Physics

2022-07-05 1
Contents
• Force and Newton’s laws of motion.
• Newton’s law of Gravitation.
• Electric Current.
• Waves.
• Reflection.
• Refraction.
• Magnetism and Electro-magnetism.
• Nuclear Physics.
• Thermodynamics.
2022-07-05 2
Force and Newton’s laws of motion
• Force: An agent which produces motion in a body or stops the motion in a body. Also, it is an
agent which produces distortion in a body to which it is applied. S.I. unit of force is kg.𝑚𝑠 or
newton(N).

• Newton’s first law: “Every object persists in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line
unless it is compelled to change that state by force impressed on it.”

• Newton’s second law: “Force is equal to the change in momentum (mV) per change in time. For a
constant mass, force equals mass times acceleration.” F = ma

• Newton’s third law: “For every action, there is equal and opposite reaction.”

Source: STBJ and https://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-

2022-07-05 3
12/airplane/newton.html
Newton’s laws of motion (Cont.)
• Example: A body of mass 50 kg is moving with an acceleration of 5m𝑠 . Find the force acting on the body.
Data:
Mass of the body = m = 50kg
Acceleration produced in the body = a = 5m𝑠
Force acting on the body = F = ?
Solution:
According to Newton’s second Law of Motion.
F = ma
F= 50 kg x 5m𝑠
F= 250 kg - m𝑠
F= 250 N
Hence a force of 250 N is acting on the object.

• Numerical:
Determine the acceleration of a car of mass 900 kg, when a net force of 2700 N acts on it.

2022-07-05 Source: STBJ 4

Newton’s law of Gravitation
• Statement: Everybody in this universe attracts other body with a force which is directly proportional to the products of
their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centers.
• Explanation: Consider two bodies ‘A’ and ‘B’ of masses ‘m1’ and ‘m2’ respectively, which are placed with their centers at
distance ‘r’ from each other as shown in figure. According to Newton’s Law of gravitation this force is directly proportional
to the products of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centers.
• Mathematically:
F α m1m2 ……….(i) And,
F α ……….(ii)

Combine the equation (i) and (ii), we have

Fα

F = constant

F=G

Where G is the constant of proportionality and is called universal gravitational constant. In S.I. unit, the value of G is given by
6.67 x 10 Nm2 / kg2.
Note: This Law is also called ‘Law of universal Gravitation’.

2022-07-05 Source: STBJ 5

Newton’s law of Gravitation: Mass of Earth
• Calculation of mass of Earth (𝑴𝒆 ): Let us consider the body is placed over earth also suppose the mass of earth as
‘𝑀 ’ and the mass of body as ‘m’ and the distance between is ‘r’. According to the Law of universal Gravitation:

F=G We know,
g = 9.8 m / s2
F=G ……….(i)
r = Radius of earth = 6.4 x 106 m
Since, F=W and W=mg. So, F=mg
G = 6.67 x 10 Nm2 / kg2
Put the value of F in equation (i)
By putting all values in equation (ii):
mg = G
9.8 × (6.4 × 10 )
𝑀 =
g=G 6.67 x 10
. × . ×
g=G 𝑀 =
.
gr2 = G Me
401.408
𝑀 = × 10 10
𝑔𝑟 6.67
=𝑀
𝐺 𝑀 = 60.23 × 10
𝑀 = 6.02 × 10 Kg
𝑀 = ……….(ii)

6
2022-07-05 Source: STBJ
Newton’s law of gravitation: Variation in the value of “g” with respect to
altitude (height)

• Mathematical Expression:
We know that:
= ×
( )

F=W=
=
( )
OR
𝑔 𝑅
=
mg = 𝑔 ℎ
𝑅 (1 + 𝑅 )

g= ……….(i) 𝑔 ℎ
= (1 + )
𝑔 𝑅
As ‘G’ and ‘Me’ are constant that’s why ‘g’ decreases
with increases in distance ‘R’ from center of earth. Applying Binomial theorem, we get;

gα 𝑔 −2ℎ
= 1+
𝑔 𝑅
As the body moves away from center of earth so
distance from center of earth increases, −2ℎ
𝑔 = 1− 𝑔
𝑅
𝑔 = ……….(ii)
( ) This is the expression for variation of ‘g’ with
altitude.
Dividing equation (i) and (ii)

= ÷
( )

2022-07-05 Source: STBJ 7

Electric Current
• Current: It is the rate of flow of charge through a certain cross-section. If the quantity of charge (q) which flows through a
unit cross-section during time (t) then current (I) is: I = q/t. S.I. unit of current is Ampere (A).

