Earth Science: Pointers to Review

• Earth Science

- is the study of the Earth and its neighbors in space. It is an exciting science with
many interesting and practical applications.

- Some Earth scientists use their knowledge of the Earth to locate and develop
energy and mineral resources.

• Branches of Earth Sciences

A. Geology
- the study of the Earth- the study of the origin, history, processes (in and on the
surface) and structure of the solid Earth.

B. Oceanography
- the study of the Earth's oceans and the life and processes that affect it. Earth is
cover by about 71% water, most of which is found in Earth's oceans (salty).

C. Meteorology
- the study of Earth's atmosphere. This involves day to day weather and more long
term processes such as climate and climate change.

D. Oceanography
- the study of the Earth's oceans and the life and processes that affect it. Earth is
cover by about 71% water, most of which is found in Earth's oceans (salty).

E. Astronomy
- the study of Earth's place in space; the Universe beyond Earth. This branch
involves all things that outside of the Earth system. Stars, planets, the solar
system are several of examples

• System

- A system is a group of related objects or processes that work together to form a

whole. Systems can be as small as an atom or as large as the whole universe.

- The parts of a system interact, or affect one another. Systems can also interact
with other systems. Systems can interact by exchanging matter or energy.
 - Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space. Energy is the ability to do
work. Heat, light, and vibrations are examples of energy.

Two kinds of systems:

• Open System
- a system that exchanges both matter and energy with the surroundings. The jar
shown to the right is an open system.

• Closed System
- a system that exchanges energy but not matter with the surroundings. The
sealed jar in the right hand picture is a closed system.

- Energy can move into and out of the jar. Because the jar is sealed, no matter can
enter or leave the system.

• Energy enters the Earth system in the form of sunlight. Energy leaves the system in
the form of heat. Only tiny amounts of matter enter and leave the system. Therefore,
scientists often model Earth as a closed system.

• The Earth system is made up of four “spheres.” These spheres are not large round
objects. They are the different areas where all of Earth’s matter is found.

The four spheres are the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the geosphere, and the
biosphere.

1. THE ATMOSPHERE (AIR)

• The atmosphere is the layer of gases that surrounds Earth. The air we breathe is
part of the atmosphere.

• The atmosphere also protects Earth from much of the sun’s harmful radiation.

• About 78% of Earth’s atmosphere is nitrogen gas. About 21% is oxygen gas.
The rest is made up of other gases, such as argon and carbon dioxide.

2. THE HYDROSPHERE (WATER)

 • All the water on Earth makes up the hydrosphere.

• Almost all the water in the hydrosphere is salty.

• Only 3% is fresh water. Fresh water is found in streams, lakes, and rivers. It is
also frozen in glaciers and the polar ice sheets and is found underground in soil
and bedrock.

3. THE GEOSPHERE (EARTH)

• The geosphere is all the rock and soil on the continents and on the ocean floor.

• The geosphere also includes the solid and liquid rock and metal inside Earth.

• Some natural processes, such as volcanic eruptions, bring matter from Earth’s
interior to its surface. Other natural processes move surface matter into Earth’s
interior.

4. THE BIOSPHERE (LIFE)

• The biosphere is made up of all Earth’s living things.

• Organic matter from dead organisms is also part of the biosphere.

• Once this organic matter has decomposed, it becomes part of the other three
spheres.

• The biosphere extends from within Earth’s crust to a few kilometers above
Earth’s surface.

Sources of Energy in the Earth System

- Energy enters the Earth system in the form of sunlight. Energy also leaves the
Earth system as heat. The amount of energy that enters the Earth system is the
same as the amount of energy that leaves it. In other words, the energy that
enters and leaves the system is balanced.

• Solar Energy
- 99.985% of the energy in the Earth System comes from sunlight. This energy
represents about 1/2000000000% (2 Billionth of a percent of the total energy
output of the Sun.)
• Geothermal Energy
- .013% of the energy in the Earth System comes from Earth's interior. This energy
drives the motion of Earth's plates, powers volcanoes, causes earthquakes, and
is an important part of the rock cycle.

• Tidal Energy
- 002% of the energy in the Earth System is tidal energy. This energy is driven by
the gravity of the Moon pulling on the liquid outer layer of Earth.

