Soil and Water Conservation Engineering (WRIE-42211)

CHAPTER 5
SOIL EROSION CONTROL MEASURES
5.1 Biological Measures/Agronomic practices
To employ the conservation measures the preference is always given to this methods due to:
- It is less expensive
- Reduce the rain drop impact, increase infiltration rate, reduce runoff volume and decrease
the velocity of runoff and wind.
- It is easier to fit them into existing farming system.
In case of soil management, this deals the way of preparing the soil to promote dense vegetative
growth and improve its structure so that, it can create more resisting surface for reducing the
impact of rain and wind and soil erosion, thereby.
A number of biological and agronomic management practices are available for controlling soil
erosion. Important among these are no-till, reduced tillage, crop rotations, cover crops, residue
and canopy cover management, vegetative filter strips, riparian buffers, agro-forestry, and soil
synthetic conditioners. The following measures/practices are very important to reducing soil
erosion: (1) cover crops, (2) crop residues, (3) soil amendments (e.g., manures), and (4) soil
conditioners (e.g., polymers).
Agronomical measures are referred to the practices of growing vegetation on mild sloppy lands
to cover them and to control soil and water losses. They are counted as second line of defense,
the first being engineering measures which are used to control the erosion immediately. The role
of agronomical measures in achieving soil and water conservation has immense importance,
much more than engineering measures. It can be explained by considering universal soil loss
equation. i.e., A = RKLSCP, Here, R and K are natural factors; we cannot control them.
LS & p = 1 (under worst condition)
LS&P = 0.1 (if ideal soil and water conservation practice is applied)
But the C factor, which is crop management, has value as 1 for worst condition and it can be
reduced up to 0.02, which minimizes soil loss to about 1/15 (Suresh, 1997).
The practices included under agronomic measures are:
 Contour cultivation
 Strip cropping
 Tillage practices
 Mixed cropping/inter planting

Contour Cultivation: Contour cultivation, also known as contouring, is tillage and planting of
crops across the land slope along the contour lines rather than up and down hill or parallel to
field boundaries. Contour cultivation in humid and moist sub humid regions is mainly to reduce
soil erosion. It is used in semiarid and drier portions of sub humid regions primarily to increase
soil moisture by reducing runoff losses.
Contour ridges produced by tillage, planting, and crop rows form barriers that slow down or stop
downhill movement of water. Temporary water storage capacity for given surface roughness is
greatest on nearly level land and decreases as land slope increases. Thus more water is held in
the contour furrows on nearly level land and less will run off than on steeper slopes. Contouring
may prevent water erosion on gentle slopes, but its effect is much less on steep slope i.e.,
uniform and gentle slope is required; the slope length has to be also small. The larger the ridge
made by tillage, the more effective contour cultivation becomes.

Lecture Note 2014 By Demelash W. & Dr. Santosh M. Pingale 1

 Soil and Water Conservation Engineering (WRIE-42211)

Strip Cropping: it is the practice of growing alternate strips of different crops in the field across
the land slope. The strips are so arranged that the strip crops should always be separated by strips
of close-growing and erosion resistance crops. Strip cropping is more intensive practice for
conserving the rainwater than contouring, but it does not involve greater effect on soil erosion.
This practice is recommended in areas where the length of the slope is not too long. Rotation that
provides strips of close-growing perennial grasses and legumes alternating with grain and row
crops are the most effective for strip cropping. The four types of strip cropping are:
 Contour strip cropping
 Field strip cropping
 Buffer strip cropping
 Wind strip cropping
Contour strip cropping: In contour strip cropping the planting layout and tillage are held
closely to the contour and the crops follow definite rotational sequence. The practice is adopted
on gentle and short slopes and more effective when combined with terracing. Layout of contour
strip cropping: Decide first the width of the strips of crops and establish a point for locating the
contour line that will form the upper and lower boundaries of the first strip. The first strip has to
be decided first at the narrower point. The width of the strip varies with the degree of the land
slope, soil type, allowable soil loss, and farm equipments used. In general, steeper the slope,
narrower will be the strip of row crops. An approximate range of strip width, based on average
land slope and soil types is given below.

Table 5.1 Approximate strip width, based on average land slope and soil types
Percent of land slope (%) Width of strip (m)
Good soil Fair soil Poor soil
2 51 42 33
5 42 33 25
8 33 25 17
11 25 17 17

Field strip cropping: In field strip cropping, strips of uniform width are placed across the
general slope, but not always exactly on the contour. It is frequently used only where the
topography is either too irregular or undulating as it makes accurate layout of contour strip
cropping impractical.
Buffer strip cropping: Buffer strip cropping has strips of a grass or legume crop between
contour strips of crops in the regular rotation. Buffers may be uniform or irregular in width
placed on critical slope areas of the field. The main purpose is to give protection from erosion or
allow for areas of deposition.
Wind strip cropping: In wind strip cropping system the strip crops of uniform width are laid at
right angles to the direction of prevailing winds, without regard of the contour. The width of the
wind strip cropping can be decided by using the following table.
Tillage Practices for Soil and Water Conservation: Vegetative cover provides the most
effective erosion control as discussed earlier. But effective year round vegetative cover is
impossible when soil is used to produce cultivated crops especially annual crops, and other
means of controlling erosion must be employed. Certain tillage practices can be used to assist in
erosion control.

Lecture Note 2014 By Demelash W. & Dr. Santosh M. Pingale 2

 Soil and Water Conservation Engineering (WRIE-42211)

Table: 5.2. Recommended strip widths for wind strip cropping.

Soil Type Strip width (m)
Sandy soil 6
Loamy sand 7
Sandy loam 30
Loam 75
Silt loam 85
Clay loam 105

Tillage is defined as mechanical manipulation of soil to provide a favorable environment for

good seed germination and crop growth. Generally accepted reasons for tillage practice are:
 Preparation of seed and root bed
 To control weed
 To establish surface soil condition that favor water infiltration and erosion control
The tillage practices that help to conserve soil and water include reduced tillage (minimum
tillage and no till or direct drill), mulch tillage, stubble mulch tillage, and trash farming.

a) Reduced tillage
There are situations where tillage operations are suitable for preparing appropriate seedbed;
mixing of layered soils, exposing the ploughed soil to the elements, and soon almost indefinitely.
However, destruction of soil structure either by excessive tillage operations at improper soil
moisture condition tends to increase soil erodibility causing significant soil loss. Therefore,
reducing tillage operation is found to be important both for reducing soil erosion and energy
inputs. Reduced tillage includes minimized tillage and no-till or direct drill. The systems of
reduced tillage require the use of chemicals.
Minimum tillage dispenses with some or all pre-plant and post-plant tillage operations to reduce
soil damage by implementing traffic and operation cost. It implies the preparation of seedbed
with minimum disturbance of soil. It is a general term, which covers several methods. One
approach is to reduce the number of tillage operations by planting directly after primary tillage
without any intervening cultivation which is usually carried out for providing fine seedbed. It
may also consist of killing of weeds using herbicides. Minimum tillage helps greatly for erosion
control and reduces tillage cost when compared with the conventional tillage. The objectives of
minimum tillage are:
• To prepare proper seedbed and provide proper environment for germinated seedlings
• To increase the water intake capacity of the soil thus to decrease runoff and thereby soil
erosion.

b) No-till or direct drill:

It is the system of planting the seed directly into mulched soil surface, often preceded by
spraying the field with herbicides.

c) Trash farming
It is a type of tillage activity which involves incorporating (burying) of crop residues into the
topsoil. It is equally effective as surface mulching in increasing the infiltration of water into the
soil. The incorporation of the residues improves the decomposition rate of the residue material
and thereby improving the soil structure for infiltration of water from the surface.

