CHEMISTRY FORM ONE

1.0 WHAT’S CHEMISTRY?

Chemistry-is a branch of science that deals with the study of the composition and properties of
matter and their reactions

1.0.1 MATTER

Matter is anything that occupies space

Name three states of matter

 Solid
 Liquid
 Gas/vapor

What are the properties of matter in different state?

Solids have a definite shape and volume. They however take the shape of the container in which
they are in

Gases have a definite mass but have no definite volume and shape

Conductors- solid substances that allow electric current to pass through

Non-conductors -solid substances that do not allow electric current to flow through them

MIXTURE

A mixture consists of two or more substances that are mixed together were the two components
retain their physical and chemical properties

State three characteristics of the mixtures

 The substance is a mixture can be in any proportion but are not chemically combined
 The components / substances can be easily separated
 The components retains the chemical and physical properties

The choice and method of separation of a given mixture depends on the nature of the individual
components forming the mixture

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 What’s the role of Chemistry in the society?

i. Extraction of chemicals from the plants

ii. Manufacture of substances like soap, glass’ plastics medicine

Q. Name some of the apparatus used in chemistry laboratory

They are made up of glass or plastic because;

i. The two are non reactive

ii. They don’t rust
iii. One can see thru easily

1.0.2A LABORATORY

What is a lab?
Its special room where practical subjects are done
A Bunsen burner
It’s used as a source of heating in the lab. Other source of heat include, spirit lamp, candle stove,
kerosene lamp and electric heater
The Bursen burner has three main parts

 The chimney
 Collar And
 The base
The rubber tubing
The jet
Air hole

TYPES OF FLAMES

What’s a flame?
Its amass of burning gasses
When the Bunsen burner is ignited it produces two types of flame depending on the amount of
air entering the chimney when the hole is closed it produces a luminous flame when the air-hole
is open it produces a luminous flame

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 TABLE 1; Differences between luminous and num-luminous flame

Luminous Flame Non-Luminous flame

Has no uniform color Has uniform color
Has sooty Non sooty
Produces much light Produces less light
Has four regions/zones Has three regions/zones

1.0.3. LABOLATORY APPARATUS

They include apparatus like

Measuring temperature-
 Thermometer
Measuring accurate mass-
 Electronic weigh balance
 Spring balance
Measuring time
 Stop watch

Measuring volume
 Beaker-
 Conical flask-Measures approximate volumes of liquids
 Volumetric flask-measures accurate volumes

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 Syringe-measures accurate volumes
 Pipette – measures accurate volumes
 Burette-measures accurate volumes
 Separating funnel-separates immiscible liquids
 Graduated flask-measures accurate volumes

LAB SAFETY.
Discuss with the learner in class
Never………………..

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 TOPIC 2;

Matter can be classified into three states as below.

 Solids
 Liquids
 Gases
2.0 MIXTURES
Types of mixtures
Let us first understand what a mixture is- These are two or more substances combined together
but they RETAIN their physical and chemical properties.
A mixture of maize and iron fillings a mixture of iron and salt
Mixtures may include;
i. Gas-Gas
ii. Liquid- Liquid
iii. Liquid-Gas
iv. Solid-Liquid
v. Solid-Solid

2.0.1 SEPARATION OF MIXTURES

The above mixtures must be separated by various methods

SOLID-SOLID MIXTURES
This may include solids like sulphur and iron fillings. Iron fillings are grey in color while sulphur
is a yellow powder that retains their individual colors.
They are separated by magnetic method simply by holding a magnet over the mixture

SOLID LIQUID MIXTURES

There are two categories
i. Solids that dissolve-soluble e.g common salt potassium nitrate
A SOLUTE-a substance that dissolves in the liquid
SOLVENT-a liquid that dissolves a substance
A SOL UTION-A solvent + a solute

ii. Solids that don’t dissolve- insoluble e.g sand insoluble salts such as

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 Filtration
This is a method that separates the insoluble salts/solids by the use of porous paper known as the
filter paper

The filter doesn’t allow the solids to pass through

The un-dissolved solids is left behind on the filter paper and is known as the residue

The solution passing through the filter paper is called the filtrate

1. DECANTATION

The process also separates insoluble solid from a liquid by allowing solids to settle at the bottom
of the container and then pour gently and carefully into another container without disturbing the
sediment

Q. How can common salt be separated from water?

It’s quite difficult to separate NaCl from water because its completely soluble therefore filtration
is not enough. This is done through three methods

a. Evaporation

Evaporation is a process through which liquid changes to gas the process takes place at all
temperatures thy solution is heated to dryness thus evaporating the solvent

When the crystals start to form the evaporating basin is transferred to a sand bath to avoid
spurting of the salts

Q. How can a mixture of sand and common salt be separated?

A. First dissolve the mixture in water; filter to obtain the residue of sand to recover the common
salt; evaporate the solution;

2. CRYSTALLISATION

Q. How can solid crystals of NaCl be obtained from copper (II) Sulphate?
CRYSTALLISATION-is a process by which a solution is evaporated to make it more saturated
with the solute.

