4.

IRRIGATION METHODS

4.1. Introduction to Surface Irrigation System

The term 'surface irrigation' refers to a broad class of irrigation methods in which water is
distributed over the field by overland flow. A flow is introduced at one edge of the field and
covers the field gradually. The rate of coverage (advance) is dependent almost entirely on the
differences between the discharge onto the field and the accumulating infiltration into the
soil. Secondary factors include field slope, surface roughness, and the geometry or shape of
the flow cross-section.
Surface irrigation offers a number of important advantages at both the farm and project level.
Because it is so widely utilized, local irrigators generally have at least minimal understanding
of how to operate and maintain the system. In addition, surface systems are often more
acceptable to agriculturalists who appreciate the effects of water shortage on crop yields
since it appears easier to apply the depths required to refill the root zone. The second
advantage of surface irrigation is that these systems can be developed at the farm level with
minimal capital investment. Also they are less affected by climatic and water quality
characteristics.
Although they need not be, surface irrigation systems are typically less efficient in applying
water than either sprinkler or trickle systems. Many are situated on lower lands with heavier
soils and, therefore, tend to be more affected by water-logging and soil salinity if adequate
drainage is not provided. The need to use the field surface as a conveyance and distribution
facility requires that fields be well graded if possible. Land levelling costs can be high so the
surface irrigation practice tends to be limited to land already having small, even slopes.

Surface Irrigation Processes (hydraulic phases)

In surface irrigation, water is applied directly to the soil surface from a channel located at the
upper reach of the field. Gravity provides the major driving force to spread water over the
irrigated field. Once distributed over the surface of the field and after it has entered the soil,
water is often redistributed by forces other than gravity.
Generally, in a surface irrigation event four distinct hydraulic phases can be distinguished:

1. Advance phase: the time interval between the start of irrigation and arrival of the
advancing (wetting) front at the lower end of the field.

2. Ponding (wetting storage or continuing) phase: the irrigation time extending between
the end of advance and inflow cut-off. The term “Wetting” phase is usually used for furrow
and border where tail water runoff can occur, whereas ponding is the preferred term for basin
irrigation (no tail water runoff)

3. Depletion (vertical recession) phase: the time interval between supply cut-off and the
time that water dries up at the inlet boundary.

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4. Recession (horizontal recession) phase: the time required for the water to recede from all
points in the channel, starting from the end of the depletion phase. The time difference at
each measuring station between the clock time or cumulative time for advance and recession
is the opportunity time, T, infiltration to occur.

Figure 5.1 hydraulic phases of surface irrigation

4.2 Surface Irrigation Methods

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i. Wild Flooding

There are many cases where croplands are irrigated without regard to efficiency or
uniformity. These are generally situations where the value of the crop is very small or the
field is used for grazing or recreation purposes. Small land holdings are generally not subject
to the array of surface irrigation practices of the large commercial farming systems. Also in
this category are the surface irrigation systems like check-basins which irrigate individual
trees in an orchard, for example. While these systems represent significant percentages in
some areas. The evaluation methods can be applied if desired, but the design techniques are
not generally applicable nor need they be since the irrigation practices tend to be minimally
managed.

Fig. 5.2 Wild Flooding

ii. Basin Irrigation

Basin irrigation is the most common form of surface irrigation, particularly in regions with
layouts of small fields. If a field is level in all directions, is encompassed by a dyke to
prevent runoff, and provides an undirected flow of water onto the field, it is herein called a
basin. A basin is typically square in shape but exists in all sorts of irregular and rectangular
configurations. It may be furrowed or corrugated, have raised beds for the benefit of certain
crops, but as long as the inflow is undirected and uncontrolled into these field modifications,
it remains a basin.

There are few crops and soils not amenable to basin irrigation, but it is generally favoured by
moderate to slow intake soils, deep-rooted and closely spaced crops. Crops which are
sensitive to flooding and soils which form a hard crust following irrigation can be basin
irrigated by adding furrowing or using raised bed planting. Reclamation of salt-affected soils
is easily accomplished with basin irrigation and provision for drainage of surface runoff is
unnecessary.