Lecture Note 2014 By Demelash W. & Dr. Santosh M. Pingale 3

 Soil and Water Conservation Engineering (WRIE-42211)

d) Stubble mulch tillage

Stubble mulch tillage is a method of farming with undercutting implements and associated
equipments so that the crop residue remains on the soil surface at seeding time to control erosion
until the new crop provides its own protection. Stubble mulch tillage has been widely accepted in
dry land regions but not generally adopted in humid areas.
e) Mulch tillage
Mulching is defined as the application of any plant residue or other materials to cover the soil
surface. Mulch tillage is performed either by making the soil surface cloddy or mulched with the
help of crop residues. It can be defined as a method, which permits the crops to grow, where all
or most of the residues from previous crops are left on the soil surface. Mulch tillage has the
following benefits in soil and water conservation.
 Intercepts the falling raindrops over the land surface, dissipating their kinetic energy, which
results in reduction of their dispersing action on the soil structure.
 Increases the infiltration capacity of the soil by maintaining the upper soil surface more
permeable
 Reduces the velocity of surface flow thus controlling sheet erosion.
 Maintains the soil relatively cool and moist, which are essential for good plant growth
 It prevents surface sealing by preventing the direct impact of raindrop on the soil surface and
by encouraging biological activities that develop macro pores in the soil.
These effects have great importance on reduction of runoff and soil erosion. Mulch should be
provided by the rate as to cover 70 to 75% of the soil surface. The straw with the application of
0.5kg/m2 is sufficient to achieve this. A less covering of the soil surface does not adequately
protect the soil. An estimate of required application rate of mulch to control erosion can be made
for pre-selected set of condition, using the manning equation of flow velocity and the relation
between Manning’s roughness coefficient and application rate. Faster et. al., (1982) derived the
following relationship between manning roughness coefficient and the application rate for maize
straw when used as mulch material.
n m =0.071M1.12 ( for inter rill erosion)
n m = 0.105 M0.84 (for rill erosion)
n m = (n3/2-ns3/2)2/3
Where, n m = value of manning coefficient for mulch
n = manning roughness coefficient from manning equation
n s = value of n for bare soil, M = mulching rate, Kg/m2
2 1
1 3 2
v= R S
n
Mixed Cropping/Inter Cropping: Multiple cropping/inter cropping refers the method of crop
cultivation which involves growing two or more crops on the same field at the same period.
Cropping that involves companion crops and monocultures such as orchards in which a cover
crop is grown beneath the trees are closely related to intercropping. The system helps in soil and
water conservation by improving the intensity of vegetation cover of the surface.
5.2. Mechanical/Engineering Measures
Mechanical or engineering measures for protection of soil and water loss are all the methods
which involve earth moving, such as digging drains, building banks, leveling sloping lands and
soon. They are constructed by manipulating the surface topography. The agronomic measures
combined with good soil management practices provide better influence on the detachment and

Lecture Note 2014 By Demelash W. & Dr. Santosh M. Pingale 4

 Soil and Water Conservation Engineering (WRIE-42211)

transportation of soil particles in the process of soil erosion, whereas mechanical measures are
effective in controlling the transportation process by creating checks at regular intervals along
the water course.
The mechanical measures are not much preferred than agronomic measures because:
They are ineffective on their own because they cannot prevent the detachment of soil particles
and its main role is in controlling the flow of any excess water and wind that arise.
• Many mechanical works are costly to install and require regular maintenance.
• Structures like, terrace and bunds create problems for agricultural operation.
• At shallow soil depth, the terrace construction exposes the bed rock or less fertile sub-soil
and therefore results in low crop yield.
• There is a risk by severe storm with return periods of 20 years or more, of which terraces
can be failed.
Mechanical structures are companion practices designed to improve the performance of
biological conservation practices. On severely gullied terrains, biological practices must be
supplemented by mechanical structures.
These structures are designed to:
• intercept and reduce runoff velocity,
• pond and store runoff water,
• convey runoff at non-erosive velocities,
• trap sediment and nutrients,
• promote formation of natural terraces over time,
• protect the land from erosion,
• improve water quality,
• enhance biodiversity of downstream water,
• prevent flooding of neighboring lands,
• reduce sedimentation of waterways, streams and rivers,
• create recreational opportunities, and
• provide diverse ecosystem services.
The principles of water erosion control measures are the same wherever serious water erosion
occurs. These principles are:
Reduce rain drop impact on the soil
Reduce runoff volume and velocity
Increase the soil’s resistance to erosion
Management practices that affect one or more of these principles will help to control water
erosion. These practices are discussed bellow in this section.
Prevention and Control Measures for Water Erosion
1) Sheet and Splash Erosion: Sheet erosion can be prevented by maintaining plant cover
(preventing splash erosion) and maximizing infiltration of ponded water through the maintenance of
soil structure and organic matter. Organic matter acts as glue, stabilizing pore spaces which
transmit surface water deeper into the soil and thus reduce the volume of ponded water available
for erosion.
2) Rill Erosion: Once runoff has been initiated, rill erosion can be prevented by either reducing
flow velocity, or hardening the soil to erosion.
Reducing Flow Velocity (settle suspended particles): Flow velocity can be reduced by either reducing
the flow volume or roughening the soil surface. Increasing surface roughness through the use of

Lecture Note 2014 By Demelash W. & Dr. Santosh M. Pingale 5

 Soil and Water Conservation Engineering (WRIE-42211)

grassed waterways and grassed filter strips causes entrained soil particles to fall out of
suspension. Flow volume can be reduced by not allowing sheet flow to accumulate. Techniques
such as ripped mulched lines and contour drains prevent runoff building up enough volume and
speed to detach and entrain soil particles.
Hardening Soil Surface (prevent detachment): Where options to reduce runoff volume or velocity are
limited, surface soils may be protected from scouring by hardening the surface. Hardening of the
surface is possible, by the following activities:
* Compact surface soils * Paving and concrete lining