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 When a saturated solution is cooled the excess solute is deposited as crystals

A mixture of salts can be separated from solution using the fractional crystallization- a process
by which two or more solutes are separated by crystallization, making use of their solubility
differences in the same solvent.

When the solution containing a mixture of two or more solutes is cooled the least soluble solute
will crystallize first

To ensure that there is saturation, you can dip the glass rod on the glass rod. After saturation the
solution will crystallize on cooling

Importance of crystallization

i. Extraction of salt from sea and lakes

ii. Extraction of sugar from sugarcane
iii. Extraction of medicinal values from plants

3. SUBLIMATION
Separation of Mixtures of Common Salt from Iodine
DEFINATION;- Sublimation is the process whereby A heated solid changes directly to vapor from
solid without melting and back to solid when cooled.

When heated it iodine sublimates leaving behind the sand

N.B both iodine and common salt are soluble in water therefore evaporation, filtration, or
crystallization can’t be applied. Iodine separates a purple vapor, other substances that sublimate
include-

 Aluminum Chloride
 Anhydrous Iron (III) Chloride
 Ammonium Chloride
 Benzoic Acid
 Dry ice

4. CHROMATOGRAPHY
Is the separation of mixtures using a moving liquid solvent on e material that absorbs the solvent
on a material?

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 Naturally occurring substances have several pigments. Propane is used to dissolve the coloring
matter. Each colored substance has a different solubility in propane and a different extent of
stickiness on the chromatogram/filter paper

As propane moves up, or away from the c3enter, more soluble and less stick substances are
carried further until it reaches SOLVENT FRONT-the highest point where the solvent reaches.

The solvent is allowed to move to the solvent front and the paper removed to dry.

Solvent front

Diagram 1

5. USING A SEPARATING FUNNEL

They are divided into two

IMMISCIBLE –they don’t mix but they form a distinctive layer e.g water and oil

MISCIBLE LIQUIDS- they mix completely without forming layers e.g water and ethanol.

Kerosene floats in water because its less denser than water. They are best separated using a
separating funnel by carefully pouring the lower layer into a beaker by opening the tap. One can
also use a teat pipette or a dropper that sucks one layer to another beaker repeatedly.

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 DIAGRAM 2a and b

6. DISTILLATION

Distillation is the process of vaporizing a liquid and then condensing the vapors.

This process is used to separate miscible liquids, they are of two types

a. Simple distillation- Used to separated miscible liquids containing dissolved substances for
instance pure water from sea water or salts solution on heating the salt solution, the solutions
boils to give steam and the steams is cooled to liquid water and collected as distillate

DIAGRAM 3

b. Fractional distillation- this is used to separate liquids that mix in all proportions to forma
homologous solution/mixture like ethanol and propanol water + ethanol
the two solutions must have different boiling points for instance water has a boiling point of
100C while that of ethanol is 78C- Ethanol collects first then water temperature changes after all
ethanol has distilled off.

Glass beads

Diagram 4

 Glass beads- they increase the surface area for condensation

 The thermometer monitors the temp change; it must not touch the fractioning column.
 Leibig’s condenser must not be interchanged i.e the inlet should be down
 There must be source of heat

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 

Application of fractional distillation

 Oil refining in Changamwe Mombasa
 Liquid air in the manufacture of Nitrogen and Oxygen (BOC)

EFFECT OF HEAT ON SUBSTANCES

-W-Matter exists in three physical state solid liquid and gaseous

-When a substance is heated on cooling, it can change from one state to another.

When a solid is heated e.g Naphthalene, the temp rises till it starts to rise

-It melts the temperature remains constant until all the naphthalene melted. The constant temperature
at which the melting takes place is called the MELTING PIONT

-This can be represented in the heating curve.

D
E

A
Time in minutes
C
Diagram 5

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Regions AB

Region BC

Region CD

Region D

The changes can be represented as in the flow chart 1 below;

Sublimation

Melting Evaporation
LIQUID

Condensation/liquefaction
SOLID
Freezing

Deposition

Flow chart 1

 Melting

Is the process were matter changes from solid to liquid at constant temperature. This happens at
the melting point.

 Boiling

Is the process by which the vapor pressure of a liquid becomes equal to that of the atmospheric
pressure? These takes place at the boiling point

 Condensation

Is the process at which matter changes from gas to liquid state/form the gas loses kinetic energy
when the temperature of the gaseous mixture decreases making the particles come together. This
occurs at boiling point.

 Freezing

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 Is the change of state from liquid to solid; the particles in liquid state lose kinetic energy during
cooling and come closer to one another resulting in the formation of a solid this occurs at the
melting point.

