MEE2003 THERMAL ENGINEERING SYSTEMS

L T P J C
2 1 2 0 4

Dr. BIBHUTI B. SAHOO

Associate Professor,
School of Mechanical Engineering,
VIT Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India – 632 014.
 MEE2003 THERMAL ENGINEERING SYSTEMS

IC Engines: Working principle of 2 stroke and 4 stroke SI and CI engines with PV and Valve Timing
Module – 1 Diagrams, Combustion process - Knocking and detonation, Cetane and Octane numbers,
Comparison of fuel system of diesel and petrol engines, Cooling system, Lubrication system, Ignition
system - Battery, Magneto and Electronic systems.

IC Engines Performance: Performance test - Measurement of brake power, Indicated power, Fuel
Module – 2 consumption, Air consumption; Heat balance test, Morse test and retardation test on IC engine.

Steam Boilers: Types of boilers, Reheating-Regeneration - Modern features of high-pressure boilers -

Module – 3 Heat Recovery Boilers - Mountings and accessories. Steam Nozzles – One-dimensional steady flow of
steam through a convergent and divergent nozzle.

Steam Turbine: Impulse and Reaction principle. Gas Turbine – Open and Closed cycle gas turbine,
Module – 4 Reheating, regeneration and intercooling.

Contd. …..

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 MEE2003 THERMAL ENGINEERING SYSTEMS

Positive Displacement Compressors: Reciprocating compressors - Construction - Working - Effect of

Module – 5 clearance volume – Multi-staging - Volumetric efficiency - Isothermal efficiency.

Refrigeration: Vapor compression system - Components - Working - P-H and T-S diagrams -
Calculation of COP - Effect of sub-cooling and super-heating - Vapour absorption system - NH3 - water
Module – 6 system, Vapour adsorption system.

Cryogenic engineering: Introduction, Application, Cryocoolers

Module – 7 Air-conditioning: Types, Working Principles - Psychrometry, Psychrometric chart, cooling load
calculations.

Module – 8 Contemporary Discussion

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 TEXT BOOKS

1. Rajput R.K., (2010), Thermal Engineering, Eighth Edition, Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd.

REFERENCE BOOKS

1. Mathur. M.L & Sharma R.P (2009), Internal Combustion Engine, Dhanpat Rai
Publications.

2. Manohar Prasad., (2007), Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, New Age International.

3. Soman.K, (2011), Thermal Engineering, PHI Learning Private Ltd.

RECOMMENDED TABLES

1. Steam Table

2. Refrigeration Table & Psychrometric Chart

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 Acknowledgement

This reference material has been prepared by referring to various resources

including different books (which are mentioned as the ‘Recommended books’
for the course MEE1003 Engineering Thermodynamics) and online sources
(including NPTEL).

The author would like to acknowledge all the resources and would
categorically mention that the material used is purely for academic purpose
and not whatsoever for commercial use.

These presentation slides are only for the reference and are not self-
sufficient. Please refer to the lecture notes and the recommended textbooks
along with these slides.

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 Module – 5

Positive Displacement Compressors:

• Reciprocating compressors - Construction – Working.

• Effect of clearance volume.

• Volumetric efficiency.

• Isothermal efficiency.

• Multi-staging.

CO.4: Analyze different subsystems of thermal power plants and

performance of reciprocating compressors.

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 What are Compressors?

• Compressors are mechanical devices that compresses gases.

• It is widely used in industries and has various applications.

How they are different from pumps?

• Compressors handles the gases and pumps handles the liquids.

• As gases are compressible, the compressor also reduces the volume of gas.

• Liquids are relatively incompressible; while some can be compressed

What are its applications?

• Air conditioners, (car, home).

• Home and industrial refrigeration.
• Hydraulic compressors for industrial machines.
• Air compressors for industrial manufacturing.
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 Compressor Classification

• The dynamic compressor is continuous flow compressor is characterized by rotating

impeller to add velocity and thus pressure to fluid.
• It is widely used in chemical and petroleum refinery industry for specific services.

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 How to Select a Particular type of Compressor ?