3) Tunnel Erosion: Tunnel erosion is particularly difficult and expensive to control and not
always successful. Combinations of mechanical, chemical and vegetative measures are usually
required to control or prevent tunnel erosion.
Mechanical: Mechanical methods include the construction of banks, gully checks and terraces to
direct runoff away from the tunneling and deep ripping, chisel ploughing and other types of
cultivation surrounding and above the tunnel erosion to promote more even infiltration.
Chemical: Tunnel erosion is a chemical process, requiring chemical amelioration. Subsoil should
be treated with high applications of gypsum (>10 t/ha) and / or lime to displace sodium ions with
calcium ions within clays and provide an electrolyte balance.
• Apply gypsum / lime to displace Na+ with Ca++ and produce electrolyte effect
• Selection of either Lime or Gypsum depends on soil pH, electrolyte concentration and
time required to stabilize soils
• Gypsum (Ca2S04) fast acting, readily dissolvable, slightly acidic, forms protective
electrolyte quickly, more expensive.
• Lime (CaCO3) slow acting, dissolvability depends on grade, strongly alkaline and
cheaper.
Vegetation: With all earth works in tunnel affected areas, re-establishing vegetation is essential
not only to bind soils and provide a protective cover, but also to maximize uniform water use. In
many cases topsoil may have to be brought onto the site to produce a level finish and establish a
rapid vegetation cover. Resurfacing of the reclaimed area may also be required to ensure runoff
is evenly distributed across the site.
• Essential to bind soils, protect surface soils and maximize uniform water use
• Non dispersive topsoil may have to be brought in
• Resurfacing area to spread runoff
• Re-vegetate with grass within reclaimed areas
• Establish trees above and around reclaimed area to maximize water uptake.

A number of mechanical and engineering structures are available, some of which are permanent
and others temporary. Permanent structures are built for long-term erosion control and are
established for a long-term use. Such permanent measures include terraces, drop structures,
spillways, culverts, gabions, ripraps, and ditches. In contrast, temporary measures include
contour bunds, sand bags, silt fences, surface mats, and log barriers. The choice of mechanical
measures depends on the severity of erosion, soil type, topography, and climate.

Lecture Note 2014 By Demelash W. & Dr. Santosh M. Pingale 6

 Soil and Water Conservation Engineering (WRIE-42211)

5.2.1. Terraces
Terracing is an engineering soil and water conservation practice used to control soil and water
loss in sloping areas. Terracing involves construction of embankments, ridges, or channels or
land leveling in steps across the land slope. In terrace systems the effective length of land slope
and slope steepness are reduced to large extent.

In brief terraces have the following features.

• They are constructed across the land slope to intercept surface runoff to give opportunity time
for infiltration or to convey surface runoff to a suitable outlet at non-erosive velocity.
• They reduce the length and steepness of land slope by splitting the slope length into different
parts.
• Terrace practice is mostly adopted for soil and water conservation in areas where land slope is
greater than 10%, soil is more erodible and prevails high rainfall intensity.
• They are not suitable on stony areas or soils that are shallow over bedrock or fine textured
impermeable sub-soils.
• They cannot be effectively used on sandy soils because ridges cannot be maintained.

Types of Terraces: Terraces are classified into the following three main classes.
1) Graded/diversion terraces: These terraces are constructed to intercept the overland flow and
channel it across the slope to a suitable outlet, i.e. grassed water way etc. built at a slight
down slope grade from contour.
2) Retention terraces: These terraces are used where conservation of surface water by storing it
on hill side is required. They are also termed as level terraces. The permeable soil with the
land slope less than 4.5% are suitable for retention type terraces. In areas of low rainfall they
are constructed for the purpose of water conservation. They may also be constructed where
rainfall is high and the infiltration rate is also high allowing all rainfall to enter to the soil.
3) Bench terraces: They are platform like constructions along the contours of the sloping land.
They are generally constructed on lands 6 to 33% slope. In this terrace system, the hilly land
is modified in the form of several steps, which intercept the flowing water over the soil
surface.
Bench terraces are again classified in to the following three types on the basis of the slope of the
bench.
A. Level bench terraces
B. Bench terrace sloping outward
C. Bench terrace sloping inward
A) Level bench terrace:
This type of bench terrace consists of level top surface. It is generally used in the areas which
receive low to medium rainfall and highly permeable soil. Sometimes level bench terraces are
also called table top terraces. They are used to conserve both water and soil.
Cut soil

Shoulder bunds
D/2

Filled soil
Fig: 5.1. Level bench terrace W

Lecture Note 2014 By Demelash W. & Dr. Santosh M. Pingale 7

 Soil and Water Conservation Engineering (WRIE-42211)

B) Bench terrace sloping outward:

These bench terraces are adopted in low rainfall areas with permeable soil. Here, shoulder
bunds are essential even though shoulder bund is provided in other two types also. The main
function of shoulder bund is to provide stability to outer edge of the terrace. It also helps in
retaining the surface runoff on the benches that will either be absorbed by the soil or drained.
For outward sloping bench terraces constructed on soils having poor permeability, the
provision of graded channel at lower end is the most essential for disposing surplus surface
water to the grassed waterway.

Fig. 5.2. Bench terrace sloping outward

C) Bench Terrace sloping inward

These bench terraces are preferred to be constructed in the areas of heavy rainfall and less
permeable soils. They have a provision of drainage channel to drain the runoff from their inner
side to a suitable grassed outlet.
Fig. 5.3. Bench terrace sloping inward
Flow direction

Drainage channel

Limitations of bench terrace: The following limitations are observed in the case of bench
terracing
 It requires heavy expenditure of money
 It is recommended for slopes 6 to 33%, but its effectiveness is recorded only for slope
ranges up to 15%. For special conditions its use can be extended for the land slope up to
33%.
 This measure is possible only at the sites where soil depth is sufficient to permit leveling
operation.

Terrace Design
The determination of a terrace components depend up on:
• The soil characteristic of the area
• Topography of the area
• Climate of the area
• Type of terrace
• Agricultural practices (tillage practices)
Designing a terrace involves
• Proper selection of the terrace type
• Determination of proper spacing (considering the farmable cross-section)
• Determination of terrace cross-section

Lecture Note 2014 By Demelash W. & Dr. Santosh M. Pingale 8

 Soil and Water Conservation Engineering (WRIE-42211)

Terraces are usually designed to handle runoff from a ten-year recurrent period storm.

Terrace spacing: The spacing of terraces is expressed as the vertical distance between the
channels of successive terraces. For top terrace, the spacing is the vertical distance from the
top of the hill to the bottom of the channel.
The factors which affect terrace spacing are climate, soil, topography, type of terrace and the
tillage practice. But the important ones are climate, topography and the soil type. Therefore,
any relationship which considers these important factors can fairly estimate the terrace spacing.
U.S Soil Conservation Service devised a formula for estimating the best vertical interval. In
general, it has the following form.

