Exploration Geophysics

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Exploration Geophysics

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Concepts of Earth’s gravity: The real shape of earth

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Concepts of Earth’s gravity: Geoid
• The geoid is a model of global mean sea level that is used to measure precise surface elevations.
• While we often think of the earth as a sphere, our planet is actually very bumpy and irregular.
• The radius at the equator is larger than at the poles due to the long-term effects of the earth's
rotation. And, at a smaller scale, there is topography—mountains have more mass than a valley and
thus the pull of gravity is regionally stronger near mountains.
• All of these large and small variations to the size, shape, and mass distribution of the earth cause
slight variations in the acceleration of gravity (or the "strength" of gravity's pull). These variations
determine the shape of the planet's environment.
• If one were to remove the tides and currents from the ocean, it would settle onto a smoothly
undulating shape (rising where gravity is high, sinking where gravity is low).
• This irregular shape is called "the geoid," a surface which defines zero elevation. Using complex
math and gravity readings on land, surveyors extend this imaginary line through the continents.
This model is used to measure surface elevations with a high degree of accuracy.

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Concepts of Earth’s gravity: Geodesy and geodesists
• Geodesy: Geodesy is the science of accurately measuring and understanding three
fundamental properties of the Earth: its geometric shape, its orientation in space,
and its gravity field— as well as the changes of these properties with time.
• Geodesists: To measure the Earth, geodesists build simple mathematical models
of the Earth which capture the largest, most obvious features. Geodesists have
adopted the ellipsoid as the most basic model of the Earth. Because the ellipsoid is
based on a very simple mathematical model, it can be completely smooth and does
not include any mountains or valleys. When additional detail of the Earth is
needed, geodesists use the geoid. A geoid has a shape very similar to global mean
sea level, but this exists over the whole globe, not just over the oceans.

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Concepts of Earth’s gravity: Tides and tidal effect
• Tides: Tides are the daily or twice daily rise and fall of the oceans. Tides are
caused by the gravitational pull of the moon and sun on the ocean.
• Tidal effect: As Earth rotates, the Moon's gravity pulls on different parts of our
planet. The Moon's gravity pulls on the water in the oceans, and the water wants to
bulge in the direction of the Moon. This is called the tidal force. Because of the
tidal force, the water on the side of the Moon always wants to bulge out toward
the Moon. This bulge is what we call a high tide. The part of the Earth which
rotates into this bulge of water, that part might experience a high tide.

2020-11-24 Reference: E. S. Robinson and C. Coruh, “Basic Exploration Geophysics,” John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1988 6
Concepts of Earth’s gravity: Tides and tidal effect
• Even though the sun is much more massive and therefore has stronger overall gravity than the
moon, the moon is closer to the earth so that its gravitational gradient is stronger than that of the
sun. Because ocean tides are the effect of ocean water responding to a gravitational gradient, the
moon plays a larger role in creating tides than does the sun. But the sun's gravitational gradient
across the earth is significant and it does contribute to tides as well.

2020-11-24 Reference: E. S. Robinson and C. Coruh, “Basic Exploration Geophysics,” John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1988 7
Concepts of Earth’s gravity: Tidal effect (Numerical)

• Exercise 01: The mass of the earth is 6× kg and that of the moon
is 7.4× kg. If the distance between the earth and the moon is 3.84× m,
calculate the force exerted by the earth on the moon using Newton’s law of
gravitation. G=6.7× N / .
• Exercise 02: Calculate the force of gravitation between the earth and the Sun,
given that the mass of the earth is 6× kg and of the Sun is 2× kg. The
average distance between the two is 1.5× m.
• Exercise 03: Though the mass of Sun is times larger than the mass of Moon.
But the difference between the gravitational force of both is not that big. Why?

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Concepts of Earth’s gravity: Latitude
• The elliptical shape of the earth causes the
gravitational acceleration to vary with
latitude because the distance between
the gravimeter and the earth's center
varies with latitude. Qualitatively, we
would expect the gravitational
acceleration to be smaller at the equator
than at the poles, because the surface of
the earth is farther from the earth's center
at the equator than it is at the poles.