I. Modeling the planet

A. Maps can be constructed using different angles of view projections. A projection is a 2-D
representation of a 3-D world. The following are examples of map projections:

• Gnomonic Maps or planar projections.

- This kind of projection is made as if a sheet of paper has been
laid on a point on the earth’s surface, often one of the poles. Although it accurately shows the
shortest distance between two points, it distorts landmass shapes away from the center point.

• Mercator Maps often described as cylindrical projection

- are maps which stretch out the land near the poles so that both latitude and longitude lines are
parallel. By making the lines straight, land around the poles is distorted. (accurate at the
equator)

• Polyconic Maps means “many cones”

- are maps which show either the Northern of Southern Hemisphere projected on a cone shape
then laid flat.

- The origins of the polyconic projection are a little obscure, but most researchers credit
Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler with developing the first comprehensive description of this
projection around 1820. 

- The polyconic projection is neither conformal nor equivalent; it is a compromise projection that

attempts to minimize all distortions while not eliminating any particular type of distortion. It was
an extremely popular projection from the mid 1800s through the mid 1900s; its popularity has
waned in the last 50 years. 

• The best general map is the Globe Map. It is closest representation of the earth.

• Maps use coded symbols, colors, and numbers to help you read the map.
 1. Legend or Key – a legend is the key to map. It shows the coded symbols and colors used on the
map. It also contains important background information on the map such as year printed, area
covered, publisher, etc.

2. Scale – The scale tells you the size of the map compared to the actual size of the land.
a. Scaling map allows you to represent a large area on a
small piece of paper.
b. Some scales are written 1 inch = so many miles.
c. Some scales are written in a ratio of the size of the map to
the size of the land. The unit is interchangeable.
i. 1:600,000 this means that 1 inch on the map equals
600,000 inches on the earth or 1 meter equals
600,000 meters on earth.

• Since the surface of the earth is so large man has invented a system to locate points on the earth’s
surface. The system is known as latitude and longitude.

1. Latitude is a set of lines which run parallel to the equator both north and south of it. These lines are
often called parallels.
- Zero degrees latitude is the equator.
- 90 degree latitude is either the North or South pole
- Latitude lines measure north & south but the lines run east to west.

2. Longitude is a set of lines which run through the poles.

- Zero degrees longitude is the prime meridian.
- 180 degrees longitude is the international date line.
- Longitude lines run north & south but they measure east and west.
- Longitude lines are sometimes also called meridians or half circles.
Latitude = 0 degrees to 90N or 90S
Longitude = 0 degrees to 180 E or W

I. Earth’s Formation

A. Origin of the Solar System

1. The most widely accepted model of the formation of our solar system is called the Nebular
Hypothesis. It suggests that 4.6 billion years ago a great cloud of gas and dust was rotating
slowly in space. The cloud of gas and dust was rotating slowly in space. The cloud was at least
10 billion kilometers in diameter.

2. As time passed, the cloud shrank under the pull of its own gravity. As it shrink, its rate of
rotation increased. Most of the material in the rotating cloud gathered around its center.

3. The compression of this material made its interior so hot that a powerful reaction called
hydrogen fusion occurred. At this time, the star we now know as the Sun was born.
 4. About 10 % of material in the cloud formed into a giant plate like disk surrounding the sun and
extending far into space. Frictional, electromagnetic, and gravitational forces within the disk
caused most of the material to condense, forming solid particles of ice and rock. These
particles eventually combined into larger bodies called planetesimals.

B. Earth’s Size and Shape

1. The planetesimals continued to compress and spin, sometimes colliding with each other and
other objects in space. Eventually, these planetesimals developed into planets and moons. Of
these objects, the third closest to the sun became Earth.

2. The spinning rotation of the young Earth caused it to form into a sphere that bulges at the
center. Such a shape is called an oblate pheroid. Earth is not a perfect sphere.

3. One way scientist show that Earth is not a perfect sphere, is by measuring the weight of an
object at several different places on earth’s surface. The weight of an object, in newtons, is
the force with which gravity pulls that object towards earth’s center.