VI = XS +Y………………………………………………………………………………..6.1
Where X = rainfall factor, dimensionless
S = average land slope, %
Y = Soil infiltration and vegetation cover factor, dimensionless
VI = vertical interval, m
Y = 0.3, 0.6, 0.9, or 1.2 with the low value for highly erodible soils with no surface residues
and the high value for erosion resistant soils with conservation tillage and good crop cover.
X = ranges from 0.12 to 0.24 with low value for highly erosive rainfall and high value for less
erosive rainfall.
VI
Horizontal interval HI = x100 ………………………………………………6.2
S
Where S = average land slope, %
The spacing computed by the above formula can be modified as much as 25% to allow for soil,
climate and tillage conditions.

Terrace Length: Size and shape of the field, outlet possibilities, rate of runoff and channel
size are factors that influence the terrace length. The length of a terrace should be decided so as
to avoid the erosive velocity and large cross-section of the channel. For graded terraces, the
maximum length ranges from 300-500 m. Long terrace lengths can be reduced by dividing the
flow midway in the terrace length and draining the runoff to outlets at both sides of the terrace.

Critical Slope Length

The slope length of a field at which the overland flow becomes erosive is called critical slope
length. Provided the effective slope length below the critical slope length, serious erosion will
not take place. To determine the critical slope length considers the following conditions.
Rainfall intensity, R

Overland
flow, Q

θ Barrier
Infiltration, i

Lecture Note 2014 By Demelash W. & Dr. Santosh M. Pingale 9

 Soil and Water Conservation Engineering (WRIE-42211)

Consider overland flow rate from the field per unit width to be Q

Q = ( R − i ) L cosθ

And again from manning equation,

2 1
1
V = R3S 2
n
2 1
1 3 2
⇒ Q = AV = A R S
n
But A = r , where r = flow depth
P = 1, wetted perimeter for unit width
2 1 5 1
1 1
⇒ Q = r r 3s2 = r 3s2
n n
Then equating the two equations and solving for L we get:
5

r (tan θ )
1
3 2
L=
n(R − i )cosθ ………………………………………………………………6.3

The computation of terrace spacing can be accomplished using the following steps.
1) Determine the maximum depth of the productive top soil
2) Find out maximum admissible depth of cut for the land slope of the field and crop to be
grown based on the existence of maximum depth of productive soil range
3) After determining the depth of cut, find out the width of terrace using the equation
200 D
W =
S
Where, S = average land slope, %
D = Depth of cut, m
W = width of terrace bench, m
4) Determine the vertical interval of terrace
SW
VI = (For level bench terrace)
100
W (S − s )  
VI =  for sloping outward 
100  
W (S + s )  
VI =  for sloping inward 
100  

where s = inward or outward slope of the bench

Inward or outward slope of the bench: They depend on the soil type and average rainfall of the
area.

Lecture Note 2014 By Demelash W. & Dr. Santosh M. Pingale 10

 Soil and Water Conservation Engineering (WRIE-42211)

Inward sloping ranges from 2 to 10 %

Outward slope ranges from 2 to 8.5%

The size of the shoulder bund: It depends upon the type of the bench terrace. For the terrace
sloping inward the size of the shoulder bund is kept nominal (minimum possible) while for
sloping outward and level top terraces the shoulder bund comprises larger section for holding
runoff. The terrace section and soil characteristics affect the size (angle of repose of soil and
permeability). On most soils for outward sloping terraces,
Top width of shoulder bund = 30 cm
Height of shoulder bund = 45 cm
Bottom width =120 cm

5.2.2. Bunds
It is a type of engineering soil and water conservation measure which helps to control soil
erosion and retain rainfall water from runoff. They are simple soil embankment structures
constructed across land slope by less soil movement than for bench terracing.
By bunding practice the entire runoff producing area is subdivided into several small parts,
thereby reducing effective slope length of the area. The practice is, generally, suitable for lands
having 2-10% slope ranges. However, it can also be practiced on areas that have slope greater
than 10% but with closer spacing, which may require high cost of construction and on area that
have lesser slope than 2% with wider spacing. Moreover, the practice is suitable for shallow
(not less than 7.5 cm) to medium depth black soils and shallow to deep permeable soils. But
deep black soils are not suitable for bund construction because of due to their cracking during
dry season.
Classification of bunding systems: According to their function, bunding systems are divided
into the following groups:
1-contour bunding
2-graded bunding
1) Contour bunding: it is construction of bunds that pass through equal elevation. The method
can be adapted on all types of soils but not for deep black clay soils. The practice is suitable for
areas, which receive annual rainfall less than 600mm. It is not technically feasible on land
slopes greater than 6%. Contour bunding system is sub divided in to the following sub-groups
a) Narrow based contour bunds, creates obstruction for crossing farm implements
b) Broad based contour bunds
It does not create hindrance on the way of farming operations; the entire area can be kept
under cultivation. But due to disturbance of the bund section by crossing farm equipments, it
requires an attentive care and maintenance.

2) Graded bunding: In this bunding system, some grade is provided to the channel behind the
bund (0.2 to 0.3%). Graded bunding is used in areas that have average annual rainfall greater
than 700mm. However, it can also be used on areas of lesser average annual rainfall if the soil
is of heavy texture (clayey). The functions of graded bunds are:
 to reduce soil erosion
 To dispose surplus rain water safely to a suitable outlet, the system may require grassed
waterway.
Graded bunding is not recommended on land slopes less than 2% or greater than 8%

Lecture Note 2014 By Demelash W. & Dr. Santosh M. Pingale 11

 Soil and Water Conservation Engineering (WRIE-42211)

Types of graded bunds

a) Narrow based graded bunds
- provides obstruction to crossing farm implements
b) Broad based graded bunds
- Does not provide obstruction to crossing of farm implements; the entire area can be put
under cultivation. Therefore, the original cross -section of the bunds does not remain unchanged,
resulting in the requirement of frequent maintenance.

Design and construction of contour bunds: Some of considerations for bund construction:
i. Economy: Earth work involved, land lost permanently due to the construction of bunds and
the economic value of the land determine the feasibility of bund construction.
ii. Rainfall characteristics and soil type: If the land is in low rainfall area, the objective of
bunding may be to conserve rainfall water by retaining the surface runoff on the area. On the
other hand, if the land is in heavier rainfall area, the objective may be to dispose the surplus
rainfall water safely to a suitable waterway. That is, on the basis of rainfall characteristics and
soil type selection of a type of bunding system can be done.
iii) Land submergence: The duration of submergence (inundation) of land surface, determines
the choice of bunding system and the critical length between two bunds. Because inundation of
land surface by water affects crop yield.
iv) Seepage rate: Seepage rate through the bund section due to the accumulation of surface
runoff behind the bund affects the life of the bund. The bund section has to be selected on the
basis of the permeability of the soil.