2020-11-24 Reference: E. S. Robinson and C. Coruh, “Basic Exploration Geophysics,” John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1988 9
Concepts of Earth’s gravity: Rotation

• The fact that the earth is rotating also causes a change in the gravitational acceleration with
latitude. This affect is related to the fact that our gravimeter is rotating with the earth as we make
our gravity reading. Because the earth rotates on an axis passing through the poles at a rate of once
a day and our gravimeter is resting on the earth as the reading is made, the gravity reading contains
information related to the earth's rotation.
• We know that if a body rotates, it experiences an outward directed force known as a centrifugal
force. The size of this force is proportional to the distance from the axis of rotation and the rate at
which the rotation is occurring. For our gravimeter located on the surface of the earth, the rate of
rotation does not vary with position, but the distance between the rotational axis and the gravity
meter does vary. The size of the centrifugal force is relatively large at the equator and goes to zero
at the poles. The direction this force acts is always away from the axis of rotation. Therefore, this
force acts to reduce the gravitational acceleration we would observe at any point on the earth, from
that which would be observed if the earth were not rotating.
• Thus, gravity is minimum (9.78 m/𝑠 ) at the Equator and maximum (9.83 m/𝑠 ) at the poles.
2020-11-24 Reference: E. S. Robinson and C. Coruh, “Basic Exploration Geophysics,” John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1988 10
Concepts of Earth’s gravity: Latitude dependent changes

• Correcting observations of the gravitational acceleration for latitude dependent variations

arising from the earth's elliptical shape and rotation is relatively straight forward. By
assuming the earth is elliptical with the appropriate dimensions, is rotating at the
appropriate rate, and contains no lateral variations in geologic structure (that is, contains
no interesting geologic structure), we can derive a mathematical formulation for the
earth's gravitational acceleration that depends only on the latitude of the observation.
• The mathematical formula used to predict the components of the gravitational
acceleration produced by the earth's shape and rotation is called the Geodetic Reference
Formula of 1967. The predicted gravity is called the normal gravity.

2020-11-24 Reference: E. S. Robinson and C. Coruh, “Basic Exploration Geophysics,” John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1988 11
Latitude dependent changes in gravity (Numerical)

• Exercise 01: Calculate the normal gravity at the equator and the poles
of Earth. Note the difference between both values and give reason for
the change in value of gravity.

2020-11-24 Reference: E. S. Robinson and C. Coruh, “Basic Exploration Geophysics,” John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1988 12
Gravity Surveying: Introduction
• The gravity method involves measuring the earth’s gravitational field at specific locations on the earth’s
subsurface to determine the location of subsurface density variations.
• The gravity method involves measuring the gravitational attraction exerted by the earth at a
measurement station on the surface.
• Geologists can make inferences about the distribution of strata.
• Gravity techniques measure minute variations in the earth’s gravity field. Based on these variations,
subsurface density and thereby composition can be inferred.
• These variations can be determined by measuring the earth’s gravity field at numerous stations along a
traverse, and correcting the gravity data for elevation, tidal effects, topography, latitude and instrument
drift.
• The primary goal of studying detailed gravity data is to provide a better understanding of the subsurface.
• The gravity field on the surface of the Earth is not uniformly the same everywhere. It varies with the
distribution of the mass material below. A gravity survey is an direct means of calculation the density
property of subsurface materials. The higher the gravity values, the denser the rock beneath.

2020-11-24 Reference: E. S. Robinson and C. Coruh, “Basic Exploration Geophysics,” John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1988 13
Gravity Surveying: Density contrast
Material Density (gm/cm^3)
Air ~0
Water 1
Sediments 1.7-2.3
Sandstone 2.0-2.6
Shale 2.0-2.7
Limestone 2.5-2.8
Granite 2.5-2.8
Basalts 2.7-3.1
Metamorphic Rocks 2.6-3.0
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 Gravity Surveying: Density contrast (lab)
Exercise 01: Observe and note the density contrast of both cross-sections.