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Figure 5.3: Isometric View of Level Basin System

Basin irrigation has a number of limitations, two of which, already mentioned, are associated
with soil crusting and crops that cannot accommodate inundation. Precision land levelling is
very important to achieving high uniformities and efficiencies. Many basins are so small that
precision equipment cannot work effectively. The perimeter dykes need to be well
maintained to eliminate breaching and waste, and must be higher for basins than other
surface irrigation methods. To reach maximum levels of efficiency, the flow per unit width
must be as high as possible without causing erosion of the soil. When an irrigation project
has been designed for either small basins or furrows and borders, the capacity of control and
outlet structures may not be large enough to improve basins.

The flow rate must be large enough to cover the entire basin approximately 60 to 75 percent
of the time required for the soil to absorb the desired amount of water.
Basin irrigation can be used to apply prescribed application depths at design efficiencies of
more than 90%. However, studies on basin irrigation systems in various countries have
documented both extensive over and under-irrigation as the norm, which has resulted in
overall low irrigation efficiencies.
Basin irrigation is suited to different crops, such as, rice, cotton, groundnuts etc. and to soils
of moderate to low intake rate (50 mm/h or less) having smooth, gentle and uniform land
slopes. The method is especially adapted to irrigation of grain and fodder crops in heavy soils
where water is absorbed very slowly and is required to stand for a relatively long time to
ensure adequate irrigation.

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 Figure 5.4 Basin Irrigation

iii. Border Irrigation

Border irrigation can be viewed as an extension of basin irrigation to sloping, long

rectangular or contoured field shapes, with free draining conditions at the lower end. Figure
4.4 illustrates a typical border configuration in which a field is divided into sloping borders.
Water is applied to individual borders from small hand-dug checks from the field head ditch.
When the water is shut off, it recedes from the upper end to the lower end. Sloping borders
are suitable for nearly any crop except those that require prolonged ponding. Soils can be
efficiently irrigated which have moderately low to moderately high intake rates but, as with
basins, should not form dense crusts unless provisions are made to furrow or construct raised
borders for the crops. The stream size per unit width must be large, particularly following a
major tillage operation, although not so large for basins owing to the effects of slope. The

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precision of the field topography is also critical, but the extended lengths permit better
levelling through the use of farm machinery.

Figure 5.5: Isometric View of Border Irrigation System

Border irrigation makes use of parallel earth rides to guide a sheet of flowing water across a
field. The land between two levees is called a border strip, simply called a border. Border
strips, like basins, can be described as rectangular channels (narrow or wide) in which the
width of flow plays a dominant role in affecting the geometric elements of the channel. The
border strip may vary from 3 to 30 meters in width and from 100 to 800 meters in length.
Border irrigation is a more controlled version of wild flooding with additional field ditches
that serve as supply sources for applying water to the field.

Border irrigation is generally well suited to soils with moderately high intake rates and to
slopes less than 0.5 percent. The method can be classified as straight or contour borders
depending on weather the borders are running along or across the main slope. Borders can be
grouped into three major categories depending on the management strategy adopted:

Fixed flow: a system in which the inlet flow rate remains constant throughout the duration of
irrigation, the method is simple and less expensive but generally of low efficiency.

Cutback: this is a system in which irrigation begins with a maximum or near maximum non
erosive inlet flow rate, which continues for a part of the irrigation period and then reduced
to a level just above what is needed to wet the entire length of the border.

Tail water reuse: this is a system in which excess surface runoff from the downstream end is
collected in a sump and then pumped back into the same field to open up more borders or
used to irrigate another field.

Field application efficiency is good to excellent if the border strips are designed and installed
properly and good water management practices are followed. Design water application
efficiencies of the order 70 -75 % can be attained for slopes of 0.001 to 0.002 m/m on soils of
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silty clay to clay with depth of application of 75 - 100 mm. For high efficiencies, the stream
size and the resulting rate of advance must be controlled to match the recession conditions to
provide approximately equal infiltration opportunity time at both the upper and lower ends.

Figure5.6 Border Irrigation

iv. Furrow Irrigation

Furrow irrigation avoids flooding the entire field surface by channelling the flow along the
primary direction of the field using 'furrows,' 'creases,' or 'corrugations'. Water infiltrates
through the wetted perimeter and spreads vertically and horizontally to refill the soil
reservoir. Furrows are often employed in basins and borders to reduce the effects of
topographical variation and crusting. The distinctive feature of furrow irrigation is that the
flow into each furrow is independently set and controlled as opposed to furrowed borders and
basins where the flow is set and controlled on a border by border or basin by basin basis.