Design specifications for contour bunds

1) Spacing:
In contour bunding, the bund needs to check the surface runoff at the point where its flow attains
erosive velocity, and should meet the requirements of agricultural operation.
Vertical interval between two bunds (VI): Different empirical formulae have been suggested to
estimate the vertical interval between two bunds.
a) For areas of heavier rainfall
VI = 10 S + 60
Where VI = vertical interval in (cm) ; S = land slope in percent
b) For areas of low rain fall.
VI = 15S + 60
But the above equations were developed by considering only land slope & rainfall amount; other
factors such as infiltration rate, surface cover, etc were not considered. Incorporating the effects
of the remaining factors, COX developed more reasonable relation which is expressed as:
VI = 0.3 (XS+Y)
Where VI = Vertical interval in (m), S = Land slope in percent
X = rainfall factor, Y = infiltration rate and crop cover factor
VI
Horizontal interval (HI): HI = 100
S

Lecture Note 2014 By Demelash W. & Dr. Santosh M. Pingale 12

 Soil and Water Conservation Engineering (WRIE-42211)

Table: 5.3. Values of rainfall factor (X)

Rain fall distribution Average Annual Rainfall (mm) X
Scanty <640 0.8
Moderate 640-900 0.6
Heavy >900 0.4
Table: 5.4. Values of infiltration rate & crop cover factor (Y)
Intake rate crop cover during erosive period of rain Y
Low ( below average) Poor 1
Medium to high Good 2
Low Good 1.5
Medium to high Poor 1.5
2) Size of the bund
It is determined by the height, top width, bottom width, and side slope of the bund
a) Height of the bund
It is determined on the basis of the amount of water to be intercepted. The determination
procedure can be illustrated as follows: A

W VI
D E
Water
h
C B
HI

Consider two triangles ABC and CDE in the above diagram to be similar. Then
W h
=
HI VI
The amount of water checked behind the bund per unit width (V) can be expressed as:
HI h
1 1 1 Hl.h 2
V = wh ⇒V = .h . ⇒V =
2 2 VI 2 VI
Let the depth of excess rainfall that has to be retained by the bund to be ‘b’ units deep, and then
the volume of runoff water that has to be checked by the bund, V, is
V = b. HI
If we equate the two equations for V, we get
1 HI .h 2
= b.HI ⇒ h 2 = 2b.VI
2 VI

h = 2b.VI Or
h = 2b.HI .S
To get the practical value of the bund height, we need to add for freeboard 25% of theoretical
height.

Lecture Note 2014 By Demelash W. & Dr. Santosh M. Pingale 13

 Soil and Water Conservation Engineering (WRIE-42211)

b) Side slope
The side slopes of the bund are dependent on the angle of repose of the fill material.
Recommended values of side slopes of bund section for different types of soil are given in the
table below.
Table 5.5 Recommended values of side slopes of bund
Soil type Side slope (H:V)
Loam 1.5:1
Clay 2:1
Sand 2.5:1

For broad based contour bunds the side slope may be recommended from 4:1 to 5:1. Its height
may range from 30–50 cm.
Top and bottom widths are decided on the basis of the permeability of the soil fill.

3) Earth work: The earth work of the bunding system includes the sum of earth works of the
main bund, side bunds and lateral bunds formed in the field. For calculation, the sum of earth
works of side and lateral bunds is considered to be 30% of the earth work of the main bund. The
earth work of any bund is determined by multiplying cross-sectional area and the total length of
the bund.

4) Area lost due to contour bunding: It is calculated by multiplying the length of the contour
bund by its base width.
Cross-Section of Graded Bunds
The cross-section of a graded bund should have sufficient carrying capacity and the velocity of
flow in the channel must not cause scouring of the channel bed. On the basis of this point the
cross-section of graded bund can be determined by using manning equation.
2 1
1 3 2
V = R S
n
5.2.3. Vegetated/grassed waterways
Runoff that may be concentrated by the natural topography or by graded bunds, terraces, or other
human works must flow in a controlled manner that will not result in gully formation. This can
be achieved by practicing either of the following activities.
a) Reducing the peak flow rates of runoff by full utilization of field protection practices earlier,
or
b) Providing a stable channel that can handle the peak flow
The stabilization of a channel can best be accomplished by providing vegetal protection for the
channel together with modifying the cross-section and gradient of the channel bed so as to limit
the flow velocity within the permissible limit. The stabilized channel, provided with vegetative
cover together with modified cross-section and grade is termed as vegetated waterway.

Design of Vegetated Waterways: The design of vegetated waterway is more complex than the
design of channels lined with concrete or other stable materials because of variations in
roughness coefficient with depth of flow, stage of vegetative cover, hydraulic radius and velocity
of flow. The design parameter estimation techniques are described below.

Lecture Note 2014 By Demelash W. & Dr. Santosh M. Pingale 14

 Soil and Water Conservation Engineering (WRIE-42211)

a) Waterway capacity
The capacity of a waterway should be determined on the basis of the estimated peak runoff
rate from the contributing drainage area. For exceptionally long watercourses it is desirable to
estimate the flow for each of several reaches of the channel to account for changing drainage
area. But for short watercourses, the estimated flow at the outlet is the practical design value. A
10-year return period storm is a sound basis for vegetated waterway design.
The peak rate of runoff can be estimated by using the formula: Q = CIA
b) Velocity of runoff flow
The ability of vegetation to resist erosion is limited. The permissible flow velocity in a vegetated
waterway depends on:
 Type and density of vegetation
 The erosion characteristics of the soil
 The bed slope of the channel
 The shape of the waterway
The channel must be proportioned to carry the design runoff at velocity less than or equal to the
permissible velocity. However, it should be recognized that the design velocity we are talking
about is the average velocity rather than the actual velocity at the contact with the channel bed or
vegetation. The proportioning of the channel cross-section with the design velocity can be
accomplished by using the manning formula:
2 1
1
v = R3S 2
n
Table: 5.6. Permissible velocities for vegetated waterways
Type of Slope range (%) Permissible velocity
vegetation Erosion resistant soils Easily erodible soils
Bermuda grass 0-5 2.4** 1.8*8
5-10 2.1** 1.5
>10 1.8 1.2
Buffalo grass 0-5 2.1** 1.5
5-10 1.8** 1.2
>10 1. 0.9
Alfalfa* 0-5 1.0 0.8
*Alfalfa is not used on slopes greater than 5%
**Velocities exceeding 1.5 m/sec can be used only where good cover and proper maintenance
is possible.