• Example: A light bulb with a current of 0.06A is left burning for 15 min. How much electric charge passes through the
filament of the bulb?
Data:
Current I = 0.06A
Time t = 15 min
= 15x60 = 900s
Solution:
As charge, q = It
= 0.06A x 900s
= 54 C

• Numerical:
Calculate the amount of current through an electric heater if it takes 1800C of charge to heat a room in 3 minutes.

2022-07-05 Source: STBJ 8

Electric Current (Cont.)
• Potential difference: It is the work done in carrying a unit positive charge from
one point to other against electric intensity. S.I. unit is Volt or Joule/Coulomb.

• Resistance: It is an opposition or the hindrance to the motion of electrons. Its S.I.

unit is ‘Ohm’ (Ω). Formula: R = V/I.

2022-07-05 Source: STBJ 9

Electric Current (Cont.)
• Ohm’s law:
The potential difference (V) across a conductor is directly proportional to the current (I) following through it,
provided the physical state of conductor does not change. By this law; V α I i.e. V=IR. Here R is the constant of
proportionality called ‘resistance’.
• Example: Find the resistance of an electric bulb if 0.60 A current is passing through it and the potential difference
across the bulb is 90 V.
Data:
Current = I = 0.60 A
Potential Difference, V = 90 V
Solution:
Using Ohm’s Law V = IR Or R = =
.
R = 1.5 x 10 𝛺

• Numerical:
What is the potential difference across an electric iron of resistance 27.4Ω, when the current through it is 8.75A?
2022-07-05 Source: STBJ 10
Waves
• Definition: Wave is a mode of transference of energy in a medium by causing disturbance in the medium.
• Characteristics:
1. A source and a material medium are necessary for production of waves.
2. When waves pass through a medium the particles of the medium start vibrating at their own position.
3. The velocity of the wave is equal to the product of wavelength and frequency i.e. V=f λ.
• Types of waves:
Transverse waves Longitudinal waves
1. In transverse waves, the particles of the medium 1. In longitudinal waves, the particles of the
move perpendicular to the direction of wave. medium move in the direction of waves.
2. These waves consists of crests and troughs. 2. These waves consists of compression and
rarefaction.
3. The distance between two consecutive crests or 3. The distance between two consecutive
trough is called the wavelength. compression and rarefaction is called
wavelength.

2022-07-05 Source: STBJ 11

Waves: Huygen’s Principle
• Principle:
“Every point on a wave-front may be considered a source of secondary spherical wavelets which spread out in
the forward direction at the speed of light.”

• Explanation.
1. Wave is a form of energy.
2. Medium is essential for the propagation of wave.
3. Waves in different medium propagate with different speed.
4. Waves of different wavelength behave differently.
5. Wave travels with slow velocity in denser medium.
6. Waves travel with the velocity of light but not in the straight line.

2022-07-05 Source: STBJ 12

Important terms related to waves
• Periodic motion: A motion which repeats itself in equal intervals of time is called periodic
motion.

• Vibration: One complete round trip of a body about its mean position is called a
vibration.

• Time period: Time taken to complete one vibration is called time period. It is denoted by
‘T’ its unit is second. Formula: T =

• Frequency: The number of vibrations completed by a body in one second is called

frequency. It is denoted by ‘f’ and its unit is ‘Hertz’. Formula: f =

• Displacement: Distance of the vibrating body from the mean position at any instant is
called displacement.

• Amplitude: Maximum displacement from the mean position is called Amplitude.

2022-07-05 Source: STBJ 13

Important terms related to waves
• Trough: It is the portion of medium below its mean level in a transverse wave.

• Crest: It is the portion of medium above its mean level in a transverse wave.

• Compression: The point or region in a longitudinal wave; where the crowding of the particles of the medium is maximum.

• Rarefaction: The region in a longitudinal wave; where the crowding of the particles of the medium is minimum called
rarefaction.

• Wave Speed: The distance travelled by the wave in one second on the direction of propagation of wave is called wave
velocity or wave speed. It is denoted by ‘V’. Formula: V = fλ

2022-07-05 Source: STBJ 14

Waves: Numericals
V= f λ OR f= V/ λ OR λ= V/f

1. A periodic wave with wavelength (λ) 2m has speed (V) 4 m/s. Find
wave frequency (f)?
2. A periodic wave with frequency (f) 4Hz has speed (V) 12 m/s. Find
wavelength?
3. What is the time period of a wave that travels through a spring at a
speed (V) of 2.5 m/s and has a wavelength (λ) of 1.3 m?