 Sublimation

This is the process were by solid substances changes directly from solid to gaseous state without
melting.

 Deposition

Is the reverse of sublimation were by substance changes from gaseous to solid state without
condensation

Diagram 5

THE KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER

The theory states that;

Matter is made up of particles which are in a continuous state of motion

In solid state particles are closely packed in fixed position

In liquid state particles are not as closely held as in solid they can move from one position to
another explaining the indefinite shape as liquid.

They take any shape as the container but have indefinite volume.

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In gaseous state the particles move rapidly as the attractive forces are further weakened and
apart. Particles move independently.

EFFECTS OF IMPURITIES ON M.P AND B.P OF SUBSTANCES

Impurities lower the melting point as solid substances.

The lowering of melting point by impurities is applied in

i. Extraction of metals from their molten ore

ii. Cleaning of ice from roads in temperate countries by spreading common salt (NaCl) on
the ice.

Impurities raise the boiling point of a liquid.

There is no application of the impurities on boiling instead its expensive.

Pure substances melt and boil on constant temperature. This is used to determine the purity of
substances

TEMPORARY AND PERMANENT CHANGES

TEMPORARY CHANGE/NON-PERMANENT CHANGES

Changes that take place when a substance is heated or cooled can be considered beyond the
change of state.

Most substance is stable to heat and only change their state for example from solid to liquid and
liquid to gas without any chemical change take place.

These changes are reversible.

Example is the change of water to ice or water vapour or the change of zinc oxide from white to
yellow on heating.

Zinc oxide Zinc oxide

(White) (Yellow)

Solid wax Liquid wax

Solid iodine Iodine vapor

Heating the above substances does not result in substances.

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The change can easily be reversed and no new substances formed.

Characteristics of temporary physical changes

They are easily reversible

No new substances is formed
No mass change
No great heat change

REVERSIBLE CHEMICAL CHANGE

In a chemical change, the products may react to form the original substances.

When blue hydrated copper (II) sulphate is heated, it forms the white anhydrous copper (II)
sulphate.

When water is added to the white anhydrous copper (II) Sulphate change to blue

CuSO4. 5H2O (s) CuSO4 (s) + 5H2O (l)

(Blue) (White)
The white anhydrous copper (II) sulphate does not regain its original blue color on cooling. The
same happens to

Pink Cobalt (II) Chloride Anhydrous Cobalt (II) Chloride + Pink water

When ammonia chloride is heated it forms ammonia + hydrochloric gas that recombine to form
ammonium chloride

NH4Cl(s) NH3 (g) + HCl(g)

Characteristics of temporally chemical changes

A new substance is formed

Heat energy is evolved or absorbed
There is apparent change in mass
Change not easily reversible

Non–reversible chemical changes/permanent change

Here the products do not react to form original substances
When blue copper (II) nitrate is heated it decomposes to form black Copper (II) Oxide and Red-
brown nitrogen (IV) oxide and colorless oxygen gas formed

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 Cu(NO3)2 (s) 2CuO(s) + 4NO2 (g) + O2 (g)

Purple KMnO4 decomposes to form a black green solid and a colorless gas Oxygen the black
green solid (black manganese (IV) oxide and green potassium manganate (VI) the products are
less in weight

Characteristics
i. New substances are formed
ii. The change is irreversible
iii. The energy is reversed or absorbed
iv. There is apparent mass change

CONSITITUENTS OF MATTER

ELEMENT
These are pure substances which cannot be split into simpler substances by chemical means. E.g
Oxygen, Nitrogen, Copper

ATOMS
These are smallest particles of an element which can take part in a chemical change
Hydrogen atom

A MOLECULE
Is a group of two or more atoms chemically combined? Thus it’s a smallest particle of an
element or compound that can exist separately

A COMPOUND
A compound is a substance that consists of two or more elements that are chemically combined
Copper + Oxygen = Copper (II) Oxide
Carbon dioxide
Sulphur dioxide

A MIXTURE
These are two or more substances combined together but they retain their physical and chemical
properties.
A mixture of maize and iron fillings a mixture of iron and sulphur

CHEMICAL SYMBOLS

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This is the letter(s) that represent elements, it’s the first letter in most elements and must be in
capital letter and the second in small letter sfor those with two letters.
Some elements such as sodium don’t use their first English or common letters

Table 2; The first 20 elements include

ELEMENT SYMBOL ELEMENT SYMBOL

Hydrogen H Sodium Na
Helium He Magnesium Mg
Lithium Li Aluminum Al
Barium Be Silicon Si
Boron B Phosphorous P
Carbon C Sulphur S
Nitrogen N Chlorine Cl
Oxygen O Argon Ar
Fluorine F Potassium K
Neon Ne Calcium Ca

CHEMICAL EQUATION
Chemical equations are the representation of chemical reactions using words or symbols
They show the reactants to the left and the products in the right hand side
The signs show the reversible reactions
Fe + S FeS

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Topic 3

What’s an acid?
Is a substance when dissolved in water produces hydrogen ions as the only positive ions
An acid is a proton donor

What’s a base?
It’s a substance that reacts with acids to give water and salts as the only products. It’s a substance
having a pair of unshared electron.
It’s a proton acceptor

An Indicator
An acid-base indicator is a chemical compound that is added in small amount to determine
whether the solution is an acid or a base. It gives a different color in acidic and alkalinity
mediums.