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 Positive Displacement Compressor

• Positive displacement compressors causes movement by trapping a fixed amount of air

then forcing (displacing) that trapped volume into the discharge pipe.

• The term ‘positive displacement’ emphasizes the fact that a volume is physically being
displaced. Since constant volume is being displaced by the moving part every time, the
flow output of a positive displacement pump is always constant.

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 Reciprocating Compressor

➢ The cylinder walls are cooled:

• Air cooled: Circumferential Fins.
• Water Jacket: Annular Jacket.

• Its close to Isothermal but not Isothermal.

• Let us say polytropic (pVn = Constant).

• 1<n<g

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 The Reciprocating Cycle (Single Stage & Single Acting)

I. Neglecting Clearance Volume (VC = 0):

• Indicated WD on the gas per cycle: = area 1-2-3-4

= area under 1-2 + area under 2-3 – area under 4-1

WD/cycle, W = p2V2 − p1V1 + p V − p V

n −1
in 2 2 1 1

 1 
Win = ( p2V2 − p1V1 ) + 1 = ( p2V2 − p1V1 ) n 
 n −1   n −1 
 n −1

   
 p1V1  2  − 1
n p n
Win = 
 n −1   p1  , J/cycle ……. (1)
 
where, V1= Suction volume (m3/cycle).

 n −1

   
 RT1  2  − 1 , J/ kg of air ……. (2)
n p n
⸫ WD/ kg of air, Win = 
 n −1   p1 
(p1V1= mRT1)  
 Indicated Power (IP)

 n −1

 n  •  
 p1 V 1  2  − 1 , J/min
p n
• IP = WD/min =  ………… (3)
 n −1 
 1 
p


where, V1 is in m3/min = V1 (m3/cycle) ˣ N ------ for single acting Compressor

= V1 (m3/cycle) ˣ 2N ------ for double acting Compressor
N = no. compression stokes/min

• The actual power input to the compressor is larger than the indicated power, due to
the work necessary to overcome the losses due to friction.

Shaft Power = Indicated Power + Friction Power

Indiacted power
Compressor mechanical Efficiency =
Shaft power

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 Condition of Minimum Work

• The work done on the gas is given by the

area of the indicator diagram.
• The work done will be minimum when the
area of the diagram is a minimum .
• The height of the diagram is fixed by
required pressure ratio.
• The length of the line da is fixed by the
cylinder volume.
• The cylinder volume is fixed by the
required induction of gas.
• Only the line which can influence the area
of the diagram is line ab.
• The shape of line ab depends on the value
of index n.

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• Isothermal compression is the reference compression process for reciprocating
compressor and adiabatic compression is the reference compression process for
rotary compressor.

• Minimum indicated power of reciprocating compressor = Isothermal power (WDiso/min)

•  p2  •  p2 
IPiso = p1 Va ln   = m RT ln  
 p1   p1 
IPiso
• Isothermal efficiency of compressor, iso =
IP

Various Compression Process on T-s Diagram

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 Actual Reciprocating Compressor

• Clearance is necessary in a
compressor to give mechanical
safety to the working parts.

• Clearance is also required to

provide necessary space for
valve operations.

• General clearance volume for

good quality compressors is
about 6 – 2%.

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 II. Considering Clearance Volume (VC):

• The indicated work done = Area 1-2-3-4 = (area 1-2-3’-4’) – (area 3-3’-4’-4)
  nc −1 
     ne −1 

 nc    p2  nc    ne    p2  ne  
Win =   p1 V1    − 1 −   p1 V4    − 1
 nc − 1    p1    ne − 1    p1  
   

• If nc = ne, then

  n −1 

 n    p  n  
Win =   p1 (V1 − V4 )  2  − 1 , J/cycle … (4)
 n −1    p1  
 
 

• Using ideal Gas Equation, p1 (V1 − V4 ) = mRT1

 n −1

 
⸫ WD/ kg of air, Win =    2 
p n
n
 RT1   − 1 , J/ kg of air …… (5)
 n −1 
 1 
p

• Hence, for 1kg of air, (WD/ cycle)without Vc = (WD/ cycle)with Vc
   n −1 
  
 n   • •
  p2   n  
IP =  p V −
 1  1 4   
V − 1 , J/min …….. (6)
 n −1     p1  
 
- with clearance volume

• The mass delivered per unit time can be increased by designing the machines to
be double acting.