2.2 g/𝑐𝑚

2.9 g/𝑐𝑚 2.2 g/𝑐𝑚 3.0 g/𝑐𝑚

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Gravity Surveying: Benefits and Applications
Benefits: Applications:
• Measures difference in the Earth’s • Engineering
gravitational field at specific locations. • Environmental
• No energy need be put into the ground • Geothermal studies including:
in order to acquire data. 1. Locating void
• Provide a better understanding to the 2. Faults
subsurface geology. 3. Buried steam valleys
• Non-destructive geophysical technique. 4. Water table levels and
• Well suited to a populated setting. 5. Geothermal heat sources
• Remote sensing method. 6. The thickness of the soil layer
• Relatively cheap.
• Non-invasive.
2020-11-24 Reference: E. S. Robinson and C. Coruh, “Basic Exploration Geophysics,” John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1988 16
Gravity Surveying: Instruments
• Modern instruments capable of rapid gravity measurements are known as gravity
meters or gravimeters. Gravimeters are basically spring balances carrying a
constant mass. Variations in the weight of the mass caused by variations in gravity
cause the length of the spring to vary and give a measure of the change in gravity.
• There are two types of gravimeter:
1. Relative
2. Absolute
• Absolute gravimeter measure the local gravity in absolute units, gals.
• Relative gravimeter compare the value of gravity at one point with another. They
must be calibrated at a location where the gravity is known accurately, and the
transported to the location where the gravity is to be measured. They measure the
ratio of the gravity at the two points.

2020-11-24 Reference: E. S. Robinson and C. Coruh, “Basic Exploration Geophysics,” John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1988 17
Gravity Surveying: Instruments
• The most commonly used meters do not measure an
absolute gravitational acceleration but differences in
relative acceleration.
• The common gravimeters on the market are the
Worden gravimeter, the Scintrex and La Coste
Romberg gravimeter.
• Fundamental design of almost all gravity uses mass on
a spring.
• A change in gravity should cause a change in length.

2020-11-24 Reference: E. S. Robinson and C. Coruh, “Basic Exploration Geophysics,” John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1988 18
Gravity Surveying: Acquisition
• Gravity data acquisition is a relatively simple task that can be performed by one
person. However, two people are usually necessary to determine the location
(latitude, longitude and elevation) of the gravity stations.
• Surveys are conducted by taking gravity readings at regular intervals along a
traverse that crosses the expected location of the target.
• However, in order to take into account the expected drift of the instrument, one
station must be located and has to be reoccupied every half to 1 hour or so to
obtain the natural drift of the instrument.
• The repeated readings are performed because even the most stable gravity meter
will have their readings drift with time due to elastic creep within the meters
springs.
• The instrument drift is usually linear and less than 0.01 mGal/hour.
2020-11-24 Reference: E. S. Robinson and C. Coruh, “Basic Exploration Geophysics,” John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1988 19
Gravity Surveying: Processing
• Gravity Reduction: Before the results of gravity survey can be interpreted it is
necessary to correct for all variations in the Earth’s gravitational field which do
not result from the difference of density in the underlying rocks. This process is
known as gravity reduction. Drift correction, elevation correction and tidal
corrections are some of the major types of gravity reduction.

1. Drift Correction: Correction for instrumental drift is based on repeated readings

at a base station at recorded times throughout the day. The meter reading is plotted
against time and drift is assumed to be linear between consecutive base readings.