SIMPLE ACID BASE INDICATOR

The indicator color change causes the color of the solution to change depending on the acidity or
alkalinity.
The color changes are due to differences in the hydrogen ions (H+) or hydroxide ions (OH-)
concentration in the solution.
When simple acid-base indicator like flower extract is used in solutions of hydrochloric acid,
H2SO4, orange juice and lemon juice gives similar color because they are all acids. Lime water
sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide wood ash and baking powder solutions give different
color from that in acids because they are bases.
Water and sugar solution have no effect because they are neutral substances.

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When indicators like litmus, phenolphthalein, and methyl orange are used the following results
are obtained

Color in
Indicators Acids Bases Neutral
Litmus Red Blue Purple
Phenolphthalein Colorless Pink Colorless
Methyl orange Pink Yellow Orange
Methyl red Red Yellow Red

UNIVERSAL INDICATOR AND THE PH SCALE

The commonly used indicator is the universal indicator or the full range indicator.
It gives a range of colors depending on the strength of the acid or base.
It develops different colour at different ph values which are more useful than the single colour
change of a simple indicator.
It is used together with the ph scale.
The different colour shows the concentration of the same acid or base.
The ph scale is the scale that relates to hydrogen ions conc. of a solution that is used to measure
the acidity or alkalinity of a solution.
Acid ph value or acid range from 0 to less than seven
Weak acids have ph value of 4 to 7
Strong acid have ph value of 0 to 4
As the ph value decreases from 7-0 the acidity strength increases.
Neutral substances like pure water have ph of 7.
The pH value of bases range between 7 and 10 NaOH, KOH have pH of above 10 thus strong
bases.
Strong acids- Are acids that dissociates completely. HCl, H2SO4, HNO4
Weak acids – Are acids that do not dissociate completely organic acids.
CH3COOH (aq) H- (ions)+CHOO- (ions)
Strong bases – Are bases that dissociates completely when dissolve in water example, Na and K
Hydroxides (alkalis)

Weak bases-Are bases that do not dissociate completely when dissolve in water NH3 (aq).

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Strong acids Weak acids Neutral Weak alkali Strong alkali
Red Red/ Ylw /Grn Green Grn/Bl Purple

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 PROPERTIES OF ACIDSOF ACIDS

PHYSICAL PROPERTIESOF ACIDS

 Sour taste
 Turns blue litmus paper to red
 Acids conducts electricity in solution
 Most mineral acids are corrosive
Acids that are obtained from reaction of minerals are called mineral acids, inorganic acids like

Sulphuric acid/ (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO4)

Organic compounds that are carboxylic acids mainly food in plants and animals like methanoic
acid in bees that cause swelling during a bee sting and in bees.

Ethanoic acids in vinegar, Citric acid in oranges, lemon and in sour milk.

REACTION OF ACIDS ON METALS

An acid of a compound that when it reacts with some metals it gives hydrogen gas that burns
with a pop sound when a burning splint is passed over the test tube.
Zinc + Hydrogen acid Zinc chloride + Hydrogen gas
Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq) ZnCl2 (aq) + H2(g)
Reactive (very reactive) metals like potassium (K), sodium (Na) and calcium (Ca) react very
violently and should not be used.
The reaction of calcium with sulphuric acid slows down due to the formation of insoluble
calcium sulphate that coats the metal and prevents it from further reaction.
Lead reacts very slowly with Hydrochloric acid HCl and Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) due to
formation of insoluble of respective derived acids salts.
Cu doesn’t react with Hcl and conc. Sulphuric acid (H2SO4 )

REACTION OF ACIDS WITH CARBONATES AND HYDROGEN CARBONATES

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Setting the apparatus as shown below to the effect as the acids on Carbonatess and Hydrogen
Carbonates.

Acids reacts with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to produce carbon dioxide gas, a salt and
Water.
Acid + Carbonates/Hydrogen Carbonate Salt + Carbon (II) Oxide + Water
Carbon dioxide turns or forms a white precipitate with calcium hydroxide (lime water).This is
the test of CO2 gas.
The reaction of sulphuric acid with CaSO4 stops immediately due to formation of insoluble layer
of calcium sulphate that prevents further reaction.
REACTION OF ACIDS WITH BASES
Acids react with bases to form salts and water only that reaction refers to us as neutralization
reaction.
It necessary to use an indicator to determine the end-point of the reaction. The colour of the
indicator change as the end point is reached.
NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
From the above shows that a base is a substance which when reacts with acids forms water as the
only products.
They include Ammonia solution, metals oxide and metal hydroxide.
Reaction of metal oxide with acids
All acids react with metal oxide to form a salt plus water.
Hydrochloric acid + Zinc Oxide Zinc Chloride + water
Reaction of hydroxide with acids
Acids reacts with hydrogen to form salts and water as well.
Some metal oxide dissolve in H2O and some do not.

