Potential theory

For irregular, nonspherical mass distributions in three dimensions,

Newton’s original vector equation (4) is inefficient, though
theoretically it could be used for finding the resulting gravitational
field. The main progress in classical gravitational theory after
Newton was the development of potential theory, which provides
the mathematical representation of gravitational fields. It allows
practical as well as theoretical investigation of the gravitational
variations in space and of the anomalies due to the irregularities
and shape deformations of Earth.

Potential theory led to the following elegant formulation: the

gravitational acceleration g is a function of position R, g(R), which
at any point in space is given from a function Φ called
the gravitational potential, by means of a generalization of the
operation of differentiation: in which i, j,
and k stand for unit basis vectors in a three-dimensional
Cartesian coordinate system. The potential and therefore g are
determined by an equation discovered by the French
mathematician Siméon-Denis Poisson:

where ρ(R) is the density at the

vector position R.

The significance of this approach is that Poisson’s equation can be

solved under rather general conditions, which is not the case with
Newton’s equation. When the mass density ρ is nonzero, the
solution is expressed as the definite integral:
where the integral is a three-dimensional
integral over the volume of all space. When ρ = 0 (in particular,
outside Earth), Poisson’s equation reduces to the simpler equation
of Laplace.

The appropriate coordinates for the region outside the nearly

spherical Earth are spherical polar coordinates: R, the distance
from the centre of Earth; θ, the colatitude measured from the North
Pole; and the longitude measured from Greenwich. The solutions
are series of powers of R multiplied by trigonometric functions of
colatitude and longitude, known as spherical harmonics; the first

terms are:

The constants J2, J3, and so forth are determined by the detailed

mass distribution of Earth; and, since Newton showed that for a
spherical body all the Jn are zero, they must measure
the deformation of Earth from a spherical shape. J2 measures the
magnitude of Earth’s rotational equatorial bulge, J3 measures a
slight pear-shaped deformation of Earth, and so on. The orbits of
spacecraft around Earth, other planets, and the Moon deviate from
simple Keplerian ellipses in consequence of the various spherical
harmonic terms in the potential. Observations of such deviations
were made for the very first artificial spacecraft.
The parameters J2 and J3 for Earth have been found to be 1,082.7 ×
10−6 and −2.4 × 10−6, respectively. Very many other harmonic terms
have been found in that way for Earth and also for the Moon and for
other planets. Halley had already pointed out in the 18th century
that the motions of the moons of Jupiter are perturbed from simple
ellipses by the variation of gravity around Jupiter.

The surface of the oceans, if tides and waves are ignored, is a

surface of constant potential of gravity and rotation. If the only
spherical harmonic term in gravity were that corresponding to the
equatorial bulge, the sea surface would be just a spheroid of
revolution (a surface formed by rotating a two-dimensional curve
about some axis; for example, rotating an ellipse about its major
axis produces an ellipsoid). Additional terms in the potential give
rise to departures of the sea surface from that simple form. The
actual form may be calculated from the sum of the known harmonic
terms, but it is now possible to measure the form of the sea surface
itself directly by laser ranging from spacecraft. Whether found
indirectly by calculation or directly by measurement, the form of the
sea surface may be shown as contours of its deviation from the
simple spheroid of revolution.
variation in Earth's gravitational field
The variation in the gravitational field, given in milliGals (mGal), over the Earth's surface gives
rise to an imaginary surface known as the geoid. The geoid expresses the height of an imaginary
global ocean not subject to tides, currents, or winds. Such an ocean would vary by up to 200
metres (650 feet) in height because of regional variations in gravitation.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Effects of local mass differences
Spherical harmonics are the natural way of expressing the large-
scale variations of potential that arise from the deep structure of
Earth. However, spherical harmonics are not suitable for local
variations due to more-superficial structures. Not long after
Newton’s time, it was found that the gravity on top of large
mountains is less than expected on the basis of their visible mass.
The idea of isostasy was developed, according to which the
unexpectedly low acceleration of gravity on a mountain is caused by
low-density rock 30 to 100 km underground, which buoys up the
mountain. Correspondingly, the unexpectedly high force of gravity
on ocean surfaces is explained by dense rock 10 to 30 km beneath
the ocean bottom.

Portable gravimeters, which can detect variations of one part in

109 in the gravitational force, are in wide use today for mineral and
oil prospecting. Unusual underground deposits reveal their
presence by producing local gravitational variations.