2020-11-24 Reference: E. S. Robinson and C. Coruh, “Basic Exploration Geophysics,” John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1988 20
Gravity Surveying: Processing  Drift correction

2020-11-24 Reference: E. S. Robinson and C. Coruh, “Basic Exploration Geophysics,” John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1988 21
Gravity Surveying: Processing  Elevation corrections
2. Elevation corrections: Correction for the differing elevations of gravity stations is made in three
parts: free air correction, bouguer correction, terrain correction.
i. Free air correction (FAC): It corrects for the decrease in gravity with height in free air resulting
from increased distance from the center of the Earth. The FAC is positive for an observation
point above datum to correct for the decrease in gravity with elevation. The free air correction
accounts solely for variation in the distance of the observation point from the center of the
Earth; no account is taken of the gravitational effect of the rock present between the observation
point and datum.
ii. Bouguer correction: On land the Bouguer correction must be subtracted, as the gravitational
attraction of the rock between observation point and datum must be removed from the observed
gravity value. The Bouguer correction of sea surface observations is positive to account for the
lack of rock between surface and sea bed. The correction is equivalent to the replacement of the
water layer by material of a specified rock density r.
iii. Terrain corrections: A correction applied to observed values obtained in geophysical surveys in
order to remove the effect of variations in the observations due to the topography near
observation sites.
2020-11-24 Reference: E. S. Robinson and C. Coruh, “Basic Exploration Geophysics,” John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1988 22
Gravity Surveying: Processing  Elevation corrections

2020-11-24 Reference: E. S. Robinson and C. Coruh, “Basic Exploration Geophysics,” John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1988 23
Gravity Surveying: Processing  Latitude and
tidal corrections
3. Latitude Correction: Gravity varies with latitude because of the non-spherical shape of
the Earth and because the angular velocity of a point on the Earth’s surface decreases from a
maximum at the equator to zero at the poles. Consequently, points near the equator are
farther from the center of mass of the Earth than those near the poles, causing gravity to
increase from the equator to the poles.
4. Tidal correction: Gravity measured at a fixed
location varies with time because of periodic
variation in the gravitational effects of the Sun and
Moon associated with their orbital motions, and
correction must be made for this variation in a high
precision survey. In spite of its much smaller mass,
the gravitational attraction of the Moon is larger
than that of the Sun because of its proximity.

2020-11-24 Reference: E. S. Robinson and C. Coruh, “Basic Exploration Geophysics,” John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1988 24
Gravity Surveying: Anomaly maps & their Interpretation

• Free Air Anomaly Determination: Free air

anomaly is the difference between Observed
gravity and theoretical gravity after applying
necessary corrections on observed gravity.
• F.A.A = (gobs ± DC ± F.A.C) – Th. Value of “g”
• Bouguer Anomaly Determination: Bouguer
Anomaly is the difference between observed
gravity and theoretical gravity after applying
necessary corrections on observed gravity
• B.A = (gobs ± DC ± F.A.C ± L.C ± T.C) – Th.
Value of “g”.
• Plan maps of station locations, contour maps of
reduced gravity values, final anomaly maps, and
observation of anomalous locations .
2020-11-24 Reference: E. S. Robinson and C. Coruh, “Basic Exploration Geophysics,” John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1988 25
Concepts of Magnetism
• Magnetic Field: The region around a permanent magnet in which it exerts a force
of attraction or repulsion on another magnetic substance. In the SI system, the
magnetic field is measured in tesla (symbol ’T’, named after Nikola Tesla). The
Tesla is defined in terms of how much force is applied to a moving charge due to the
field. An alternative measurement is also often used, the Gauss (symbol ’G’). There
is a simple conversion factor, 1T = 10^4G. Gauss is often used because 1 Tesla is a
very large field. In equations the magnitude of the magnetic field is given the
symbol ’B’.
• Magnetic pole: The points within the dimensions of a magnet where flux converge
are known as poles of the magnet.
• Magnetic force: It is a vector quantity defined as, the force of attraction or
repulsion exerted by one unit pole ( ) on another unit pole ( ) separated by
distance (r) in a medium of permeability (µ). S.I. unit is Newton (N) and C.G.S unit
is dyne. = ( ) , where is the unit vector directed from towards .
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Reference: E. S. Robinson and C. Coruh, “Basic Exploration Geophysics,” John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1988
Concepts of Magnetism
• Magnetic moment ( ): It is the product of strength of either pole (m) and the
magnetic length (2 ) of the magnet. S.I. unit is A. and C.G.S unit is emu.
Formula: = m * (2 )
• Intensity of magnetization: It is defined as the magnetic moment per unit
volume of the magnetized material i.e. = . Unit: A/m .
• Magnetic field strength: Magnetic field strength is a quantitative measure of
strength or the weakness of the magnetic field. Also, it is the force which a unit
⃗
pole experiences at a particular point in the magnetic field i.e. = . Units:
Oe･A/m ( Oersted・Ampere/meter )
• Magnetic susceptibility: The degree to which the body is magnetized is
⃗
determined by its magnetic susceptibility. It is represented by; =
2020-11-24 Reference: E. S. Robinson and C. Coruh, “Basic Exploration Geophysics,” John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1988 27
Concepts of Magnetism: Magnetic susceptibility in rocks (lab)