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 CaO- slight soluble in water it forms a white suspension in water that turns red litmus paper blue.
Zinc oxide, copper oxide, magnesium oxides are insoluble.
Basic oxide – insoluble metal oxide
Basic oxide – insoluble in metal hydroxides
Alkali – soluble metal oxide and hydroxide: sodium oxide, sodium hydroxide, potassium oxide,
potassium hydroxide their solution forms a soapy feel then turns red litmus paper blue.

BASES

OXIDES
HYDROXIDES

Insoluble Basic
Soluble Insoluble basic Soluble
Hydroxides
Alkalis Hydroxides Alkalis

USES OF ACID

 The manufacture of aerated drink.

 Hcl cleanses metal surface
 H2SO4 used in car batteries
 Sulphuric acid used in manufacture of fertilizer, paints & detergents
 Hydrochloric acid used to provide favorable acidic medium for stomach enzymes
USES OF BASES
 Manufacture of tooth paste
 Manufacture of anti-acid & indigestion tablets
 Sodium hydroxide is used in manufacturing of soap
 Liming reduces acidity in the soil through addition of oxide & hydroxide of calcium
 Caustic soda used in oven cleaning
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF BASES
 They have a bitter taste
 They have a soapy feel

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 Turns litmus paper blue
 They conduct electricity in solution
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF BASES
 React with acids to form salt and water only (neutralization)
 Soluble bases precipitate insoluble metal hydroxide
Fe 3+ (aq) + 3OH –(aq) FeOH3(s)
Cu 2+(aq) + 2OH --(aq) Cu(OH)(s)
 Most metal hydroxide decompose when heated to form oxide as the metal & water

Zn(OH)2(s) heat ZnO (s) + H2O(l)

 Amphoteric substances
Substances that react with both alkali & an acid e.g. Zn(OH)2 & AlOH.

Exercise

1) Martha added dilute sodium hydroxide (NaOH) to a white solid Y and the solid dissolved
she also added dil. Hydrochloric acid to a sample of solid y and it also dissolved

i. What type of substance is solid Y. explain (2marks)

ii. Give an example of the hydroxide of solid Y (1mark)

2) Explain how aluminum oxide can be obtained from a solution of aluminum chloride
starting with adding NaOH solution to a solution of aluminum Chloride

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What is air?

Air is a mixture of gases they include in composition:

Nitrogen 78%
Oxygen 20%
Carbon (IV) oxide 0.03%
Noble gas o.17%
Water vapor variable about 1% to 3%
Polluting gases – variable
Dust & smoke – variable

Nitrogen takes up the highest percentage of air the percentage of each gas varies from time to
time and from place to place thus percentage approximated.
Fractional distillation of liquid shows that air contains oxygen & nitrogen. Nitrogen has lower
boiling point of -195ºC & oxygen has a boiling point of -183ºC Nitrogen evaporates first.
Quantitative determination of oxygen in air
When determining the quantity of oxygen in air the apparatus are arranged as below.
2 syringes 100cm3
Hard glass tube
Two glass wool plugs
Copper turnings
Rubber bungs
Procedure
100cm3 of air in syringe A is taken. No air in syringe B.
The hard glass tube is full of copper turnings
The copper turnings are strongly heated and air driven slowly through them from syringe A to B
then push the air backwards from B to A and thus continues after sometimes.
Oxygen in air combines in air to form Copper (II) Oxide the weight of copper increases.
The apparatus is cooled and the final volume measured.
The amount of oxygen is equal to the decrease in volume in the left syringe.

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Initial volume of air = xcm3
Final volume of air =ycm3
Volume of oxygen gas =(x-y) cm3
Approximate percentage of Oxygen in volume = x-y/x X 100%
To show that air consist of mainly two parts: Nitrogen & Oxygen
When two experiments are set as above using a burning candle and iron filling in muslin bag : in
the first experiments the candle burning in air over water ,the flame goes out when the part of air
that support burning is used up. The water will rise up to take part that was initially occupied by
the air.
In the iron fillings the iron fillings contained in a muslin bag and tied to the end of a glass rod are
put in a jar which is inverted over water they will eventually rust and the water will rose. This
shows air is used in rusting
Burning
When carrying these experiments on various substances, crucible or deflagrating or combustion
spoon are used.
When some substances burn in air, they combine with oxygen to form oxides. This results in an
increase in mass due to the addition of oxygen.
Leads melts into globules slowly gets covered with a yellow residue
Potassium burns vigorously living behind a white residue.
Equations
C+O
S+O
2Cu + O
2Na+ O
4P+ O

