PLATE TECTONICS

Christine Mae Balid

Rjay Jimenez
Jireh Elliot
CONTENTS
This report presentation discusses about:

1. Continental Drift Theory & Evidences

2. Sea Floor Spreading

3. Plate Tectonism

4. Plate Boundaries & Examples

5. World Tectonism

6. Philippine Tectonism

7. The new paradigm that encompasses all existing geological processes

CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY AND EVIDENCES
● The continental drift hypothesis was developed in the early part of the 20th century, mostly
by Alfred Wegener. Wegener said that continents move around on Earth’s surface and that
they were once joined together as a single supercontinent. While Wegener was alive,
scientists did not believe that the continents could move.

Alfred Wegener proposed that the

continents were once united into a single
supercontinent named Pangaea, meaning
all earth in ancient Greek. He suggested
that Pangaea broke up long ago and that
the continents then moved to their current
positions. He called his hypothesis
continental drift.

Figure 1. The continents fit together like pieces of a puzzle. This

is how they looked 250 million years ago.
 Besides the way the continents fit together, Wegener and his supporters
collected a great deal of evidence for the continental drift hypothesis:

• Identical Rocks, of the same type and age, are found on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean.
Wegener said the rocks had formed side-by-side and that the land had since moved apart.

• Mountain Ranges with the same rock types, structures, and ages are now on opposite sides
of the Atlantic Ocean. The Appalachians of the eastern United States and Canada, for
example, are just like mountain ranges in eastern Greenland, Ireland, Great Britain, and
Norway (figure 2). Wegener concluded that they formed as a single mountain range that was
separated as the continents drifted.
 Figure 2. The similarities
between the Appalachian and
the eastern Greenland mountain
ranges are evidences for the
continental drift hypothesis.

● Ancient fossils of the same species of extinct plants and animals are found in rocks of the same
age but are on continents that are now widely separated (figure 3). Wegener proposed that the
organisms had lived side by side, but that the lands had moved apart after they were dead and
fossilized. He suggested that the organisms would not have been able to travel across the oceans.

Some said evidences include:

- Fossils of the seed fern Glossopteris were too heavy to be carried so far by wind.
- Mesosaurus was a swimming reptile but could only swim in fresh water.
- Cynognathus and Lystrosaurus were land reptiles and were unable to swim
 Figure 3. Wegener used fossil
evidence to support his
continental drift hypothesis. The
fossils of these organisms are
found on lands that are now far
apart.

● Grooves and rock deposits left by ancient glaciers are found today on different continents
very close to the equator. This would indicate that the glaciers either formed in the middle of
the ocean and/or covered most of the Earth. Today glaciers only form on land and nearer
the poles. Wegener thought that the glaciers were centered over the southern land mass
close to the South Pole and the continents moved to their present positions later on.

● Coral reefs and coal-forming swamps are found in tropical and subtropical environments,
but ancient coal seams and coral reefs are found in locations where it is much too cold
today. Wegener suggested that these creatures were alive in warm climate zones and that
the fossils and coal later had drifted to new locations on the continents.
 SEAFLOOR SPREADING
● Seafloor spreading is a geologic process in which tectonic plates—large slabs of Earth's
lithosphere—split apart from each other.
● Seafloor spreading and other tectonic activity
processes are the result of mantle convection.
Mantle convection is the slow, churning motion of
Earth’s mantle. Convection currents carry heat from
the lower mantle and core to the lithosphere.
Convection currents also “recycle” lithospheric
materials back to the mantle.
● Seafloor spreading occurs at divergent plate
boundaries. As tectonic plates slowly move away
from each other, heat from the mantle’s convection
currents makes the crust more plastic and less
dense. The less-dense material rises, often forming
a mountain or elevated area of the seafloor.
● Eventually, the crust cracks. Hot magma fueled by mantle convection bubbles up to fill these
fractures and spills onto the crust. This bubbled-up magma is cooled by frigid seawater to form
igneous rock. This rock (basalt) becomes a new part of Earth’s crust.
● Seafloor spreading occurs along mid-ocean ridges—large mountain ranges rising from the ocean floor.
● Seafloor spreading is not consistent at all mid-ocean ridges. Slowly spreading ridges are the sites of tall,
narrow underwater cliffs and mountains. Rapidly spreading ridges have a much more gentle slopes.
● The Mid-Atlantic Ridge, for instance, is a slow spreading center. It spreads 2-5 centimeters (.8-2 inches)
every year and forms an ocean trench about the size of the Grand Canyon. The East Pacific Rise, on the
other hand, is a fast spreading center. It spreads about 6-16 centimeters (3-6 inches) every year. There is
not an ocean trench at the East Pacific Rise, because the seafloor spreading is too rapid for one to develop!
● Eventually, the crust cracks. Hot magma fueled by mantle convection bubbles up to fill these
fractures and spills onto the crust. This bubbled-up magma is cooled by frigid seawater to form
igneous rock. This rock (basalt) becomes a new part of Earth’s crust.