Prepare the histogram, compare the values of given tables and observe the difference between
them. Give reason(s) for the change in values.
Sedimentary rocks Average magnetic susceptibility Metamorphic rocks Average magnetic susceptibility
Dolomite 35 x 10 Schist 130 x 10
Limestone 25 x 10 Quartzite 350 x 10
Sandstone 30 x 10 Serpentine 825 x 10
Shale 50 x 10 Slate 500 x 10

Acidic Igneous rocks Average magnetic susceptibility Basic Igneous rocks Average magnetic susceptibility
Granite 200 x 10 Basalt 6000 x 10
Rhyolite 160 x 10 Pyroxenite 10,500 x 10
Dolerite 1400 x 10 Peridotite 13,000 x 10
Augite 3150 x 10 Andesite 13,500 x 10

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Concepts of Magnetism: Magnetic susceptibility in rocks

• Sedimentary Rocks: They are relatively non-magnetic unless they contain a

significant amount of magnetite in heavy mineral fraction.
• Metamorphic Rocks: They are also variable in their magnetic character. If the
partial pressure of oxygen is relatively low then magnetite reabsorbs. Iron and
oxygen are incorporated into other mineral phase as the grade of metamorphism
increases. Relatively high oxygen partial pressure can result in the formation of
magnetite as a accessory mineral in metamorphic reaction.
• Igneous Rocks: Basic igneous rocks are usually highly magnetic due to their high
magnetic content. The proportion of magnetite in igneous rock tend to decrease
with increasing acidity so that acid igneous rocks are variable in magnetic
behavior and usually less magnetic than basic.

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Concepts of Magnetism: Magnetic susceptibility in rocks

• Based on magnetic susceptibility magnetic materials are classified into:

1. Ferromagnetic: shows very high magnetic susceptibility and very high positive
magnetic anomaly.
2. Paramagnetic: shows high magnetic susceptibility and high positive magnetic
anomaly.
3. Diamagnetic: shows low magnetic susceptibility and negative magnetic
anomaly.

2020-11-24 Reference: E. S. Robinson and C. Coruh, “Basic Exploration Geophysics,” John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1988 30
Concepts of Geomagnetism
• The Earth's magnetic field is generated in the fluid outer core by a self-exciting
dynamo process. Electrical currents flowing in the slowly moving molten iron
generate the magnetic field. An imaginary line joining the magnetic poles would
be inclined by approximately 11.3° from the planet's axis of rotation.

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Concepts of Geomagnetism: Geomagnetic field strength

• Recently, the geomagnetic field strength is strongest (approximately 0.7 gauss) at

geographic poles because the angle of inclination between geographic poles and
geomagnetic lines is 90°, i.e. geomagnetic north pole is located at north Canada
(latitude and longitude 80.1 N 72.3 W), whereas, geomagnetic south pole is
located at Antarctica (latitude and longitude 80.1 S 107.7 E). The geomagnetic
field strength is weakest (approximately 0.3 gauss) at the earth’s equator because
the angle of inclination between geographic lines and geomagnetic lines is 0°, i.e.
geomagnetic field is weakest at Indonesia.