The dimensions of the channel cross-section must be so selected to satisfy the continuity
equation:
Q = VA
3
Where Q = flow rate, m /sec
A = cross-sectional area, m2
V = permissible velocity, m/sec

Shape of Vegetated Waterway Cross-section

The shape of a vegetated waterway cross-section can be parabolic, trapezoidal or triangular.
Parabolic shape approximates that natural waterway. The selection of the shape of a cross-

Lecture Note 2014 By Demelash W. & Dr. Santosh M. Pingale 15

 Soil and Water Conservation Engineering (WRIE-42211)

section of a waterway depends upon the field condition and the type of construction equipment
to be used. However, trapezoidal shape is the most commonly used one.

c) Vegetation type
In selecting the type of vegetation, the following points should be considered.
 The soil type
 Climatic condition
 Ease of establishing the vegetation
 Time required to develop a good protective cover of the vegetation
 The suitability of the vegetation to the farmers with respect to its utilization
 The ability of the vegetation to spread to the adjoining field
 The cost and availability of seed, and
 The retardance to shallow flow in relation to sedimentation

d) The gradient of waterway

The gradient of a vegetated waterway usually depends on the land slope. However, it should not
exceed 10%, but the grade within 5% is generally preferred.

e) Roughness coefficient
Roughness coefficient of a vegetated waterway is difficult to determine. It varies with the depth
and slope of flow.
Shallow flow encounters maximum resistance, because the vegetation is upright in the flow. The
slight increase in resistance in low-flow is observed due to the greater bulk of vegetation
encountered with increasing depth. Intermediate flow bends and submerges some vegetation, and
resistance drops off sharply as more and more vegetation is submerges when flow depth is
increased. Decreasing resistance for high flow results from higher velocity with accompanying
greater flattening of the vegetation.

Fig:
5.4.Variation of roughness coefficient with depth of flow for sod-forming grass

Summery: The general procedure that has to be followed in designing a vegetated waterway is
the following:

Lecture Note 2014 By Demelash W. & Dr. Santosh M. Pingale 16

 Soil and Water Conservation Engineering (WRIE-42211)

Step 1: Determine the peak runoff rate from the area

Q = CIA
Step 2: Find out the value of permissible flow velocity for vegetated waterway based on soil type
and type of vegetation
Step 3: compute the cross-sectional area of the waterway to handle the peak runoff rate and
permissible flow velocity
Q = VA; A = Q/V
Keep in view that the runoff rate increases towards the outlet
Step 4: After determining the cross-sectional area of the waterway, compute its various
dimensions (depth, bottom width, side slope) to suit the area of cross-section obtained.
Step 5: Calculate the hydraulic radius and decide the value of manning roughness coefficient
R = A/P
Step 6: compute the grade (s) of the waterway using manning formula
2 1
1
v = R3S 2
n
Step 7: Check the elevation of the outlet computed using the grade and the elevation of the field
outlet. They should coincide. The grade computed can be rounded or otherwise.
Step 8: Using the rounded value of the waterway grade compute the flow velocity at a
section. It has to be lower or equal to the permissible velocity. Otherwise, repeat the procedure
from step 4.

5.2.4. Gully control measures

Causes of Gully Erosion: The causes that activate gully formation are:
 Making the land surface to be without vegetation by over grazing and other biotic
pressure, clearing for cultivation, firing, deforestation
 Improper construction of water channels, roads, rail lines, cattle trails, etc.
 adoption of faulty tillage practice
 Not smoothening of rills, small channels or depressions present on the ground surface.

Gully Development: The rate of gully development depends primarily on the runoff producing
characters of the catchment area and climate (rainfall characteristics), like the size of the area,
the soil characteristics, the resistance of topsoil and under lying layer to erosion. Vegetation
covers on the soil surface, topography of the area, land slope, Rainfall characteristics, which
favor to increase the volume of runoff i.e. its intensity and amount.
Gullies are developed by the following processes, which may be activated either singly or in
combination
1. Scouring of the bottom
2. Gully head erosion
3. Sliding or mass movement of soils from the gully banks, due to seepage, freezing & thawing

Stages of gully development

Stage 1: initiation stage
 Channel erosion & deepening of the gully takes place.
Stage 2: development stage:
 Width & depth are enlarged due to runoff from up stream.
 The gully depth reaches up to c – horizon

Lecture Note 2014 By Demelash W. & Dr. Santosh M. Pingale 17

 Soil and Water Conservation Engineering (WRIE-42211)

Stage 3: healing stage

 vegetations start to grow in the channel
 There will not be appreciable erosion.
Stage 4: final stage (stabilization)
 The gully has been fully stabilized. There will be no further development of gully unless
the healing process is disturbed.

Classification of Gully: Gullies may be classified on the basis of their shape (cross – section),
state (condition) and dimension.
Classification on the basis of shape
a) U -Shape gullies
 They are formed where the surface & subsurface soils are easily erodible (alluvial soils),
 Are recognized by their U – shape cross – section.
 Usually the slope of gully bottom is parallel to the land slope.
 Develop on the lands of low slope
 The velocity of the runoff is relatively less than in V – shape gullies
 Permanent structures are required to raise their bottom.
b) V – Shape gullies
 Are developed where the subsurface soil is tough to resist the rapid cutting of soil by
runoff water
 Recognized by V – shape cross-section
 Appear in sloping fields
 The gradient of channel bed is greater than the land slope.
 Check dams are used to control them
Classification based on the state of the gully
a) Active gullies
 Those whose dimensions are enlarging with time.
b) Inactive gullies
 Those whose dimensions are constant with time
Classification on the basis of dimension
a) Small gullies
 Can be smoothened by ordinary tillage machines.
 can be crossed by farm implements
b) Medium gullies
 Can be controlled by terracing or ploughing operation with special implements.
 Can not be crossed by farm implements.
c) Large gullies
 Beyond the reclaimable stage by tillage practices.
 Tree planting is practiced as effective method to control.

Gully Control:
Principles of gully control
1. Determine the cause of gully and take counter measure as early as possible
2. Restore the original hydraulic balance or create new condition. That is, either the flood has to
be reduced to its original volume or a new channel has to be provided to accommodate the
increased flood. Therefore, for controlling gully erosion, the following activities are very
important:

Lecture Note 2014 By Demelash W. & Dr. Santosh M. Pingale 18

 Soil and Water Conservation Engineering (WRIE-42211)

A) Improving the drainage area of the gully.

B) Stabilization of gully
I) Stabilization of the gully head
II) Stabilization of the gully side and bed

A) Improvement of the catchment area

It is done to reduce and regulate the quantity of runoff produced from the drainage area in such a
way that, there would be least soil erosion. Complete gully control cannot be achieved without
treatment of drainage area and gully itself in a proper manner. If a denuded watershed with
excessive runoff causes the formation of gullies, re–establishment of the vegetation cover will
play significant role to control the runoff and in turn the rate of gully formation or development.
The vegetation cover can be established by growing grasses or planting shrubs and trees. When
the vegetation cover falls to control runoff, adopting the practices of contour bunding and
terracing, which are small earthen embankment shaped structures constructed along the contour
of the area, will help.