4. The closer an object is to Earth’s center the heavier it would weight. The farther away an
object is from Earth’s center, the lighter it would weight. If you eliminate this elevation
difference, and if the earth were a perfect sphere, object would weight the same all over all
points. Objects weigh slightly more at the poles than at the equator. The poles are closer to
Earth’s center than the equator due to bulging at the equator. Polar locations are slightly
closer to earth’s center than equatorial locations.

5. The total surface area of earth is about 510 million square kilometers equal to about 55
continental united states of Americas. Of this area, about 149 million square kilometers lie
above sea level as continents and islands. Oceans cover the remaining 361 million square
 kilometers. About 71% of earth is covered by the water and 29 percent of earth’s surface is
dry land.

C. Earth’s Interior

1. We believe that the surface of the earth looked much like our present moon and was most
likely composed of the same material from its surface to its center.

2. The early solar system must have been a very chaotic place. Objects frequently collided with
earth causing impact craters and heating up the surface enough for heavy metals such as iron
and nickel to melt.

3. The high density of these materials caused them to sink towards earth core and settle there
while the lighter density materials were forced to surface as earth’s interior separated into
layers.

• Inner Core – composed of solid iron and nickel.

• Outer Core – composed of liquid iron and nickel.

• Mantle – composed mostly of compounds rich in iron, silicon, and magnesium.

• Asthenosphere – thin upper mantle layer that lithosphere floats on.

• Crust – thin rigid layer of lighter rock that includes earths surface.
 D. Earth’s Heat

1. Earth has been losing heat. The amount of heat loss varies from place to place, and from the
following reasons:

- Some rocks lose heat more quickly than others.

- The thickness of crustal rocks varies from place to place.

- The percentage of radioactive materials on rocks varies.

2. Caves are naturally cooler year round due to the fact that they are not influenced by solar
energy. Below 70 meters however, ground temperatures begin to increase. While the rate of
temperature increase in the outer crust is about 1° C for every 40 meters in depth. This
increase is believed to become more gradual below 100 meters depth.

II. Earth’s Rotation

• The earth is rotating around an axis (called its rotational axis).

• The axis of rotation of the Earth is tilted at an angle of 23.5 degrees.

• When viewed above the North Pole, the Earth rotates counterclockwise, from west to east. This
is also called a prograde rotation (rotational or orbital movement). Because of this direction
of rotation, we see the sun rising every day in the east and setting in the west.

Atoms to Minerals
• Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space.

• All matter is made from elements.

- There are 92 naturally occurring elements found as part of the earth.

- The 92 naturally occurring elements can combine in thousand ways.

• The smallest unit of an element that still maintains all the characteristics of that element is
called Atom.

1. An English chemist, John Dalton, formulated the modern particle model – the concept
that each element is made up of tiny particles, all alike, called atoms. The three most
important parts of the atom are the proton, the neutron, and the electron.
• Compounds, Mixtures and Solutions

- Chemical Compounds – When atoms of different elements chemically combine and form a
new type of matter, it is a chemical compound. The new compound has properties
different than those of the atoms that make it up.
 Molecule – the smallest unit of a chemical compound that maintains all the properties
of that compound.
 Water is an example of a chemical compound.

- Mixtures – are physical combinations of matter. In a physical combination of matter, the

individual substances mixed do not lose their individual properties.
 Elements in a mixture can usually be separated without difficulty. E.g. – sand and salt
mixed to be spread on a snow covered road do not lose their individual properties, the
salt remains salt and the sand remains sand.

- Solutions are a kind of mixture in which one substances is dissolved in another. The most
common type of solution is a solid dissolved in a liquid.
 The dissolved substance is evenly distributed throughout the solution. E.g. Salt and
water.
 Dissolved substances cannot easily be separated out in a solution.

• Physical and Chemical Properties

• Physical Properties
Physical properties are properties which can be measured. Length, width, height, speed, color,
luster, malleability, and conductivity.
In physical properties, no change in composition takes place during the determination or
measurement of these properties. E.g. melting of ice

• Chemical Properties
Chemical properties are those properties which determine how an atom or molecule behaves
in the presence of other atoms or molecules.
In chemical properties, a change in composition occurs during the determination or
measurement of these properties. E.g. rusting
Minerals

- Are naturally occurring, inorganic, and homogenous solid with definite chemical
composition and crystalline structure.