Furrows provide better on-farm water management flexibility under many surface irrigation
conditions. The discharge per unit width of the field is substantially reduced and
topographical variations can be more severe. A smaller wetted area reduces evaporation
losses. Furrows provide the irrigator more opportunity to manage irrigations toward higher
efficiencies as field conditions change for each irrigations throughout a season. This is not to
say, however, that furrow irrigation enjoys higher application efficiencies than borders and
basins.

There are several disadvantages with furrow irrigation. These may include: (1) an
accumulation of salinity between furrows; (2) an increased level of tail water losses; (3) the
difficulty of moving farm equipment across the furrows; (4) the added expense and time to
make extra tillage practice (furrow construction); (5) an increase in the erosive potential of
7
the flow; (6) a higher commitment of labour to operate efficiently; and (7) generally furrow
systems are more difficult to automate, particularly with regard to regulating an equal
discharge in each furrow.

(a) Graded furrow irrigation system

(b) Contour furrows

Figure 5.7: Furrow irrigation configurations (after USDA-SCS, 1967)

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Fig 5.8 Typical furrow cross-section (wetting Pattern)

When properly designed and operated, furrow irrigation systems may result in a good
performance. The wide variations in furrow cross-section types as well as the two
dimensional nature of the infiltration process under furrow irrigation complicates
mathematical analysis and field measurement needed to quantify irrigation parameters
compared to other two methods.

Efforts to achieve high application efficiencies for furrow-irrigated systems are limited by
very large spatial and temporal variation in infiltration characteristics. Thus, while
efficiencies of 85 to 90 % are periodically reported from studies incorporating careful soil
moisture monitoring and automation, efficiencies in the order of 50 to 70 % are more
common. Moreover, designs could be acceptable if the water application efficiency is greater
than 70 percent, with less than 10 percent deep percolation and 20 percent runoff losses,
while storage efficiency is greater than 85 to 90 percent.

Most crops would be irrigated by the furrow method and is best suited to medium to
moderately fine textured soils with relatively high water holding capacity and conductivity
which allow significant water movement in both the horizontal and vertical directions. Like
border irrigation, furrow irrigation systems, can be grouped into fixed flow, cutback flow and
tail-water reuse system depending on the management strategy adopted.

4.3 Pressurized irrigation Methods

Pressurized irrigation has revolutionized the way we water plants: Water is put into pipes,
pressurized and precisely delivered to plants. This method saves much more water than
traditional surface flow irrigation, where water from canals or bodies of water is released into
open furrows or basins and distributed by gravity. With increasing world aridity and world
population, efficient irrigation methods are vital. Pressurized irrigation is a relatively recent

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technology developed during the 1900s. A key development was the invention of drip
irrigation in the 1960s in Israel

Advantages
Pressurized irrigation systems avoid the water loss of open surface flow irrigation. Estimates
indicate that open irrigation application efficiency is 45 percent to a maximum of 60 percent.
In contrast, pressurized irrigation efficiency is 75 to 95 percent, according to a 2000 report by
the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. To conserve water, many cities
in the American West are turning to pressurized systems rather than surface flow irrigation to
give homeowners irrigation water for yards. Pressurized irrigation allows the use of small
bodies of water or runoff from rain that couldn't be used in traditional methods. It can also be
tailored to expensive, complicated units like spray booms for agribusiness to simple,
inexpensive systems like family drip systems for developing areas without electricity. Open
canals have high maintenance requirements with skilled labour and large equipment needed.
Pressurized irrigation systems need from one-tenth to one-quarter of the man hours open
systems require, according to the same report by the Food and Agriculture Organization. In
addition, pressurized irrigation systems can help increase food production and water
conservation in developing countries where the need is high. Pressurized irrigation is
especially valuable in arid and semi-arid areas.

Disadvantages
Water quality is crucial to the prolonged operation of pressurized irrigation systems. Water
high in dissolved minerals leads to frequent blocking of emitters. Routine maintenance is
needed to unblock delivery fittings and to maintain pumps and fertigation units. Build-up of
mineral salts in the soil around root zones may also cause problems with plant growth. Thus,
water needs to be filtered before entering the irrigation system to remove suspended solids
such as silt, algae, sand and dust, which will clog emitters. As many as three filters may be
needed, and the filters need to be maintained rigorously.

i. Sprinkler type irrigation

Sprinkler irrigation is a method of applying water to the surface of the soil in the form of a
spray, which is similar to natural rainfall. Water is distributed through a system of pipes
usually by pumping. It is then sprayed into the air through sprinklers so that it breaks up into
small water drops which fall to the ground. The pump supply system, sprinklers and
operating conditions must be designed to enable a uniform application of water.