B) Stabilisation of Gully
i) Stabilization of a gully head: It is very important to stabilize a gully head for controlling the
enlargement of gully section head ward. It can be achieved either by diverting the runoff before
coming into the gully or allowing the runoff to enter from the upstream into the gully safely,
using some structures.
Diversion canals or Ditches
Diverting runoff from the head of the gully is usually done by constructing a diversion terrace,
diversion canals, diversion ditches etc., above the head of the gully and conveying the water in to
a dense forest, or vegetated waterway.
Grading of gully head
To allow runoff to enter the gully safely, grading of the gully head is good practice. To check
the gully from scouring at the head, the gradient of the gully head is required to be reduced. It is
normally reduced up to 450. The surface of the gully head is then stabilized either by sodding,
brush cover, rip-rap inter planted with cuttings, pole structure, solid structure of rip-rap or gabion
and concrete structures, depending upon their availability in nearby areas.
ii) Stabilizing the gully sides & bed: Need of gully bed or side treating is for preventing further
deepening and widening of its gully section.

In general gully can be stabilized using either vegetation or structures.

Stabilization by vegetation: It is said in gully control ‘a bag of fertilizer is more effective
than a bag of cement’. Although structural works are sometimes indispensable; on the whole, it
is preferable to restore gullies by the use of vegetation. Structures whether of concrete, masonry,
wood or any other building material, are subject to decay, and liable to be undermined or
bypassed. They become less effective with the passing of time. Vegetation, on the other hand,
can multiply and thrive and improve over the year. Structures also need various skills for design
and construction and they are usually expensive. The purpose of vegetation is two fold :
 It provides physical protection to the soil
 It slows down the velocity of flow.
But establishing gully vegetation is difficult, because there may be; no available plant nutrient,
low moisture holding capacity, infertile soil and so on.

Lecture Note 2014 By Demelash W. & Dr. Santosh M. Pingale 19

 Soil and Water Conservation Engineering (WRIE-42211)

Plants and planting technique: The ways of overcoming the problems in establishing gully
vegetation are the selection of suitable plants and the use of special planting techniques. Using
plants that have proved successful effect in other countries is always worth trying but may be
disappointing sometimes. Therefore, it is seldom possible to predict which plants will do well,
and a useful practice is to make small trail planting of a wide range of plants to see which
flourish. In the search of suitable varieties, local materials should not be overlooked. Any plants
that are growing reasonably well in or near the gully must be accustomed to local conditions.
Sometimes a little help in the way of fertilizer will enable them to outgrow all the exotic varieties
imported from other countries. The requirements for plants to be suitable for gully control are
that they should grow vigorously in poor conditions and give good ground cover. A spreading or
creeping habit is much better than an upright growing habit. Plants are usually best established
by planting out seedlings, which have been germinated and started in a more favourable medium.
This can be accomplished by
 Using cylinders of soil in thin black polythene to form bottomless plant pots.
 Using sacks of good soil for establishing colonies of grasses.
Planting the sides of gullies is difficult, because they are steep, unstable, and eroding. When the
cost is justified the banks can be leveled to a gentle uniform slope by heavy earth moving
machinery and then seeded or planted. Sometimes sufficient soil is bulldozed in from the sides to
convert the gully in to a shallow grassed waterway. Since the banks are almost sure to be infertile
subsoil, some extra fertility must be added. This can be achieved by inserting pockets of better
soil as was described for planting the floor of the gully. If justified, bulldozing a pile of topsoil to
the edge of the gully and then spreading it as a blanket over the sloping sides of the gully. But it
is liable to be washed away before the vegetation is established. Therefore, there has to be ways
of retaining the soil until the vegetation is established.
Structures for gully control: It frequently happens that the establishment of vegetation is
difficult because the newly planted material gets swept away, or because there is no soil for the
vegetation to grow in. In either of these cases there may be a place for temporary structures
whose purpose is to provide protection for just long enough to give vegetation a start. If the
object is to slow down the water and so cause deposition of silt there is no need for the structures
to be watertight, and the term porous checks describes this type. In this method, structures are
used to control or reduce the flow velocity of runoff in the gully thereby reducing its scouring
effect. The structures, which are constructed to check the velocity of flowing water in gully, are
known as check dams. The structures which allow the running water to pass over harmlessly are
drops and chutes. Check dams reduce the degree of slope of the gully bed by providing series of
checks at equal intervals across the gully. They also divide the longitudinal slope of the gully bed
in to a series of steps with low risers and long flat treads. Check dams reduce the velocity of the
running water by creating obstruction in the flow path, thus making the silt to be deposited over
the gully bed. They increase the time of opportunity for percolating of water in to the gully bed.

Temporary structures: The main requirement of temporary gully control structures is that, they
must be quick and easy to construct and should be made by using cheap and readily available
materials in nearby areas. The purpose of these structures is to provide protection for just long
enough to give vegetation a start by itself to control the velocity of flow and to collect sufficient
amount of soil on their upstream portion to build up a huge growth of vegetative cover.
a) Wire bolsters
It is a loose rock-fill dam with the stones anchored on place by wire netting. It is simple but
effective method if there are plenty of loose rocks nearby. Galvanized wire netting of a fairly

Lecture Note 2014 By Demelash W. & Dr. Santosh M. Pingale 20

 Soil and Water Conservation Engineering (WRIE-42211)

stout gauge and two meters or more in width is laid out flat across the gully bed. Loose rock is
packed on one half of the width is laid out flat across the gully bed. Loose rock is packed on one
half of the width of the netting and the other half is wrapped over the stones and laced to the
other edge, forming a sausage or bolster of rock contained in a skin of wire netting. More
substantial structures can be built using several layers of rock bolsters.

b) Netting dams
It is to form a small check dam usually near the head ends of gullies by use of wire netting.
Here, wooden posts are driven into bed of the gully and used to support a strip of wire netting
which forms a low wall across the gully. The height should be only half a meter or so and the
lower edge of the netting is buried. Light brush or straw may be piled loosely against up-stream
side of the netting wall and is packed by the flow of water against the netting to form a barrier,
which is porous but slows down the
flow and causes a build-up of
sediment on the upstream side.

Fig. 5.5 Netting dam

c) Brushwood dams
The brushwood dams use small branches, up to 2 to 3 cm in diameter, packed as tightly as
possible across the direction of flow. They can be anchored by packing them between rows of
vertical stakes, or by tying down with wire, or by sticks laid across the top and fastened down. If
it is constructed well, brushwood check dam can last for several years.