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Concepts of Geomagnetism: Effects of geomagnetic field

1. Navigation: The geomagnetic field has a regular small variation with a fundamental period of
24 hours. In reality, this type of variation in the geomagnetic field would affect the direction of
a compass needle by no more than a few tenths of a degree. Although these effects are very
small, they can be of interest to those who use measurements of the Earth's magnetic field as a
tool for very precise navigation.
2. Solar flares: The most powerful flare of the last 500 years was the first flare to be observed in
1859. The event is named the "Carrington event". The flare was visible to a naked-eye, and
produced stunning auroras down to tropical latitudes such as Cuba or Hawaii, and set telegraph
systems on fire. In modern times, the largest solar flare measured with instruments occurred in
2003. And also other large solar flares also occurred causing disruptions in electric grids and
computer systems.
3. Auroras: There is a flow of ions continuously flowing outward from the Sun and the Earth's
magnetic field traps these particles, many of which travel toward the poles where they are
accelerated toward Earth. Collisions between these ions and atmospheric atoms and molecules
cause energy releases in the form of auroras appearing in large circles around the poles.
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Concepts of Geomagnetism: Auroras
• The color of the aurora depends on which gas is being
excited by the electrons and on how much energy is
being exchanged. Oxygen emits either a greenish-
yellow light or a red light. Nitrogen generally gives off
a blue light.

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Magnetic Exploration: Introduction and applications
Introduction:
• Magnetic prospecting is a geophysical method based on the examination of magnetic field
anomalies of the Earth caused by non-similar magnetization intensity of rocks.
• The magnetic field of the Earth magnetizes rocks to a variable degree which is determined by their
magnetic susceptibility, intensity and magnetizing force.
• It is based on magnetic anomaly observed in the field on paramagnetic/ferromagnetic minerals like
magnetite, pyrrhotite, franklinite, cobaltite and diamagnetic minerals like rock salt, quartzite etc.
Applications:
• Exploration of magnetic ores of iron.
• In mining field magnetic prospecting may be applied.
• Directly in the search for deposits of highly magnetic minerals such as magnetite, pyrrhotite
and some of the magnetic ores.
• Indirectly for locating bodies of other minerals which themselves may not be magnetic
minerals.
• In petroleum exploration, for determination of thickness of sediments.
• In engineering projects for locating construction materials such as granite, basalt and other building
stones.
2020-11-24 Reference: E. S. Robinson and C. Coruh, “Basic Exploration Geophysics,” John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1988 35
Magnetic Exploration: Magnetometers

• A magnetometer is scientific instrument used to measure the strength and direction

of the magnetic field in the vicinity of the instrument. Magnetic field varies from
place and differences in earth’s magnetic field.
• Magnetometer are often a frequent component instrument on spacecraft that
explore planets.
• Some of the common magnetometers are:
1. Schmidt type magnetometer.
2. Flux gate magnetometer.
3. Nuclear or the proton magnetometer.
4. Rubidium vapors magnetometer.

2020-11-24 Reference: E. S. Robinson and C. Coruh, “Basic Exploration Geophysics,” John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1988 36
Magnetic Exploration: Surveying & Processing
• Surveying conditions: Survey stops if magnetic storm is occurring. Moreover,
surveyors can not carry out magnetic surveys in the vicinity of metallic objects
such as railway lines, cars, fencing. Also, operators can not carry metallic objects.
• The main corrections are:
1. Diurnal variation correction.
2. Drift correction.
3. Secular variations.
4. Terrain correction.
5. Geomagnetic correction.