Sprinkler systems are used to irrigate crops to increase crop production as are all irrigation
systems. However, sprinkler systems may also have other uses; some of them are unique to
this type of water application device. Sprinkler systems may be used for disposal of
municipal, industrial and agricultural wastes. It is used to lightly wet the soil surface after
seeding to improve germination. Fertilizers may be applied to a crop through a sprinkler

10
system if the uniformity of the application system is sufficient. Sprinkler systems may also
be used for frost protection under adverse weather condition which bud freezing may bring
serious economic damage to a crop. When such systems are use for frost protection, the bud
is covered with a thin layer of frozen water.

Adaptability of Sprinkler Irrigation

Some of the conditions which favour sprinkler irrigation are as follows.
 Soils too porous for good distribution by surface methods.
 Shallow soils the topography of which prevents proper levelling for surface
irrigation methods.
 Land having steep slopes and easily erodible soils.
 Irrigation stream too small to distribute water efficiently by surface irrigation.
 Undulating land too costly too level sufficiently for good surface irrigation.
 Land needs to be brought in to top production quality. Sprinkler systems can be
designed and installed quickly.
 Soils with low water holding capacities and shallow rooted crops which require
frequent irrigation.
 Automation and mechanization are practical.
 Labour available for irrigation is either not experienced in surface methods of
irrigation or is unreliable, good surface irrigation requires trained reliable labour.
 Higher application efficiency can be achieved by properly designed and operated
systems.
For optimum crop growth sprinkler irrigation is suitable under the following conditions.

Suitable crops
Suitable slopes
Suitable soils
Suitable irrigation water

Sprinkler Irrigation versus Surface irrigation

When comparing sprinkler and surface methods of irrigation, the following points should be
considered:

 Sprinkler systems can be designed so that less interference with cultivation and other
farming operations occurs and less land is taken out of production than with surface
methods.
 Frequent and small depth of water can readily be applied by sprinkler systems.
 Higher water application efficiency can normally be obtained by sprinkler irrigation.
 For areas requiring in frequent irrigation, sprinkler irrigation can be provided at a
lower capital investment per acre of land irrigated than can surface irrigation.
 Water measurement is easier with sprinkler than with surface methods.

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  Whenever water can be delivered to the field under gravity irrigation, sprinkler
irrigation is particularly attractive.
 When domestic and Irrigation water come from the same source, a common
distribution line can be frequently used.

Limitations of sprinkler Irrigation:

 Wind distorts sprinkler pattern and causes uneven distribution of water
 Ripened soft fruits may be affected by spraying water.
 Water must be clean and free of sand, debris and large amount of dissolved salts.
 High initial investment as compared to surface irrigation.
 High power requirements
 Fine textured soils with slow infiltration rate cannot be irrigated efficiently in hot
windy areas.
 In areas of high temperature and high wind velocity, considerable evaporation losses
of water may take place.

Types of sprinklers and Sprinkler systems

Various types of sprinkler systems have been developed in response to economic and labour
conditions, topographic conditions, special water application needs and the availability of
water and land resources. Several types of sprinkler irrigation systems will be introduced
here in with.
Based on the arrangement for spraying irrigation water sprinklers may be classified as fixed
nozzles attached to the pipe, perforated pipe, and rotating sprinklers.

Fixed Nozzle: Parallel pipes are installed at about 15 meters apart and supported on rows of
posts. Water is discharged at right angles perpendicularly from the pipe line. The entire 15 m
width between pipe lines may be irrigated by turning the pipes through about 135°.

Perforated sprinkler: Generally application rates exceeding 20 mm/hr for this system and
pressure heads less than 25m, often as low as 7m.
Rotating sprinklers: Extensively used due to its ability to apply water at a slower rate. It
uses relatively large nozzle openings which are favourable in water containing silt and debris
since less stoppage of sprinklers is experienced.
Classification based on the method of developing pressure:

 Pump powered system

 Gravity sprinkler system
 Hybrid systems (Pumps + Gravity)

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Classification based on portability and make-up of units:
Sprinkler system may be classified broadly as conventional systems (Periodic move and
fixed systems) and mobile sprinkler machines (periodic move and continuous move system.