Geographic Features
● Oceanic crust slowly moves away from mid-ocean ridges and sites of seafloor spreading. As it
moves, it becomes cooler, more dense, and more thick. Eventually, older oceanic crust
encounters a tectonic boundary with continental crust.
● In some cases, oceanic crust encounters an active plate margin. An active plate margin is an
actual plate boundary, where oceanic crust and continental crust crash into each other. Active plate
margins are often the site of earthquakes and volcanoes.
● In other cases, oceanic crust encounters a passive plate margin. Passive margins are not plate
boundaries, but areas where a single tectonic plate transitions from oceanic lithosphere to
continental lithosphere. Passive margins are not sites of faults or subduction zones.

THEORY OF PLATE TECTONICS

● The theory that pieces of Earths lithosphere are in
constant motion driven by convection currents in the
mantle.

● The Earth’s lithosphere (crust and upper mantle) is

divided into tectonic plates.

● These plates move on top of the asthenosphere (part of

the upper mantle just below the lithosphere that is
involved in plate tectonic movement)
 Tectonic plates are:
- composed of the lithosphere
- moves as a coherent mass
- may contain oceanic crust and continental crust

3 Types of Tectonic Plate Boundaries (Convergent, Divergent, Transform Plate Boundary)

1. Convergent Boundary

- A plate boundary where two plates move towards each other leading to high levels
of tectonic activities. Plates also crash (or crunch) together or subduct (one sinks under)
here .

What happens when the rock is squeezed from

the Stress of Compression?
- Compression squeezes rocks together,
causing rocks to fold or fracture. Compression is the
most common stress at convergent plate boundaries.
 Types of Convergent Boundaries

Oceanic-continental Convergence
- oceanic crust sinks beneath a deep-ocean trench and back into the mantle at a convergent
plate boundary.

Oceanic-oceanic convergence
- The less dense plate slides under the denser plate creating a subduction zone called a
TRENCH.
 Continental-continental convergence
- Since two continental plates are colliding, subduction becomes questionable as the
difference in density between the plates is usually quite low.
- It can also form mountain ranges or folded mountains, like the Himalayas or the
Rockies.

2. Divergent Boundary

- A plate boundary where two plates move away from each other. This
occurs above rising convection currents. The rising current pushes up on the bottom of
the lithosphere, lifting it and flowing laterally beneath it. This lateral flow causes the plate
material above to be dragged along in the direction of flow. At the crest of the uplift, the
overlying plate is stretched thin, breaks and pulls apart.
 - When plate divergence occurs on land, the
continental crust rifts, or splits. This effectively creates a
new ocean basin as the pieces of the continent move
apart. On either side of the ocean are now two different
lithospheric plates.

- The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is a classic example of this

type of plate boundary. The Ridge is a high area
compared to the surrounding seafloor because of the lift
from the convection current below.
The San Andreas Fault is the transform
boundary between the North American
Plate and the Pacific Plate.
WORLD TECTONICS
The Earth is always on the move due to the motion of the tectonic plates. Seven of the major
plates make up most of the seven continents and the Pacific Ocean. They are named after nearby
landmasses, oceans, or regions.
The World Atlas names seven major plates: African, Antarctic, Eurasian, Indo-Australian, North
American, Pacific and South American.

African Plate - 61,300,000 Sq Km

The Afriestimated area can plate is the fourth largest tectonic plate with an of 61,300,000
square kilometers. Most of the African continent is on the African Plate. The African Plate also
includes substantial parts of the Indian and Atlantic Oceans.