2022-07-05 Source: STBJ 15

Reflection
• Basic Terminologies:
• Reflection: If light is travelling through a medium, strike the surface
of another medium apart of it is thrown back along a particular
direction in the same medium. This phenomenon is called reflection.
• Incident ray: The ray of light that strike the surface of the medium
coming from a source is called incident ray.
• Reflected ray: The ray that is sent back into the same medium after
reflection is known as reflected wave.
• Angle of incidence (< 𝐢 ): Angle between incident ray and normal ray
is called angle of incidence.
• Normal or perpendicular: Perpendicular line on the reflection surface is known as normal.
• Angle of reflection (< 𝐫 ): Angle between reflected ray and normal ray is called angel of reflection.

• Laws of reflection:
• First law of reflection: The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection i.e. < i = < r .
• Second law of reflection: The incident ray, reflected ray and normal all lie on the same plane.

2022-07-05 Source: STBJ 16

Refraction
• Refraction: The change of the direction and velocity of light as it enters from one medium to
another is known as refraction.

• First law of refraction: The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence
all on the same plane.

2022-07-05 Source: STBJ 17

Refraction
• Second law of refraction (Snell’s law): The second law of refraction states that the ratio of sine of
angle of incidence to the sign of angle of refraction is constant for all the rays of light passing from
one medium to another. The second law is also called Snell’s law.

• n= , Therefore ‘n’ is a constant called refractive index. It has no unit and it depends upon
the nature of the medium.

• Critical angle: The angle of incidence for which the value of angle of refraction is 90degree is
called critical angle.

2022-07-05 Source: STBJ 18

Magnetism and Electro-magnetism:
• Magnetism: Force exerted by magnets when they attract and repel each other.

• Magnetic field: The region around the magnet in which its magnetic effect can be felt is called
magnetic field.

• Ferromagnetic substances: The substances which behave like a magnet in the presence of a
strong field are called ferromagnetic substances.

• Electro magnetic: It is a temporary magnet made by passing electric current through soft iron
placed inside the solenoid.

• Electro magnetism: It is the branch of physics that deals with the force that occurs between the
electrically charged particles.

2022-07-05 Source: STBJ 19

Nuclear Physics:
• Nuclear physics: It is branch of physics concerned with the study of structure and reactions
between the nuclei of the atoms.
• Atomic number: The number of proton in the nucleus of an atom is called atomic number. It is
denoted by ‘Z’.
• Mass number: The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom is called its
mass number. It is denoted by ‘A’.
• Isotopes: Isotopes of an element are atoms which have the same atomic number but different
mass number are called isotopes.
• Radioactive elements: The elements generally which have mass number greater than 82 are able
to emit radiations continuously, are called radioactive elements. Example: plutonium, uranium,
radium, potassium etc.
• Radioactive isotopes: Some unstable isotopes are able to emit alpha, beta and gamma radiations.
These are called radioactive isotopes. Example: uranium, radium, etc.
• Half life of radio active element: The time interval in which half of the radioactive atoms decay
into daughter elements is called half-life of an element. It is represented by ‘𝑇 ’.
• Radioactivity: The spontaneous emission of radiation by certain elements such as radium,
uranium, plutonium, etc. is called radioactivity.
• Radio active rays: alpha rays α, beta rays β, gamma rays γ
2022-07-05 Source: STBJ 20
Thermodynamics
• Thermodynamics: Thermodynamics is the branch of physics that deals with the relationships
between heat and other forms of energy. In particular, it describes how thermal energy is converted
to and from other forms of energy and how it affects matter.

• Heat: It is the form of energy which is transferred from one body to another due to the difference
in temperature. The SI unit heat is Joule.

• Temperature: The degree of hotness or coldness of a body is called temperature. It is measured in

degree (Kelvin, Centigrade, and Fahrenheit)

• Absorption of energy: The transfer of the energy of a wave to matter as the wave passes through
it.

• Attenuation of energy: Attenuation is the measurement of energy absorbed and deflected as it

passes through a medium. In simpler terms, attenuation is how much stopping power a material has
on energy. (See reference figure)
2022-07-05 Source: STBJ 21
2022-07-05 Reference figure for Wave front energy attenuation 22