1. Conventional system (Periodic move and fixed systems)

Different types under this group based on portability and mobility of the different
components are indicated.

 Permanent system
 Solid set system
 Portable system
 Hand move (semi portable system)

Fig. 5.10 Lay out of Hand move sprinkler System

2. Mobile sprinkler machines

These are self propelled machines or which are external power unit, designed mobile with all
required system components to irrigate larger area. In these systems labour requirement is
very less. However mechanical breakdown is more likely. Therefore it is advisable to allow
some reserve capacity (time) and use that same system capacity as for conventional system.

 Side roll system

 Self propelled gun travellers - Big Gun sprinkler
 Centre pivot system
 Linear move system
 Boom sprinkler system
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Sprinkler System Components
A typical sprinkler irrigation system consists of the following components:
 Pressure generating units(Pump unit)
 Water carrier units (Mainlines , sub mainlines, Laterals)
 water delivery units (riser pipes and Sprinklers)
 Quality improvement sub units ( Screens , Desilting basins)
 Ancillary units ( Fertilizer and other chemical applicator)
The pump unit is usually a centrifugal pump which takes water from the source and
provides adequate pressure for delivery into the pipe system.
Mainline: a line between the source of pressurized water and the point at which water is
delivered to the field is the next component. Generally the mainline is buried or above-
ground pipeline.
Lateral line: This comes out of the mainline to deliver water to the sprinkler nozzles. The
position of the lateral may be permanent, as in a solid set, or moveable as in the hand move
and side- roll systems. The spacing between the successive positions of the lateral along the
mainline spacing and is designated as Sm.

The distance between sprinkler nozzles along a lateral is termed as the lateral spacing and
designated as Sl. The spray area which is wet by each sprinkler nozzle at a particular
operating pressure is designated as the wetted diameter, DW. The wetted diameters are
overlapped along the lateral to promote a more uniform distribution of water application.

Debris screen: Debris screen are usually needed when surface water is used as the source of
irrigation. The function of screens is to keep the system free of trash that might plug the
sprinkles nozzles.

Booster pumps: Booster pumps are used when additional pressure is required in some
particular place of the already pressurized system.

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Fig. 5.11 Definition sketch for components of sprinkler system

Design of sprinkler systems

The step-by –step procedure in the planning and design of a sprinkler irrigation system are:-

15
  Inventory of available resources and operating conditions
 Topographic map of the area
 Water supply – source availability and dependability
 Climatic Condition
 Power source
 Crop Selection

Sprinkler characteristics
When we design sprinkler system we should know different characteristics of sprinklers. The
actual selection of the sprinkler is based largely up on design information furnished by
manufacturers of the equipment. The essential parameters are sprinkler discharge, distance of
through, application rate and distribution pattern together with application uniformity and
efficiency. Sprinkler nozzle discharge is a function of nozzle size and pressure available.
Distance of throw diameter of through governs spacing between sprinklers or laterals. It has
direct relationship with the operating pressure.
Uniformity of application depends on matching operating pressure with the selected sprinkler
nozzle diameter, wind effects and sprinkler spacing. The prevailing wind condition can also
have a tremendous effect on the application pattern of a sprinkler system.

ii. Drip irrigation

Drip irrigation is sometimes called trickle irrigation and involves dripping water onto the soil
at very low rates (2-20 litres/hour) from a system of small diameter plastic pipes fitted with
outlets called emitters or drippers. Water is applied close to plants so that only part of the soil
in which the roots grow is wetted, unlike surface and sprinkler irrigation, which involves
wetting the whole soil profile. With drip irrigation water, applications are more frequent
(usually every 1-3 days) than with other methods and this provides a very favourable high
moisture level in the soil in which plants can flourish.

Suitable crops
Drip irrigation is most suitable for row crops (vegetables, soft fruit), tree and vine crops
where one or more emitters can be provided for each plant. Generally only high value crops
are considered because of the high capital costs of installing a drip system.

Suitable slopes
Drip irrigation is adaptable to any farmable slope. Normally the crop would be planted along
contour lines and the water supply pipes (laterals) would be laid along the contour also. This
is done to minimize changes in emitter discharge as a result of land elevation changes.