2020-11-24 Reference: E. S. Robinson and C. Coruh, “Basic Exploration Geophysics,” John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1988 37
Magnetic Exploration: Processing
1. Diurnal cycle: It is any pattern that recurs every
24 hours as a result of one full rotation of the
Earth around its own axis.
2. Drift correction: Fluxgate and proton
magnetometers do not drift.
3. Latitude (geomagnetic) correction: Equivalent
of the latitude correction in gravimetery
(reference ellipsoid).
4. Terrain correction: It is very difficult to be
applied (generally rarely applied) since we need
to know about the magnetic properties of the
topographic features.
2020-11-24 Reference: E. S. Robinson and C. Coruh, “Basic Exploration Geophysics,” John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1988 38
Magnetic Exploration: Processing
5. Geomagnetic secular variation: It refers to
changes in the Earth's magnetic field on time
scales of about a year or more. These changes
mostly reflect changes in the Earth's interior,
while more rapid changes mostly originate in
the ionosphere or magnetosphere. Secular
variations are yearly variations. Too slow for a
influencing a survey.

2020-11-24 Reference: E. S. Robinson and C. Coruh, “Basic Exploration Geophysics,” John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1988 39
Electric Exploration
Electric exploration

Natural source Artificial source

Telluric method Electric resistivity method

Magnetotelluric
Induced polarization method
method
Natural Potential Electro-magnetic induction
method method
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Electric Exploration: Telluric and Magnetotelluric method

• Video title: Geophysical Methods: Telluric & Magnetotelluric

• Video e-link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qGbl_BwonhE

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Electric Exploration: Natural potential method
• Natural potential, self-potential (or spontaneous polarization) or SP method is based on the surface
measurement of natural potential differences resulting from electrochemical reactions in the
subsurface.

2020-11-24 Reference: Kearey, P., Brooks, M., & Hill, I. (2002). An introduction to geophysical exploration. Malden, MA: Blackwell Science. 42
Electric Exploration: Natural potential method

Self potential equipment:

• Field equipment consists of simply a pair of electrodes connected with a high
impedance milivolt meter.
• The electrodes used in natural potential surveying are non-polarizing electrodes
known as porous-pot electrodes. The porous pot electrodes consists of metals
immersed in a saturated solution of it own salt such as copper in copper
sulphate. The salt solution is contained in a porous pot which has pores at its
base. Through the pores solution is allowed to penetrate, inject into ground to
make a neat connection with low natural potential ground reserve.
Field survey procedure: Survey is conducted in a systematic way along profile
with maintaining a constant spacing.
• Gradient: Two electrodes connected with voltmeter are moved from place to
place along profile and potential difference is measured by keeping constant
separation of 20 m or 30 m. (Figure b)
• Fixed base: One electrode is kept fixed at base point while the other electrode
and voltmeter are carried to different points. A new base point is chosen when
the cable length is exhausted or ended. (Figure a)
2020-11-24 Reference: Kearey, P., Brooks, M., & Hill, I. (2002). An introduction to geophysical exploration. Malden, MA: Blackwell Science. 43
Electric Exploration: Natural potential method (lab)
Stations SP (mV)
0 0
The self potential reading are obtained for reconnaissance 1 -37
surveying during geophysical field work in district Chaghai, 2 -100
Balochistan. Stations are 22 feet apart and SP readings are given 3 -108
reference ‘0’. You need to make following interpretations by 4 -158
plotting data on graph paper taking stations along x-axis: 5 -236
6 -138
1. Is there any anomaly that you could see in the graph? 7 -210
2. If yes, what type of anomaly it could be and what could be 8 -290
9 -335
the approximate lateral length (in meters) of that anomalous 10 -258
body? 11 -170
12 -120
13 -73
14 -75
15 -71
16 -61
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17 -7
Electric Exploration: Electrical resistivity method

• Video title: Geophysical Methods: Electrical Resistivity

• Video e-link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kQqCX_WIdDs

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Electric Exploration: Induced polarization method
Introduction:
• When electric is compelled to flow in the ground by
means source and sink electrodes while taking electrical
resistivity data measurements, concentration of charges
may build up at various place. After impose current is
switched off these ground charges shift back to these
original distribution in the ground. During the time
intervals the charge concentrations are being dissipated,
electrical potential persists. This phenomena is called
induced potential. For many years geophysicists had
recognized the effect of induced potentials while carrying
out resistivity survey.
• The voltmeter between potential electrode continue to
indicate a weak signal after current from the sink
electrode had been switched off. The decay of this
potential range from a few moments to several minutes.
• In figure, V(𝑡 ) to V(𝑡 ) is area under voltage-time curve.