Fig: 5.6. A brushwood

dam for gully control

d) Log dams
To construct a log dam, two rows of vertical posts are driven in to bed of the gully and extending
up the side to above the flood level, and then logs are packed in between. The vertical post
should be at least l0 cm in diameter, 2 m long, and spaced about a meter apart in each row, with
the two rows of posts half a meter apart. In a wide shallow gully it is best to derive in all the
vertical posts to the same height above ground, about half a meter, so that the top of the dam
follows the section of the gully bed. If the gully has steep sides, it is better to have a rectangular
notch in the centre but the notch must be big enough for the whole flood to pass through. The

Lecture Note 2014 By Demelash W. & Dr. Santosh M. Pingale 21

 Soil and Water Conservation Engineering (WRIE-42211)

vertical posts on either side of the notch should be particularly stout posts and driven in deeper
than the others.

Fig: 5.7. Timber piling used

to make a log dam for gully
control

e) Brick weirs
If the gully bed contains clean washed sand, it can be used to make sand/cement bricks very
cheaply since the objective is cheapness of material and simplicity of the design. The mix can be
as lean as 15 sand to 1 cement if care is taken over the other points which are to use as little
water as possible to ram the mix firmly in to the moulds, and to cure the bricks slowly. If
allowed to dry out quickly in the hot sun, they tend to crack and have little strength. They should
be cured, covered with old sacks or paper or grass and kept moist by sprinkling with water.

Fig: 5.8. Types of

small brick weirs for
gully control

Second grade bricks or rejects or clay bricks, if they can be found cheaply can also be used for
constructing this structure. The shape which gives the best strength/weight ratio is the arch weir,
and a single thickness of brickwork can be built to a height of one or one and half meters over a
circular span of about two meters. A straight wall of similar size needs three or four times as
much brickwork to achieve comparable strength. As the arch wall works by transmitting the load
round the arch to the buttresses at each end, and so it needs good solid support in the gully ways,
preferably in the form of a rock outcrop. However, the light wall doesn’t need much in the way
of foundations. The section of brickwork is roughly triangular, i.e. the width at the base should
be approximately equal to the maximum height, and successive courses of brickwork are
narrower. It is common to find the upstream face of dams vertical, with all the slope on the
downstream face, but there is a sound engineering reason for this in the case of large water
storage dams, it isn’t of any consequence in small gully control dams.

Permanent Structures: The dividing line between temporary and permanent structures is
arbitrary, many structures could have a very variable life depending on how they were
constructed and maintained, and what pressure they had to withstand. Gully control should be
achieved by vegetative methods or a combination of vegetation and cheap simple structures
whose life is not important wherever possible. However, there are cases where the problem can

Lecture Note 2014 By Demelash W. & Dr. Santosh M. Pingale 22

 Soil and Water Conservation Engineering (WRIE-42211)

only be solved by the construction of permanent structures. The permanent gully control
structures are described below.
a) Silt trap dams
These structures are used to trap silt where an excessive sediment load threatens downstream
water supplies. Trapping the silt in sufficient quantity by vegetative means may be slow and
uncertain. A quick positive reduction in sediment movement can be achieved by building
permanent silt trapping dams. e.g., multiple-arch silt trapping dam
b) Regulating dams
These structures are used to regulate flash floods at the head of the gully. They have to be
provided with sufficient storage for the runoff from a single storm and outlet that consists
permanently open pipe of about 15 to 20 cm diameter to allow the flood water to drain away in a
day or two, living the storage reservoir empty for the next storm runoff. The flow down the gully
now being reduced to the flow through the outlet pipe, it is fairly easy to create stable conditions
which can cope with this flow.
c) Gully-head dams
It is constructed when an active gully head is eating its way steadily upstream and must be
stopped before it threatens a road or bridge or similar asset. It controls the erosive force of the
runoff over the gully head by submerging the head of the gully in the pond permanently
impounded behind the dam. One danger that has to be guarded against is that although there is no
danger of the head cutting back when the dam is full, it may do so when the dam is empty and
the runoff runs over the edge of the gully head.

Fig: 5.9. Submerging the head of the gully by a dam

d) Gabions
The main difficulty with rigid structures is that they cannot adapt when changes occur in the soil
surrounding them or supporting them. Even slight movements, such as swelling and shrinking of
the soil or a small settlement of the structure, can introduce stresses which the structure is ill-
equipped to withstand. Concrete, masonry, and brick work all have good resistance to
compression but fail easily under tensile loads resulting from settlement. A construction method
which overcomes this problem is a more sophisticated version of the wire net bolsters described
among the temporary structures. The method was developed in Italy and uses prefabricated
rectangular baskets called gabions made of heavy-duty wire netting. The basket is placed in
position and filled with stones. The baskets, up to 4 m long, 1 m wide, and 1 m deep, are built up
on top of each other like courses of brickwork, and can form large or small structures. The main
advantage of these structures is that there is sufficient flexibility for the structure to adjust to
settlement resulting from scouring of the foundation without any loss of strength. Prefabricated
factory made gabions use heavy duty galvanized wire and are long lasting but expensive.
Cheaper locally made substitutes can be used.
e) Drops & chutes
These are used to stabilize the head of the gully by allowing the flood runoff to pass over
harmlessly.

Lecture Note 2014 By Demelash W. & Dr. Santosh M. Pingale 23

 Soil and Water Conservation Engineering (WRIE-42211)

Design of Permanent Structures: The design of permanent gully control structures is completed
under the following three design steps: Hydrologic design, Hydraulic design and Structural design:
Hydrologic design: The hydrologic design involves the estimation of design runoff rate and
flood volume, which the structures have to handle safely. The hydrologic design of permanent
gully control structures is done by computing the runoff rate for 25 to 30 years return period. The
design of peak runoff rate may be computed using the rational method, described in chapter-two.
Hydraulic design: It consists of determining the dimension of different components of the
structure, on the basis of expected maximum runoff rate, that has been estimated in case of
hydraulic design phase. The dimension of the structure should be such that, the flowing runoff
through this should not overtop and can dissipate the kinetic energy of discharge falling towards
downstream face of the structure, up to a great extent. This phenomenon helps in controlling the
channel erosion below the structure.
Structural design: It involves the determination of strength and stability of different parts of the
structure. The structure must be stable against the various forces acting on the structure. These
are water pressure, force due to overflow and effect of water flow below the structure (i.e.
seepage and/or sub-surface flow). The structure must be stable against these forces. In addition,
the dimension of the structure should also be such that, the external stress developed in the
structure, must be resisted by the construction materials. It is achieved in that condition when
internal stress becomes equal to external stress. For more information refer your Irrigation
structure and Hydraulic structure courses.

Lecture Note 2014 By Demelash W. & Dr. Santosh M. Pingale 24