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Suitable soils
Drip irrigation is suitable for most soils. On clay soils water must be applied slowly to avoid
surface water ponding and runoff. On sandy soils higher emitter discharge rates will be
needed to ensure adequate lateral wetting of the soil.

Suitable irrigation water

One of the main problems with drip irrigation is blockage of the emitters. All emitters have
very small waterways ranging from 0.2-2.0 mm in diameter and these can become blocked if
the water is not clean. Thus it is essential for irrigation water to be free of sediments. If this is
not so then filtration of the irrigation water will be needed.
Blockage may also occur if the water contains algae, fertilizer deposits and dissolved
chemicals which precipitate such as calcium and iron. Filtration may remove some of the
materials but the problem may be complex to solve and requires an experienced engineer or
consultation with the equipment dealer. Drip irrigation is particularly suitable for water of
poor quality (saline water). Dripping water to individual plants also means that the method
can be very efficient in water use. For this reason it is most suitable when water is scarce.

Drip System Layout

A typical drip irrigation system consists of the following components:
 Pump unit
 Control head
 Main and sub main lines
 Laterals
 Emitters or drippers
The pump unit takes water from the source and provides the right pressure for delivery into
the pipe system. The control head consists of valves to control the discharge and pressure in
the entire system. It may also have filters to clear the water. Common types of filter include
screen filters and graded sand filters which remove fine material suspended in the water.
Some control head units contain a fertilizer or nutrient tank. These slowly add a measured
dose of fertilizer into the water during irrigation. This is one of the major advantages of drip
irrigation over other methods.

Mainlines, sub mains and laterals supply water from the control head into the fields. They are
usually made from PVC or polyethylene hose and should be buried below ground because
they easily degrade when exposed to direct solar radiation. Lateral pipes are usually 13-32
mm diameter.

Emitters or drippers are devices used to control the discharge of water from the lateral to the
plants. They are usually spaced more than 1 metre apart with one or more emitters used for a
single plant such as a tree. For row crops more closely spaced emitters may be used to wet a
strip of soil. Many different emitter designs have been produced in recent years. The basis of

17
design is to produce an emitter which will provide a specified constant discharge which does
not vary much with pressure changes, and does not block easily
A drip system is usually permanent. When remaining in place during more than one season, a
system is considered permanent. Thus it can easily be automated. This is very useful when
labour is scarce or expensive to hire. However, automation requires specialist skills and so
this approach is unsuitable if such skills are not available.

Water can be applied frequently (every day if required) with drip irrigation and this provides
very favourable conditions for crop growth. However, if crops are used to being watered each
day they may only develop shallow roots and if the system breaks down, the crop may begin
to suffer very quickly.

Unlike surface and sprinkler irrigation, drip irrigation only wets part of the soil root zone.
This may be as, low as 30% of the volume of soil wetted by the other methods. The wetting
patterns which develop from dripping water onto the soil depend on discharge and soil type.
The effect of changes in discharge on two different soil types, namely sand and clay

Figure 5.12 Wetting patterns for sand soils with high and low discharge rate

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Figure 5.13 Wetting patterns for clay soils with high and low discharge rates

Although only part of the root zone is wetted it is still important to meet the full water needs
of the crop. It is sometimes thought that drip irrigation saves water by reducing the amount
used by the crop. This is not true. Crop water use is not changed by the method of applying
water. Crops just require the right amount for good growth.

The water savings that can be made using drip irrigation are the reductions in deep
percolation, in surface runoff and in evaporation from the soil. These savings, it must be
remembered, depend as much on the user of the equipment as on the equipment itself.

Drip irrigation is not a substitute for other proven methods of irrigation. It is just another way
of applying water. It is best suited to areas where water quality is marginal, land is steeply
sloping or undulating and of poor quality, where water or labour are expensive, or where
high value crops require frequent water applications

4.4. Criteria for Selection of Various Methods

To choose an irrigation method, the farmer must know the advantages and disadvantages of
the various methods. He or she must know which method suits the local conditions best.
Unfortunately, in many cases there is no single best solution: all methods have their
advantages and disadvantages. Testing of the various methods - under the prevailing local
conditions - provides the best basis for a sound choice of irrigation method. This chapter
gives some very broad guidance and indicates several important criteria in the selection of a
suitable irrigation method.

