

b) Conservation bench terrace

The conservation bench terrace is designed for semi arid regions where
maximum moisture conservation is needed. It consists of an earthen embankment and
a very broad flat channel that resembles a level bench.
 IV- 7

Terrace Design

The design of a terrace system involves the proper spacing and location of
terraces, the design of a channel with adequate capacity, and development of a
farmable cross section.

Terrace Spacing

Spacing is expressed as the vertical distance (VI) between the channels of

successive terraces.

V.I. = Xs + Y

Where:V.I. = vertical interval between terraces, from the top of the slope
to the bottom of the first terrace, m
X = constant for geographical location
Y = constant for soil erodibility and cover conditions during critical
erosion periods.
s = average land slope above the terrace in percent

When soil loss data are available, spacings should be based on slope
lengths using contouring and the appropriate cropping-management factor that will
result in soil loss within the permissible loss.

Example 1:

If the soil loss was 16.8 Mg/ha (7.5 t/a), for K=0.1 t/a, L=122 m (400 ft.), S=8%,
C=0.2, and P=0.6 (contouring) in the USLE, what is the maximum slope length and
 IV- 8

corresponding terrace spacing to reduce the soil loss to the terrace channel to 6.7Mg/ha (3
t/a)?

Solution:
L = (l/22)x

(0.43 + 0.30s + 0.043s2)

S = ----------------------------------
6.574

where: x = a constant, 0.5 for slopes>4%, 0.4 for 4%, and 0.3 for <3%
l = slope length, m
s = field slope, %

using the above equation or from Figure 3.3, LS=2.0.

The maximum LS value to reduce soil loss to 6.7 Mg/ha is

LS = 2 x 6.7/16.8
= 0.80

From Figure 3.3, read from 8% curve a slope length of 21.3 m (70ft). By
similar triangles,

V.I. = 8 x 21.3/100
= 1.7 m (5.6 ft)

Terrace Grade

Gradient in the channel must be sufficient to provide good drainage and to

remove runoff at nonerosive velocities. Level terraces have zero grades. In the
uniform-graded terraces the slope remains constant throughout its entire length.

Table 4.1. Maximum and Minimum Terrace Grades

Terrace Length or Length from Upper End of Long Terrace

Maximum Slope, %
Meters Feet
30 or less 99 or less 2.0
31 to 60 100-199 1.2
61 to 150 200-499 0.5
151 to 365 500-1199 0.35
366 or more 1200 or more 0.3
Minimum slope, %
Soils with slow internal drainage 0.2
Soils with good internal drainage 0.00
Source: Beasley (1963)
ASAE (1989)

Terrace Length
 IV- 9

Size and shape of the field, outlet possibilities, rate of runoff as affected by
rainfall and soil infiltration, and channel capacity are factors that influence terrace
length.

The length should be such that erosive velocities and large cross sections
are not required. The maximum length for graded terraces generally ranges from
about 300 to 500 m, depending on local conditions. There is no maximum length
for level terraces.

Terrace cross-section

The x-section of a broad-base terrace for design purposes can be

considered a triangular channel (Figure 12). The flow depth (d) is the height to the
top of ridge (h) less a freeboard of about 8cm.

After smoothing, the ridge and bottom widths will be about 1 m, which
will give a x-section that approximates the shape of a terrace after 10 years of
farming.

The depth of flow determined from the runoff rate for a 10-year return
period storm or for the required runoff volume for storage-type terraces.

Terrace Channel Capacity

Graded terraces are design as drainage channels or waterways, and level

terraces function as storage reservoir.
 IV-10

For graded terraces, the Manning equation is suitable for design using a
roughness coefficient of 0.04. The max design velocity should not exceed 0.6 m/s.
The depth should permit a freeboard of 20% of the total depth.

For graded terraces the design peak runoff rate should be based on a return
period of 10 years. The runoff volume for level, and conservation bench terraces
should be based on a 10-year, 24-hour duration storm.

E. Vegetated Waterways

Vegetated waterways should be used to handle natural concentrations of runoff

or to carry the discharge from terrace systems, contour furrows, diversion channels, or
emergency spillways for farm ponds or other structures. It should not be used for
continuing flows, such as discharge from tile drains, as prolonged wetness in the
waterway will result in poor vegetal protection.