SUBSTANCE RESULT OF HEATING NAME OF PRODUCT

Carbon Glows red hot.Gradualy burn Carbon dioxide/ Carbon (IV)

Away e.g charcoal Oxide

Sulphur Melts to form a red liquid then Sulphur dioxide gas

burns with a blue flame & a Turns wet blue litmus paper
misty gas with a strong smell is given off red

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 Copper turning Turns black slowly Copper (II) Oxide

Sodium Burns with a bright yellow flame Sodium peroxide

Residue is a yellow solid Na2 O2

Phosphorous Burns with bright yellow flame Phosphorous (V) Oxide

White fumes given off
Calcium Burns with bright red flame to Calcium oxide
Form a white solution CaO
Zinc Burns with a green flame Yellow hot/white when cold
Iron Becomes red hot slowly turns
Black
Aluminum Oxidized very slowly

Magnesium Burns with a white dazzling flame White residue

OXYGEN AN ACTIVE PART OF AIR

This shows that there is increase in weight when an element burns in air
Apparatus
A crucible, with a lid, pipe, clay triangle, a Bunsen burner and a tripod stand.
Chemicals: Magnesium ribbon and Copper turnings
The white ash of magnesium ribbon is heavier than the magnesium ribbon because Magnesium
reacts with oxygen to form Magnesium Oxide.
But this is different with carbon because it burns away and nothing is left behind
Alluminium is a peculiar metal it oxidized very slowly thus coated with thin layer of an oxide
that protect the underneath surface thus preventing further heating that’s why is used to cook for
a long time- when washing Aluminum surface avoid using a steel wool because it removes the
thin layer.
FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION OF LIQUEFIED AIR
This process explain that air is a mixture of gases that can be separated through fractional
distillation
What do you understand by fractional distillation- the separation of miscible substances that have
different boiling points?
Different gas in air has different boiling point

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  Oxygen -183ºC
 Argon -186ºC
 Nitrogen -196ºC
This enables separation one at a time by monitoring the boiling point
PROCEDURE
 Purify by passing through filters
 Then pass it through sodium hydroxide solution to remove carbon dioxide gas
 Then air is cooled to -26ºC to remove water vapor as air is cooled to -200ºC
Due to different boiling points they are separated by fractional distillation
Nitrogen then argon then oxygen

Dust CO2
free air free Air
Air Intake Sodium Cooler
Ai FILTER pump hydroxide -25ºC
r

Air free of water

Compressor 200 vapors
Atm.
Pressure

200ºC
Liquid Air
Fractional distillation
chamber

OXYGEN ARGON NITROGEN

-183ºC -186ºC -196ºC

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 RUSTING

Rusting is a reaction of iron/steel with oxygen in the presence o moisture to form a hydrated Iron
(III) Oxide
Rusting is a coat of Orange-red powder
When iron rust some of the air (oxygen) is used up and there is increase in weight
Oxygen and water are responsible for rusting to occur

As seen iron first reacts with oxygen forming iron 3 oxides before reacting with water to form
hydrated Iron (III) Oxide
Iron + Oxygen Iron (III) Oxide
Iron (III) Oxide + Water Hydrated iron (III) Oxide
Fe 2 O 3 + Nh2 O FeO3 nH2O

PREVENTION OF RUSTING
Rusting can be prevented by protecting iron if air and is away from it
They include
 Painting
 Plastic coating
 Galvanizing
 Tin plating
 Chromium plating
 Alloying
 Oiling or greasing
Galvanizing
This is the dipping of iron in molten zinc which covers the iron with a thin layer. If the zinc layer
is scratched the iron doesn’t corrode because zinc is more reactive than iron hence corrodes first
Tin plating
Food cans are made up of iron coated with tin
Alloying

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When two or more metals are mixed together is known as alloying
Iron mixed with chromium produces stainless steel that doesn’t rust at all they include cutlery

OXYGEN gas
Oxygen can be obtain from free air or from combined state
Lab. Preparation of oxygen
Oxygen can be prepared from hydrogen peroxide or sodium peroxide
Oxygen from hydrogen peroxide
Oxygen is conveniently prepared through the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide solution.
Magnesium (IV) oxide is used as a catalyst
No heat Is required in this preparation because oxygen come off without difficulties.
The first few drops /volume of the gas are not collected as they contain traces of air that are
inside the delivery tube
The gas is collected by down ward displacement of water because it’s insoluble
When the gas is required dry it’s passed through conc. Sulphuric acid in a wash bottle or solid
anhydrous calcium chloride in a U-tube. The delivery tube must be dipped inside the conc.
H2SO4
The catalyst doesn’t take part in the reaction it speeds up the rate of reaction and at lower
temperature
The dropping funnel is used to prevent the gas from escaping to the environment but ordinary
thistle funnel can be used but lower end must be kept under the solution in the flask.

