Earth as a sphere: Computation of a land area in earth's

surface using Integral Calculus.

CHAPTER I

1.1 Introduction

The Earth's gravity is strong enough to keep it in a roughly spherical form. The

centrifugal force generated by rotation along the north-south axis is largely responsible

for the object's non-spherical shape. Using this force, a sphere is transformed into an

ellipsoid. The Earth is assumed to be a perfect sphere in this topic, having a

circumference of 6,400 kilometers. On the surface of a sphere, there are two different

kinds of circles that may be drawn. Spheres have an infinite number of circumferences,

and the largest circle that can be drawn is a great circle. The Earth's circumference will

be 6,400 kilometers, which is also the circumference of the sphere. The equator and a

circle formed across the North and South poles are both big circles, as seen above. All

of the longitude meridian's great circles are the same. Great circle tracks are used for

long-distance air and sea navigation because they are the shortest path between any

two places on a sphere's surface. Finding way-points is an important element of this

procedure; these are the locations the traveler should pass through to keep moving in

the direction of the big circle.

The center of a tiny circle is not at the center of the sphere. The sphere's radius

is greater than the radius of a tiny circle. A tiny circle will have a radius of less than

6,400 km on Earth. Except for the Equator, all of the latitude parallels are tiny circles.
 Surface integrals are intuitively familiar if you know how to calculate the surface

area of a parametric surface using double integrals. Now, all that remains is to combine

the two intuitions. First, I think it's crucial for you to understand exactly what a surface

integral is and how it works before we go into how to compute one. Surface integrals

are utilized if you feel the need to add a large number of values connected to points on

a surface. It may be thought of as the two-dimensional equivalent of three-dimensional

line integrals. You may also think of it as a means to apply double integrals to curved

surfaces in general. The only difference between computing a surface integral and

computing surface area using a double integral is the inclusion of a function within the

integral. Even though the theory behind surface integrals in multivariable calculus is

beautiful, it may take a long time to calculate one.

In summary, the ever-changing weather on Earth appears like a blue globe with

swirling clouds seen from space. Because of the seas covering so much of the planet's

surface, the sky is predominantly blue. 70% of the Earth's surface area is occupied by

bodies, whereas only 30% is occupied by land. This is a tiny piece of property. Mount

Everest is the highest point in the world, while the lowest point is the Dead Sea. The

land is far more efficient at gaining and losing heat than the seas are. Summers in the

middle latitudes are generally hot and winters are usually frigid. 20 percent of Earth's

land area is covered by snow, 20 percent mountains, 20 percent dry ground, 30 percent

excellent land that can be cultivated, and 10 percent land that lacks topsoil. I discovered

that the land surface size was around 1.5 x 108 km2 throughout my inquiry.

1.2 Theoretical Framework

 The Earth as a sphere: Computation of a land area in earth's surface using

Integral Calculus as the surface is a dynamic union of its solid crust, atmosphere,

hydrosphere, and biosphere, all having acted in concert to produce a constantly

renewing and changing symphony of form. To neglect the earth's formation from a

mathematical standpoint, Uncover the basic math that can be seen in the land area

surface. The process of determining these fluxes and the resulting landscapes. Time-

varying Stokes coefficients estimated from GRACE satellite data are routinely converted

into mass anomalies at the Earth's surface using the expression proposed by Wahr et

al.

However, the results obtained with it represent mass transport at the spherical

surface of 6378 km. However, the accuracy of such conversion may be insufficient,

particularly if the target area is located in a polar region and the signal-to-noise ratio is

high ("locally spherical approximation"). The problem is solved when the medium is

plane stratified, but the main focus is on the solution for spherical, radially stratified,

gravitational earth models. The surface mass-load boundary-value problem is

explained, and Green's functions for the surface mass-load boundary-value problem are

derived from the Love numbers.

1.3 Statement of the Problem

 This study focused on Earth as a sphere: Computation of a land area in earth's

surface using Integral Calculus in University of Science and Technology of Southern

Philippines 2021-2022. Specifically, it aims to answer the following questions.

1. To discover each county's area coverage?

2. What equation/s do we need to use on the computation?

3. As the terrain differs does it affect the computation of the land mass.

4. How does the terrain of the Earth affect the land surface size, as the earth's

surface is a sphere?

1.4 Significance of the Study

The findings of this study will affect how we see the surface, as we may notice

the lasting change in the earth's terrain. We can determine if and how big it is, with

some equations placed to solve the question. The following equations are:

The surface area of a sphere:

Finding surface area of a region
 CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

This Chapter Presents: Related Literatures and Studies, Theoretical

Framework.