2020-11-24 Reference: Kearey, P., Brooks, M., & Hill, I. (2002). An introduction to geophysical exploration. Malden, MA: Blackwell Science. 46
Electric Exploration: Induced polarization method
Measurement of inducted potential:
• The conventional electrode configurations used for electrical resistivity surveying are also used for
measuring induced potentials. There are sometime problems with wenner and schlumberger
electrode configurations because electromagnetic inductions signals harm the weak induced
potential signals. Therefore, good quality of induced potential data is acquired with polar dipole-
dipole configuration.
Equipment for IP survey:
• In addition to equipment normally used for resistivity surveying an oscilloscope or recording
system is required to preserve decaying IP signals. Oscilloscope is attached with potential circuit in
dipole-dipole configuration while acquiring field data.
• Only the rate of decay of potential can let the surveyor know that the material under ground is
conductive (fast decay) or non-conductive (slow decay). The area under time-voltage curve is
comparatively larger when there is slow decay (which means resistive material underground) while
the area under time-voltage curve is comparatively smaller when there is fast decay (which means
conductive material underground).
2020-11-24 Reference: Kearey, P., Brooks, M., & Hill, I. (2002). An introduction to geophysical exploration. Malden, MA: Blackwell Science. 47
Electric Exploration: Electro-magnetic induction method

• Video title: An Introduction to Electromagnetic Surveying

• Video e-link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2fglREyxq-o

2020-11-24 48
Radioactive Exploration: Introduction
Introduction:
• Surveying for radioactive minerals has become important because of the demand for
nuclear fuels.
• Radiometric surveys are less widely used than the other geophysical methods as they seek
a very specific target. Probably the most common application of radiometric techniques is
in geophysical borehole logging.
Instruments:
• The common principle of detection is that the results are being conventionally displayed
as the number of counts of emissions over a fixed period of time. Following are some of
the types of detectors that are available for radiometric surveys.
1. Geiger counter
2. Scintillation counter
3. Gamma-ray spectrometer
4. Radon emanometer
2020-11-24 Reference: Kearey, P., Brooks, M., & Hill, I. (2002). An introduction to geophysical exploration. Malden, MA: Blackwell Science. 49
 Radioactive Exploration: Instruments
1. Geiger counter: It responds primarily to beta particles. It is cheap and easy to use. its use is limited
to ground surveys over terrain with little soil cover.
2. Scintillation counter: Scintillometer is used to measure gamma radiation. The scintillation counter
is more expensive than the Geiger counter and less easy to transport, but it is almost 100% efficient
in detecting gamma rays. Versions are available which can be mounted in ground transport or
aircraft.
3. Gamma-ray spectrometer: The gamma-ray spectromet is an extension of the scintillation counter
that enables the source element to be identified. Gamma ray spectrometers for airborne use are
often calibrated by flying over an area of known radioisotope concentration or by positioning the
aircraft on a concrete slab fabricated with a known proportion of radioisotopes. The actual
concentrations of 238U, 232Th and 40K in the field can then be estimated from survey data.
4. Radon emanometer: Radon is the only gaseous radioactive element. Being a noble gas it does not
form compounds with other elements and moves freely through pores, joints and faults in the
subsurface either as a gas or dissolved in groundwater. The emanometer has also been used to map
faults, which provide channels for the transport of radon generated at depth. This technique is
advantageous when there is no great difference in rock properties across the fault that could be
detected by other geophysical methods.
2020-11-24 Reference: Kearey, P., Brooks, M., & Hill, I. (2002). An introduction to geophysical exploration. Malden, MA: Blackwell Science. 50