Real Indicator Diagram of Compressor

At 2, Pressure rise, followed by valve bounce and then pressure

settles at a level higher than the delivery pressure level.

At 4, inlet valve does not open due to :

1. There must be a pressure difference across the valve to open.
2. Inlet valve inertia.
 Volumetric Efficiency of a Compressor

• One of the effects of clearance is to reduce the induced volume of gas to a less than
that of the swept volume.

• Volumetric efficiency: the volume of gas handled by a compressor measured at the free
air pressure and temperature, divided by the swept volume of the cylinder.
(or)

The mass of gas delivered, divided by the mass of gas which would fill the swept
volume at the free air conditions of pressure and temperature.

• The volume of air dealt with per unit time by an air compressor is quoted as Free Air
Delivery (FAD).

• FAD is rate of volume flow delivered, measured at the pressure and temperature of the
atmosphere.

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 Case – I: Suction Conditions

• The volumetric efficiency calculated based on suction condition is used to find out
cylinder dimensions.
Vadmitted V1 − V4
v = =
Vstroke V1 − V3
• Let, k = clearance ratio (or) clearance factor = VC / VS

V3  k +1
or , k =  V1 = V3  
V1 − V3  k 
• Process 3-4: p3V3ne = p4V4ne
or, V4 = V3 ˣ (p2/p1)1/ne
1

 k +1  p2  ne
V3   − V  
  1
p1   p 
3
 k    v = 1 + k − k 
ne
v =  p 
2
or , 
Now,  V3   1 
 
 k  ne = index of expansion process
 Case – II: Ambient Conditions

• As air is drawn through suction valve, pressure drops and temp. increases due to
resistance of suction valve.
where, p = ambient pressure (101.325 kN/m 2),
• Hence, p0 > p1 and, To < T1 0
T0 = ambient temp. (15oC = 288 K),
p1 = suction pressure,
p0 = suction temperature.
• Applying characteristic gas equation,
p0V0 p1 (V1 − V4 )  p1  T0 
=  V0 = (V1 − V4 )  
T0 T1  p0  T1 

v =
V0 (V − V4 )  p1  T0 
= 1
(V1 − V3 )  p0  T1 
Now,
Vs

 1

  p 2  ne
 v = 1 + k − k   
p1  T0 
 
p1    p0  T1 
 
or,
   

 

• This efficiency is used to find out compressor capacity (or) free air delivered (FAD).
 PROBLEM – 1

Question – 1. A single-stage single acting reciprocating air compressor has a

bore of 250 mm and stroke of 300 mm. The clearance volume is 4% of stroke. It

receives air at 1 bar and 27oC and delivers it at 10 bar. If the compression

follows the law pV1.2 = C and the expansion follows the law pV1.3 = C, determine

the following:

(i) Volumetric efficiency of compressor, and,

(ii) Power required to run the compressor at 1000 rpm.

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 Solution – 1

• For a single stage SA compressor, given that:

D = 250 mm = 0.25 m, L = 300 mm = 0.3 m
P1 = 1 bar, T1 = 300 K, p2 = 10 bar
nc = 1.2, ne = 1.3, N = 1000 rpm
Vc = 4% Vs, hence, k = Vc/Vs = 0.04
1
 p  ne
(i)  v = 1 + k − k 
 p 
2

 1 
1
 10  1.3
= 1 + 0.04 − 0.04  = 0.805 = 80.5%
 1 

• Vs = π/4 D2L = π/4 (0.25)2 ˣ 0.3 = 0.0147 m3

• V1 = Vs+Vc = Vs (1+k) = 0.0153 m3

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 V1 − V4 0.0152 − V4
v =  0.805 =  V4 = 0.0034 , m 3
Vs 0.0147

• V1 m3/s = 0.0153 ˣ (1000/60) = 0.255, m3/s

• V4 m3/s = 0.0034 ˣ (1000/60) = 0.057, m3/s

  nc −1 
     ne −1 
  
 nc    p2   n    ne    p2   n  
IP =   p1 V1    − 1 −   p1 V4   
c e
− 1
 nc − 1    p1    ne − 1    p1  
   
  1.2 −1 
     1.3−1 
  
   
=
 1.2 
( 5
) 
 1 10 (0.255)  
10   1.2  
− 1 − 
1.3  5
( 
)
 1 10 (0.057 )  
10   1.3 
− 1
 1.2 − 1   1    1.3 − 1   1  
   
= 71573 − 17321 = 54252, Watt = 54.252, kW.