2.1 Related Literatures

The Earth's surface environment is an active and complex place, at the interface

of the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, and the biosphere (Phillips, 1999).

An earth surface system is a set of interconnected components of the earth surface

environment that function together as a complex whole. Earth's surface modeling is

generally defined as a spatially explicitly digital description of an earth surface system or

a component of the earth surface environment (Yue, 2011).

Surface modeling began to be used in the 1960s, with the general availability of

computers (Lo and Yeung, 2002), but because it requires powerful software and a large

amount of spatially explicit data, its development was limited before the 1990s. The

major advances that enabled the use of surface modeling included trend surface

analysis (Ahlberg et al., 1967; Schroeder and Sjoquist, 1976; Legendre and Legendre,

1983), the digital terrain model (Stott, 1977), surface approximation (Long, 1980),

spatial simulation of wetland habitats (Sklar et al., 1985), spatial pattern matching

(Costanza, 1989), spatial prediction (Turner et al., 1989), and modeling costal
landscape dynamics (Costanza et al., 1990). Surface modeling has greatly progressed

since the early 1990s, with rapid development of remote sensing (RS) and a

geographical information system (GIS), as well as the accumulation of spatially explicit

data.

It was learnt that slope and curvature are significant variables of Earth's surface

analysis in the early 1980s (Evans, 1980). In fact, a plane curve is uniquely determined

by its curvature and a space curve is uniquely determined by its curvature and torsion if

a translation followed by a rotation is allowed in terms of curve theorems in the plane

and in the space (Spivak, 1979). Following this consideration, two equivalent indexes

(EQIs) of curves were developed respectively for plane curves and space curves to

simulate surfaces (Yue and Ai, 1990) and detect surface changes (Yue et al., 2002) by

fitting section lines of a surface and combining them together.

2.2 Related Studies

The Researchers found out some previous studies which are related to the

researchers present study. The first thesis “A review of applicants of fractional calculus

in Earth system dynamics to measure the shape of the Earth seemed at first to show an

elongation along its axis, first let us know the coverage of earth surface to its forms,

According to (Baugmarner, 2011) 61 percent of the northern hemisphere is covered by

water, and 81 percent of the southern hemisphere is covered by water. However, on a

planetary scale, the ocean is small. In fact, there is more water within the earth’s interior

than in its oceans and atmosphere.

 The study of the forms and features of land surfaces is a field of geoscience and

planetary science and is concerned with local detail in general. Topography in a narrow

sense involves the recording of relief or terrain, the three-dimensional quality of the

surface, and the identification of specific landforms; this is also known as

geomorphometry (Michigan.gov). Geologist use topography to understand tectonic

activity land forms, topographical map gives detailed information about physical features

and man-made features of small area.

2.3 Theoretical Framework

In the early 2000s, it was found that Earth's surface systems are controlled by a

combination of global factors and local factors, which cannot be understood without

accounting for both the local and global components. The system dynamic cannot be

recovered from the global or local controls alone (Phillips, 2002). In fact, in terms of the

fundamental theorem of surfaces (FTS), a surface is uniquely defined by the first and

the second fundamental coefficients (Somasundaram, 2005). The first fundamental

coefficients express the information about the details of the surface, which are observed

when we stay on the surface. The second fundamental coefficients express the change

of the surface observed from outside the surface (Yue et al., 2015a).

To significantly reduce uncertainty of simulating Earth's surfaces, we suggest an

alternative method, high accuracy surface modeling (HASM), which takes global

approximate information (e.g., RS images or model simulation results) as its driving field
and local accurate information (e.g., ground observation data and/or sampling data) as

its optimum control constraints (Yue et al., 2007). HASM completes its operation when

its output satisfies the iteration stopping criterion which is determined by application

requirement for accuracy (Zhao and Yue, 2014a). A fundamental theorem of earth

surface modeling (FTESM) is abstracted on the basis of applying HASM to simulating

surfaces of elevation, soil properties, changes of ecosystem services, and driving forces

of ecosystem changes on multiscale for about 20 years (Yue et al., 2016).

Earth's surface results from the competition between deep processes induced by

the tectonic system that deforms, raises, or lowers the topography and from surface

processes controlled by the erosion-transport system that destroy the highs and fill the

lows. The former deep processes are a combination of lithospheric plates’ motion and

mantle convection, the vertical component of which moves rocks with respect to the

geoid, the sea level, or a reference ellipsoid. This vertical movement is generally

referred to as “rock uplift” following England and Molnar's (1990) definition. Surface

processes rely on erosion, transport capacity, and sedimentation, processes that are at

least dependent on potential energy, hence, on vertical motions.

 CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The research presents the research design, research environment the

respondent of the study, research instruments, the data gathering procedures and

statistical techniques used.

3.1 Research Design

The study utilizes descriptive method employing the survey technique. It is

descriptive because it sought to answer the questions or problem on Earth as a Sphere:

Computation of a Land Area in Earth’s Surface Using Integral Calculus in University of

Science and Technology of Southern Philippines. The findings of the study from the

basis for the instructional material.

The primary source of the data is information collected through survey

instruments. The secondary sources of evidence are taken from books, journals,

internet, and pertinent references in the library.

The survey technique is appropriate in the studying situations that exist. It

involves analysis, interpretation, description, and recording of data which are observed

and experience.

3.2 Participants of the Study

The sampling technique used in this study was the random sampling

technique. Under random sampling, the respondents were chosen randomly by the

researchers to answer the questionnaires. The respondents in the study include fifty

(50) students under the Civil Engineering and Architecture Department of University of
Science and Technology of Southern Philippines. Tables and other figures were also

used to provide clearer understanding of data presented in the study.

3.3 Setting of the Study

University of Science and Technology of Southern Philippines is located at

Lapasan, Cagayan de Oro City. It is one of the non-profit public higher education in

Cagayan de Oro City. This school has a branch and it is found in Alubijid, Claveria,

Jasaan, Panaon, Oroquieta and Cagayan de Oro City. The respondents of the study are

students from Civil Engineering and Architecture Department of University of Science

and Technology of Southern Philippines.

3.4 Research Instrument

The instruments that were used in the study is a survey questionnaire which

consisted of only one type.

3.5 Data Analysis

A structured interview is a conversation where an interviewer asks an

interviewee set questions in a standardized order. The interviewee collects the

responses of the candidate and grades them against a scoring system. Asking the

same questions in the same order helps interviewers collect similar types of information

delivered in a uniform context from interviewees. Using this data collecting technique

can help us to control the data we get. Preventing the unnecessary information to come

and our data collecting will be convenient.

However, in this situation it is difficult to conduct investigations or interview for

the reason of this pandemic. It is forbidden to do such thing without any authorization.

Our solution is now to interview through social media to contact the respondents and
get the data or information we need for our research. The gathered data will be set out

and then organized to its particular data set. By these, the researcher can determine the

information and see the results or interview.

 CHAPTER IV

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter presents the results and discussion of data gathered from the

answers to the questionnaires distributed through google form. As stated in the previous

chapter, the researcher used a purposive random sampling technique of fifty (50)

respondents to represent the students from Civil Engineering and Architecture

Department. The said data were presented in tabular form in accordance with the

specific questions posted on the statement of the problem.

The present study was an attempt to determine on Earth as a sphere:

Computation of a land area in earth's surface using Integral Calculus in University of

Science and Technology of Southern Philippines.

 CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

FOR FURTHER STUDIES

This chapter is represented in four sections. The first section contributes to an

overall summary of the study followed by the summary of the findings and their

conclusions. Followed by recommendations for future research.

5.1 Summary of the Study

Values are ingrained in every individual and this study presents some insights to

understand this individual and how earth surface are interacts in the computations of a

land area. The objectives of this study was focused on Earth as a sphere: Computation

of a land area in earth's surface using Integral Calculus, The study of the forms and

features of land surfaces is a field of geoscience and planetary science and is

concerned with local detail in general by these four research questions as listed as

follows:

RQ1: To discover each county's area coverage?

RQ2: What equation/s do we need to use on the computation?

RQ3 As the terrain differs does it affect the computation of the land mass.

RQ4 How does the terrain of the Earth affect the land surface size, as the earth's

surface is a sphere?
5.3 Summary of the Findings

Research Question 1 The findings showed a distinct effect of how we see the

surface, as we may notice the lasting change in the earth's terrain. We can determine if

and how big it is, with some equations placed to solve the question. RQ2: The equation

of the study will use this formula as f(z,y)= √a^2-z^2-y^3. RQ3 As the terrain differs does

it affect the computation of the land mass. The researcher start by computing partial

derivatives and find as our function f

only defines the top upper hemisphere of the sphere. And we get the total computation

of land mass of

RQ4 How does the terrain of the Earth affect the land surface size, as the earth's

surface is a sphere? Earth's terrain can vary greatly from place to place. Only about

30 percent of the Earth's surface consists of dry land, while the remainder is covered

with water. The exposed land has mountains, deserts, plains, plateaus, and so forth.

5.3 Conclusions