Design of Vegetated Waterway

1. Determination of Runoff

Capacity of the waterway should be based on the estimated runoff from

contributing drainage area. The 10-year return period storm is sound basis for
vegetated waterway design.
2. Shape of Waterway

The cross-sectional shape of the channel as it is constructed may be

parabolic, trapezoidal, or triangular. Factors to be considered in the selection of the
cross-section are:
a. available construction equipment (its size and shape);
b. maintenance (size of bottom width may restrict mowing.

Flat triangular or parabolic channels with side slopes of 4:1 or flatter may be
easily maintained by mowing. Side slopes of 4:1 or flatter are also desirable to
facilitate crossing of farm equipment.
Parabolic cross section should usually be selected for natural waterways.
Below are the geometric characteristics of the shapes of cross sections (Figure 13)

3. Selection of suitable Vegetation

Soil and climatic conditions are primary factors in the selection of
vegetation. Other factors to be considered are quantity, and velocity of runoff, ease
of establishment of vegetation, time required to develop a good practice cover, cost
and availability of seed, and retardance to shallow flows in relation to
sedimentation.

4. Design Velocity
 IV-11

The permissible velocity in the channel is dependent upon the type,

condition, and density of vegetation and the erosive characteristics of the soil. It is
also influenced by bed slope. Below are permissible velocities for vegetated
channels.

5. Roughness Coefficient

For design purposes, the product velocity multiplied hydraulic radius (vR)
is a satisfactory index of channel retardance. Vegetation has been grouped into five
retardance categories (Table ). The figure below shows the n-vR curves for the
five retardance categories.

T T Berm
Berm
Freeboard
Freeboard t

D D
v d
d
h

b
D = total depth
D = total depth d = design depth
Rectangular Cross- Triangular Cross-section
d = design depth v/h = side slope
section Channel Canal
b = bottom width T = top width
T = top width

T Berm T Berm

Freeboard Freeboard
t
t
D
D
v d
d
h

b
D = total depth
d = design depth D = total depth
b = bottom width Parabolic Cross-section
Trapezoidal Cross-section d = design depth
v/h = side slope Canal
Canal
T = top width T = top width

Figure 1. Open Channel Cross-Sections

Table 4-2. Channel x-section, wetted perimeter, hydraulic radius, and top width formulas.
 IV-12

Cross- Wetted Hydraulic Top Width,

Cross-
sectional
Section Perimeter, P Radius, R (A/P) T, t
Area, A

bd
Rectangular A bd R T=t
P b 2d b 2d

t 2dz
zd
Triangular A zd 2 P 2d z 2 1 R
D
2 z2 1 T t
d
bd zd 2 t b 2dz
Trapezoidal A bd zd 2 P b 2d z 2
1 R
b 2d z 2 1 T b 2Dz
a
t 2d t
R 0.67d
2 8d 2 1.5t 2 4d 2
Parabolic A 3
td P t
3t R
2d
approx. 1
2
3 D
T t
d

6. Channel Capacity

The channel must be proportioned to carry the design runoff at average

velocities less than or equal to the permissible velocity. Velocity is computed by
the Manning’s formula:

V = R2/3 S1/2 / n
Where: v = average velocity of flow, m/s
n = roughness coefficient of the channel
R = a/p, the cross sectional area divided by the wetted
perimeter, m
S = hydraulic gradient (channel slope)

The dimensions of the channel must be so selected that

V = q/a

Where: q = flow to be carried, m3/s.

Figures 15, 16, and 17 give solutions to the Manning equation for retardance
classes B, C, and D, respectively. For trapezoidal channels with 4:1 side slopes the
 IV-13

depth of flow can be determined for the required cross sectional area, bottom width,
and hydraulic radius.
For small parabolic cross sections, d = 1.5 and for triangular cross sections d =
2R. A freeboard of 0.1 to 0.15 should be added to the design depth.