28
29
 OXYGEN RROM SODIUM PEROXIDE

Water

Oxygen

Sdium
peroxide

In place of MnO2 a small quantity of sodium peroxide powder in the flask. Then run in water (A)
from the dropping funnel.
The reaction takes place under cold condition
Sodium peroxide is a dangerous substance it must not be allowed to come into contact with
dampness
PROPERTIES OF OXYGEN
 Oxygen is a colorless and odorless and tasteless
 It is insoluble in water but slightly soluble
 Has no effect on litmus paper/neutral gas
 Slightly denser than air
 Doesn’t burn itself but supports combustion – glowing of splint relight

ACTION OF OXYGEN WITH METALS

Sodium
Sodium burns with a bright yellow flame and forms a white solid
The solid readily dissolve in water forming sodium hydroxide solution which is an alkali that
turns red litmus blue

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Calcium
Burns with a bright red flame and form a white solid calcium oxide that is slightly soluble in
water and the solution turns red litmus blue
Magnesium
Magnesium burns in oxygen with a white dazzling flame that is slightly soluble in water to give
an alkali solution that turns red litmus blue
Iron
When burns in oxygen it turns red-hot and burns more brightly with sparks it cools to a black
iron oxide
The oxide doesn’t dissolve in water
COMPETITION FOR COMBINE OXYGEN
This is best investigated or noted well when two elements are competing for oxygen
Prepare carbon dioxide in gas jar through the action of dilute hydrochloric acid on carbonate of
calcium
Collect the gas through downward delivery
Hold a piece of magnesium and burn it on a flame and quickly plunge it into the gas jar
containing CO2

CaCO3 (s) + HCl (aq) CaCl (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)

You will note that CO2 doesn’t support combustion but the heat extensive heat of Mg is enough
to decompose CO2 to carbon & oxygen
A mixture of white powder of magnesium oxide and black pebbles of carbon are left behind
The oxygen that decomposes from CO2 supports the burning magnesium
This shows that magnesium is more reactive than carbon thus it competes for oxygen from CO2
The reactivity of metals can be arranged in the reactivity series

K Na Ca Mg C Zn Fe Pb Cu
More Reactive Less Reactive
Decreasing reactivity
Potassium is more reactive than the rest of the metals it will steel the combine element or oxygen
from them

31
 Q. State and explain what will happen if sodium was reacted with iron (iii) oxide and
copper (iii) oxide?
A, Black calcium powder turns to yellow sodium peroxide the copper (ii) oxide is reduced to
copper solid/brown copper solid
Black iron oxide turns to grayish when reacted with sodium and Na2O2 Iron (II) Oxide is reduced
to Iron
METHOD OF GAS COLLECTION

State the main stages involve when a gas is prepared

 The reaction vessel – involve reagent
 Purification state
 Drying stage – removal of water/moist
 The collection of the gas
If there is heat required in the reaction vessel the round bottomed flask must used
Drying of gases
A dry gas is a gas that is free from water particles or tresses therefore a gas never dried and
collected over water
There are different ways of drying gases
This is done through the usage of different drying agents
Drying agents
 Concentrated sulphuric acid
Conc. Sulphuric acid is used to dry gases like
 Oxygen
 Sulphur dioxide
 Hydrogen
 Hydrogen chloride
The delivery tube must be below the drying liquid and the exit tube below the drying liquid
Conc.sulphuric acid should not be to dry
Ammonia and hydrogen sulphide as the gases will react with it
 Anhydrous calcium chloride
Anhydrous calcium chloride is used to dry the following gases
 Oxygen

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 Sulphur (IV) oxide
 Hydrogen
 Hydrochloride gas
It should not be used to dry ammonia
 Calcium oxide (quicklime)
Quicklime dry moist gases including ammonia gas

GAS COLLECTION
Gas are collected upon their properties there being the main methods as gases collection, the
gases must be well identified
Toxic and unpleasant odour gases must be collected in a fume chamber/cupboard
1. Over water
This method is used when collecting gases that are insoluble in water
Never collect gases that are fairly soluble in water

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 Gas

Water

Reacts with water or if the gas is required dry

This method is preferred when the gas is not required dry because one easily sees when the gas
jar is full
This method is used to collect gases such as oxygen, nitrogen & chlorine but the following gases
are reactive with water NH3, SO2 & HCl
2. Upward delivery
This method is used to collect gases that are less dense than air
The method is used to collect NH2 & dry H2

34
3. Down ward delivery
This method is used to collect gases that are denser than air .This is also known as upwards
displacement of air from the gas jar
The gases suitable through this method include Chlorine, Hydrochloride & Sulphur (IV) Oxide