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Surface, Sprinkler or Drip Irrigation
The suitability of the various irrigation methods, i.e. surface, sprinkler or drip irrigation
depends mainly on the following factors:
- Natural conditions - Type of crop

- Type of technology - Previous experience with irrigation

- Required labor inputs - Costs and benefits

The natural conditions such as soil type, slope, climate, water quality and availability, have
the following impact on the choice of an irrigation method:

Soil type: Sandy soils have a low water storage capacity and a high infiltration rate. They
therefore need frequent but small irrigation applications, in particular when the
sandy soil is also shallow. Under these circumstances, sprinkler or drip irrigation
are more suitable than surface irrigation. On loam or clay soils all three irrigation
methods can be used, but surface irrigation is more commonly found. Clay soils
with low infiltration rates are ideally suited to surface irrigation.
When a variety of different soil types is found within one irrigation scheme,
sprinkler or drip irrigation are recommended as they will ensure a more even
water distribution.
Slope: Sprinkler or drip irrigation are preferred above surface irrigation on steeper or
unevenly sloping lands as they require little or no land levelling. An exception is
rice grown on terraces on sloping lands.
Climate: Strong wind can disturb the spraying of water from sprinklers. Under very windy
conditions, drip or surface irrigation methods are preferred. In areas of
supplementary irrigation, sprinkler or drip irrigation may be more suitable than
surface irrigation because of their flexibility and adaptability to varying irrigation
demands on the farm.
Water Water application efficiency is generally higher with sprinkler and drip irrigation
availability: than surface irrigation and so these methods are preferred when water is in short
supply. However, it must be remembered that efficiency is just as much a function
of the irrigator as the method used.
Water Surface irrigation is preferred if the irrigation water contains much sediment. The
quality: sediments may clog the drip or sprinkler irrigation systems.
If the irrigation water contains dissolved salts, drip irrigation is particularly
suitable, as less water is applied to the soil than with surface methods.
Sprinkler systems are more efficient that surface irrigation methods in leaching
out salts.

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Type of crop: Surface irrigation can be used for all types of crops. Sprinkler and drip
irrigation, because of their high capital investment per hectare, are mostly used for high value
cash crops, such as vegetables and fruit trees. They are seldom used for the lower value
staple crops. Drip irrigation is suited to irrigating individual plants or trees or row crops such
as vegetables and sugarcane. It is not suitable for close growing crops (e.g. rice).

Type of technology: The type of technology affects the choice of irrigation method. In
general, drip and sprinkler irrigation are technically more complicated methods. The
purchase of equipment requires high capital investment per hectare. To maintain the
equipment a high level of 'know-how' has to be available, Also, a regular supply of fuel and
spare parts must be maintained which - together with the purchase of equipment - may
require foreign currency.

Surface irrigation systems-in particular small-scale schemes - usually require less

sophisticated equipment for both construction and maintenance (unless pumps are used). The
equipment needed is often easier to maintain and less dependent on the availability of foreign
currency.
Previous experience with irrigation: The choice of an irrigation method also depends on
the irrigation tradition within the region or country. Introducing a previously unknown
method may lead to unexpected complications. It is not certain that the farmers will accept
the new method. The servicing of the equipment may be problematic and the costs may be
high compared to the benefits. Often it will be easier to improve the traditional irrigation
method than to introduce a totally new method.
Required labor inputs: Surface irrigation often requires a much higher labor input - for
construction, operation and maintenance - than sprinkler or drip irrigation. Surface irrigation
requires accurate land leveling, regular maintenance and a high level of farmers' organization
to operate the system. Sprinkler and drip irrigation require little land leveling; system
operation and maintenance are less labor-intensive.
Costs and benefits: Before choosing an irrigation method, an estimate must be made of the
costs and benefits of the available options. On the cost side not only the construction and
installation, but also the operation and maintenance (per hectare) should be taken into
account. These costs should then be compared with the expected benefits (yields). It is
obvious that farmers will only be interested in implementing a certain method if they
consider this economically attractive. Cost/benefit analysis is, however, beyond the scope of
this manual.
In conclusion: surface irrigation is by far the most widespread irrigation method. It is
normally used when conditions are favorable: mild and regular slopes, soil type with medium
to low infiltration rate, and a sufficient supply of surface or groundwater. In the case of steep
or irregular slopes, soils with a very high infiltration rate or scarcity of water, sprinkler and
drip irrigation may be more appropriate. When introducing sprinkler and drip irrigation it
must be ensured that the equipment can be maintained.

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