Antarctic Plate - 60,900,000 Sq Km

The Antarctic Plate encompasses the entire continent of Antarctica, as well as the
nearby oceans. It is the fifth-largest plate on earth. It is also the world’s southernmost plate.
Eurasian Plate - 67,800,000 Sq Km
The Eurasian Plate has an estimated area of 67,800,000 square kilometers. It is the
third-largest of the major tectonic plates. Most of the continents of Europe and Asia are in the
Eurasian Plate. Several geological formations can be found on this plate, the most prominent of
which is the Himalayan Range. The Himalayan mountains formed as a result of the collision
between the Eurasian Plate and the Indian Plate.

Indo-Australian Plate - 58,900,000 Sq Km

The Indo-Australian Plate was formed out of a merger of the Australian and Indian
plates millions of years ago. When the Eurasian Plate and the Indo-Australian plates collided many
many years ago, the Himalayan mountains were formed.

North American Plate - 75,900,000 Sq Km

The North American Plate is the world’s second-largest tectonic plate. It consists of
both continental crust and oceanic crust. The plate’s continental crust is made up of most of North
America and Iceland. The North American plate is responsible for the formation of the Mid-Atlantic
Ridge, a mountain chain beneath the Atlantic Ocean.
North American Plate - 75,900,000 Sq Km
The North American Plate is the world’s second-largest tectonic plate. It consists of both
continental crust and oceanic crust. The plate’s continental crust is made up of most of North
America and Iceland. The North American plate is responsible for the formation of the Mid-Atlantic
Ridge, a mountain chain beneath the Atlantic Ocean.

Pacific Plate - 103,300,000 Sq Km

The Pacific Plate is estimated to be 103,300,000 square kilometers in size. Found
underneath the Pacific Ocean, it is the largest of all tectonic plates. Most of the Pacific Plate is made
up of oceanic crust, except for areas around New Zealand and parts of California. The nature of the
Pacific Plate was notably responsible for forming the islands of Hawaii. The Hawaiian Islands were
originally volcanoes that rose above the water over millions of years to form landmasses. These
volcanoes were formed at hot spots in the Pacific Plate. This tectonic plate hosts the Ring of Fire, an
area on the floor of the Pacific Ocean where volcanic activity and earthquakes are most active.

South American Plate - 43,600,000 Sq Km

The South American Plate is a major tectonic plate that covers 43 million square
kilometers including South America and the surrounding Atlantic Ocean. Tectonic activity at the
boundary between the South American Plate and the Nazca Plate is held responsible for the
volcanic activity and orogeny in the region.
PHILIPPINE TECTONIC PLATE
The Philippine plate is tectonically unusual in that almost all the boundaries
are convergent. The Pacific plate is subducting beneath the Philippine Sea plate
to the east while the west/northwestern part of the Philippine Sea plate is
subducting beneath the continental Eurasian plate.

The Philippine Plate is squeezed in between the

Eurasian Plate and the Pacific Plate. What makes it
complex is that the Philippine Plate consists of
several micro-plates squeezed in between two
convergent plate margins.

The areas surrounding the Philippine Sea plate

are very active, producing numerous local
earthquakes, tsunamis, and volcanic activity. In
the 20th and 21st centuries, earthquakes of M 8.0
or greater, while M 7.0 or less are even more
frequent
THE NEW PARADIGM THAT ENCOMPASSES ALL EXISTING
GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES
A “paradigm” is referred to as the dramatic change in methodology or practice- a progressive
change.

● Earth's continents are constantly moving, rearranging, and changing over millions of years, which in
turn affect Earth's biology and climate. Every couple of hundreds of millions of years, the continents
merge to form enormous supercontinents. Pangea was a supercontinent that consisted of all the
continents of today's time attached together like a jig-saw puzzle. This supercontinent was said to be
existing approximately 250 million years ago in the late Paleozoic and early Mesozoic eras. It began
forming nearly 300 million years ago, and started to drift apart into today's continents roughly 100
million years ago.

● The movement of the Earth’s continents would greatly affect humans, and the way they live. For
starters, if all the continents of the world were to merge to one supercontinent like Pangea did
approximately 250 million years ago, then travelling to other countries would be a lot more convenient.
This is mainly because there would be no immense body of water needed to fly over anymore.
Globalization would be on the rise, since every country would be in close proximity. The economy of
one country would be greatly affected by the economy of other countries, even more so than present
day.
THANK YOU AND GOD BLESS <3