- They are building blocks of rocks.

*Mineralogist – a person who studies minerals.

*Mineralogy – the study of all aspects of minerals, including their physical properties,
chemical composition, and internal structure.

Minerals are thought to form by one of the three different means:

• The Magma Process

- Minerals form from molten rock, called magma.
- As the magma cools down, mineral crystals begin to grow.
 the longer magma has to cool, the larger the crystals will grow.
 the shorter the time that magma has to cool, the smaller the crystal will grow.

• Black Smokers
- Black smokers on the ocean floor pump hot mineral-rich water out of volcanic
cracks into the sea and the black mineral “smoke” blankets the ocean floor
around the vents.
• The Pressure Process
- Minerals can form when a rock is subjected to high temperature and pressure.
- The temperature and pressure becomes great enough to change the minerals in
a solid state, without melting them.
- The free atoms. Ions, and molecules recombine in new ways, forming new
minerals.

Properties used to identify Minerals:

1. Luster
- is the way a mineral reflects light. There are two different classifications of luster:
A. Metallic – reflects light like a metal.
 B. Non-metallic – does not reflect light like a metal.

2. Streak
- is the color of mineral’s powder.

3. Color
- is simply the color of the mineral.

4. Hardness
- is what a mineral will scratch or what will scratch a mineral.
- Hardness is reported by using the Moh’s Hardness of Scale.
- Moh’s Hardness of Scale by the German mineralogist Friedrich Mohs.

5. Crystalline Structure
- A unique arrangement of atoms in a crystal minerals.
- Arrangement of atoms in a particular way which is periodically repeated in 3D on
a lattice.

6. Cleavage
- Refers to the way a mineral breaks.

7. Diaphaneity/amount of transparency
- ability to allow light to pass through it.

8. Special properties
- are properties which are unique or out of the ordinary.
 E.g. malleability; ductility

Rocks
- Are combined aggregation of minerals.

*Petrologist – a person (geologist) who studies petrology.

*Petrology – the scientific study of rocks.

Classification of Rocks

I. Igneous Rocks
- Formed from hardening and crystallization of magma or molten mineral.

Types of Igneous Rocks

1. Extrusive / Volcanic Rock

- lava that cools down fast.
- fined grained crystals since the cooling process is fast.

2. Intrusive / Plutonic
- magma that cools down slowly.
- coarse grained crystals.
Properties of Igneous Rocks

1. Based on composition

• Felsic – light colored, feldspar, silicate.

• Mafic – dark colored, made up of magnesium and iron.

• Intermediate – between felsic and mafic.

• Ulramafic – very dark color.

2. Based on texture

• Aphanistic – fined grained.

• Phaneritic – coarse grained.

• Porphyritic – large crystal with small crystals.

• Glassy – none-ordered solid from rapid quenching.

• Pyroclastic – composed of ejected fragments.

II. Sedimentary Rocks

- Formed from the compaction and cementing of layers of sediments (rock
fragments).
Types of Sedimentary Rocks:

1. Clastic
- this type of sedimentary rock is formed from accumulation of clasts (little pieces
of broken rocks and shells)

2. Chemical
- this type of sedimentary rock is formed when a dissolved minerals precipitate
from a solution.

3. Organic
- organic sedimentary rocks occur as a result of the accumulation of any form of
animal or plant remains like bones.
III. Metamorphic Rocks
- Formed from the effect of heat and pressure on other rocks.

Metamorphism
- change of minerals or geologic texture in pre-existing rocks (protoliths) without
the protolith melting into liquid magma. (Solid state change)

Types of Metamorphism:

1. Regional Metamorphism
- happens when a large region of crust where high temperature and pressure is
present.

• Large deposits of metamorphic rocks.

• Presence of pressure and heat.
• The pressure and heat is enough to change the composition but not enough to
melt the rocks.

2. Contact Metamorphism
- happens of layer of rocks having contact with heat (magma).
 • Rising magma.
• The heat is enough to change the composition but not enough to melt the rocks.

Metamorphic Rock

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“Success is the sum of small efforts,

repeated day in and day out.” 
Robert Collier