Drying agent Gas collection

LIQUIFICATION AND FREEZING

A gas can be collected as a liquid or a solid when required Dinitrogen Tetraoxide (nitrogen
dioxide is separated in liquid state
POLLUTANT GASES IN THE ATMOSPHERE
Incomplete combustion of gases leads to harmful gases being emitted onto the atmosphere or
burning impure fuels

The gases include

 Sulphur dioxide

Sulphur dioxide originates from burning fuels like petrol & coal

It’s very corrosive due to acid rains it destroys mainly crop thus stopping vegetation growth

 Nitrogen’s oxide

They originates from car exhausts due to incomplete combustion of engine oil

They are corrosive

 Carbon monoxide

This gas is due to incomplete combustion of fuel like carbon from car exhaust; diesel engine

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 Too much of Carbon monoxide CO causes death

The above toxic gases in air can be prevented by three main methods

o Improve the combustion of fuel in petrol & diesel engines

o Use of most efficient filter system
o Better processing of fuels to make them free from sulphur compounds

Apart from toxic gases like SO2, NO2, CO2 smoke also cause air pollution

Smoke originates from incomplete combustion of fuel

We can prevent smoke partially into the air by creating smoke free environment

Have smoke and dust filter system

Radioactive substances pollute the air when any form of nuclear weapon is exploded in air and
nuclear plants like the one that recently occur in Japan.

Application of reactivity series

The reactivity of metals is the more important applicable during the exraction of metals from
their ores

More reactive metals are very difficult to extract than those that are least active

But some metals like gold occur in uncombined form the non reactive metals are extracted by
reducing their ores to oxides

K Na Ca Mg Al C Zn Fe Pb Cu

Most reactive decreasing activity least active

Very difficult to extract easy to extract

Common ores of metals

Aluminum – bauxite - aluminium oxide

Copper - copper pyrites - copper iron sulphide

Sodium - rock salt – sodium chloride

Zinc blende – zinc sulphide

Uses of oxygen

36
 Welding when combined with hydrogen
 Uses by sky cliffer & deep sea divers

37
 WATER

Water is essential for life this is proved to due to almost 70% of earth’s surface being covered by water
Fuels contain chemicals known as hydrocarbons that only have the elements H2 & C

When they burn they give out water & carbon dioxide

Hydrogen + Water Water

Carbon + Oxygen Carbon dioxide

The above gases can be test

Test for carbon dioxide

Carbon dioxide is tested by passing the gas through lime water chemically known as calcium

hydroxide that turns milky when it comes into contact with carbon dioxide

CaOH (aq) + CO2 (g) CaCO3 (aq) + H2O (l)

It forms calcium carbonate that is insoluble

Test for water

Water is being tested by adding it to main chemicals that are used to test water they behave by
changing into different colors

i. Anhydrous copper (II) sulphate

When it comes into contact with water it immediately turns blue from white its hydrated

38
CuSO4 (s) + 5H2O (l) CuSO4.5H2 O(s)

(White) (Blue- hydrated)

ii. Cobalt Chloride

Here cobalt chloride is not in solid form. The anhydrous cobalt chloride is used to make a paper
for testing the liquid.

A drop of liquid water (H2O) is added to a piece of the paper is blue in color

The paper immediately turns to pink

Properties Of Water

i. Thirdly the liquid can be tested using its three main properties
ii. Water has no color
iii. Water has no test despite people believe that the water is sweet
iv. Water has no smell
v. If you can collect any water enough test b.p if it’s 100 degrees

What are the products of combustion?

In this case we use a hydrogen, carbon or hydrocarbon fuel which is a candle
The apparatus are set up as shown below
These should be done until there is enough liquid X for testing & should be a change on lime water to
the gas N

The test carried in liquid X should be like that of water

39
 Inverted
funnel

Delivery
tubes

To
pump

Ice Gas N
Liquid cubes
X
Lime
water CaOH

Water

WATER AN OXIDE OF HYROGEN

This is done by two methods

 When hydrogen burns in oxygen

 By electrolysis

To prove this we must have an hydrogen generator, hydrogen can be prepared through the reaction of
Zinc granules on dil. Hydrochloric acid

The hydrogen must be dry to allow it to burn oxygen can be dried by passing it through calcium
chloride

The water formed can be tested by anhydrous Copper (II) Sulphate or anhydrous cobalt chloride

Dry hydrogen should burn quietly with a blue flame

H2 (g) + O2 (g) 2H2O (g)

The liquid collected is water it turns Anhydrous Copper (II) Sulphate from white to blue

The apparatus can be arranged as below

2Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) 2ZnCl(aq) + H2(g)

40
 Dilute
Hydrochloric acid

Zinc
granules

Dry hydrogen should burn with a blue flame to give water gas
The liquid collected is water because it turns Anhydrous Copper (II) Sulphate from white to blue.
REACTION OF METALS WITH WATER
This topic is the study of action of water on given metals

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