Table 4.3 Permissible Velocities for Vegetated Channels

Permissible Velocity for erosion

resistant soils (mps) (fps)
Cover
% Slope in Channel
0 -5 5 – 10 Over 10
Bermuda Grass 2.4 (8) 2.1 (7) 1.8(6)
Blue Grama
Bufallo Grass
Kentucky blue grass 2.7 (7) 1.8 (6) 1.5(5)
Smooth brome
Tall fescue
Annual crops for temporary protection
Alfalfa
Crabgrass
1.1 (3.5) NR NR
Kudzu
Lespedeza sericea
Weeping lovegrass
Grass mixture 1.5 (5) 1.2 (4) NR
 IV-14

Table 4-4. Classification of Vegetal Cover According to Retardance

Retardance Average
Cover Condition
Class Height (cm)
Alfalfa Good Stand, uncut 11
Bermuda grass Good Stand, tall 12
Blue grama Good Stand, uncut 13
Brome, fall fescue Long
B Kudzu Dense or very dense, uncut
Lespedeza sericea Good stand, not woody, tall 19
Reed canary Long
Weeping lovegrass Good stand, tall or mowed 13-24
Wheat Mature, good vR>=1
Bermuda grass Good stand, unmowed 6
Brome, tall fescue Mowed
Centipede grass Very dense cover 6
Common lespedeza Good stand, uncut 11
Crabgrass Fair stand, uncut 10-48
C Grass mixture (orchard grass, red Good stand, uncut 6-8
top, Italian ryegrass, common
lespedeza)
Kentucky bluegrass Good stand, headed 6-12
Reed canary Mowed
Wheat Mature, poor vR>=0.5
Bermuda grass Good stand, cut 2.5
Common lespedeza Excellent stand, uncut 4.5
D Buffalo grass Good stand, uncut 3-6
Grass mixture (as above) Good stand, uncut 4-5
Lespedeza sericea Good stand, cut 2
IV-15
IV-16
IV-17
 IV-18

Example:
 IV-19

Design a trapezoidal grassed waterway to carry 5.66 m3/s (200 cfs) on a 3 percent
slope on erosion-resistant soil. The vegetation is to be Bermuda grass, and the channel
should have 4:1 side slopes.
Solution:
From Table 4.2, permissible velocity is 2.4 m/s (8fps). Table 4.3 shows Bermuda
grass in retardance class D, when mowed and in class B when long. To design for stability
against erosion, the mowed condition is the more critical.
From figure 17, for class D retardance with v =2.4 m/s and a slope of 3%, R=0.31.
From figure 7.4, by trial and error solution, the cross sectional area must be
(5.66/2.4)=2.36 m2 and R = 0.31m.
From figure 7.8, for R=0.31m, a=2.36m2, and b=4.0m the depth of flow d=0.41m.
These dimensions will provide a stable channel with v = 2.4 m/s.

The design depth must now be increased when the grass is long with retardance
class B because the velocity is reduced. The previous bottom width of 4.0 must be
retained. By trial and error select a depth of 0.53 m that will have a=3.24 m 2 and R =
0.39.

From fig 7.5 with R=0.39 and a slope of 3%, gives v =1.75 m/s. At the 0.53-m
depth, q=3.24 x 1.75 = 5.67 m3/s, which checks or within 10% is adequate.

The example shows that the bottom width is determined by the need not to exceed
the permissible velocity under mowed condition of minimum retardance, and that the
depth is determined by the need to provide capacity under conditions of maximum
retardance.

References

Del Castillo, R.A., Dalmacio, R.V., Lasco, R.D., and N.R. Lawas. 1994. Soil and Water
Conservation Management. A Training Manual. UPLB Agroforestry Program.

Foster, A.B. 1964. Approved Practices in Soil Conservation. The Interstate Printers and
Publishers, Inc. Daville, Illinois.

Hudson, N. 1989. Soil Conservation. BT Batsford Limited London.

PCARRD. 1977. The Philipines Recommends for Soil Conservation. Los Baños, Laguna.

PCARRD. 1991. The Philippines Recommends for Watershed Management. Los Baños,
Laguna.

Schwab, G.O., Fangmeier, D.D., Elliot, W.J., and R.K. Frevert. 1993. Soil and Water
Conservation Engineering. 4th Edition. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Troch, F.R., Donahue, R.L., and A. Hobbs. 1991. Soil and Water Conservation. 2nd
Edition. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.