(Answer)

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 PROBLEM – 2

Question – 2. A reciprocating compressor of single stage, double acting type

delivers 20 m3/min when measured at free air condition of 1 bar, 27°C. The
compressor has pressure ratio of 7 and the conditions at the end of suction are
0.97 bar, 35°C. Compressor runs at 240 rpm with clearance volume of 5% of swept
volume. The L/D ratio is 1.2. Determine the volumetric efficiency, dimensions of
cylinder and isothermal efficiency taking the index of compression and expansion
as 1.25. Also show the cycle on P-V diagram.

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 Solution – 2

• Given that, p1 = 0.97 bar, T1 = 273 + 35 = 308 K

p2/p1 = 7, N = 240 rpm, V0 = 20 m3/min
VC = 0.05 VS i.e. k = 0.05
p0 = 1 bar, T0 = 273 + 27 = 300 K

• Applying characteristic gas equation,

p0V0 p1 (V1 − V4 ) 1 20 0.97  (V1 − V4 )

=  =
T0 T1 300 308

 (V1 − V4 ) = 21.17 , m 3 / min =

21.17
= 0.044 , m 3 / cycle
240  2
1
 p2 
= 1 + 0.05 − 0.05(7 )
ne 1
v = 1 + k − k 
 p  1.25 = 0.813 = 81.3%
 1 
V1 − V4 0.044
v =  0.813 =  Vs = 0.054 , m 3 / cycle
Vs Vs
 Given that, L/D = 1.2
Vs = π/4 D2L or, 0.054 = π/4 (1.2L)2 ˣ L or, L = 0.3626 m = 36.26 cm
Hence, D = L/1.2 = 30.22 cm

• For suction air condition of 0.97 bar, 35°C the mass of air delivered,

p1 (V1 − V4 ) 0.97 10 2  21.17

m= = = 23.23 , m 3 / min
RT1 0.287  308

  n −1 
  
 n  •
  p2     1.25  23.23 
 n   1.25 −1 

IP =   m RT1   − 1 =
  1.25 − 1  60   0.287  308  7

1.25  − 1

 n − 1   1 
p      
 
= 81.423 , kW

•  p   23.23 
IPiso = m RT1 ln  2  =    287  308  ln ( 7 ) = 66.623, kW
 p1   60 
IPiso 66.623
• Isothermal efficiency of compressor, iso = = = 0.8133 = 81.33%
IP 81.423
(Answer)
 Reciprocating Compressor – Multistage

High Pressure required by Single – Stage :

 1. Requires heavy working parts.

2. Has to accommodate high pressure ratios.
3. Increased balancing problems.
4. High Torque fluctuations.
5. Requires heavy Flywheel installations.

This demands for MULTI – STAGING…!!

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 High Pressure Compressors

v = 1 + k − k (rp )
1
Volumetric Efficiency, ne

• ηV is a function of k, rp and ne.

• With fixed k & ne; ηV decreases with an
increase in rp.
• A stage may be reached when, ηV =0 i.e.,
no delivery of air.
• Hence, rp attained with a ingle stage
compressor has practical limits.
• Therefore, to get high pressure of air, it is
necessary to use multi-stage compressor.
• 1-stage compressor: up to 5 bar,
2-stage compressor: 5 – 35 bar,
3-stage compressor: 35 – 85 bar,
4-stage compressor: above 85 bar.

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 Reciprocating Compressor – Multistage

Series arrangement of cylinders, in which the compressed air from earlier cylinder (i.e.
discharge) becomes the intake air for the next cylinder (i.e. inlet).

L.P. = Low Pressure

Intercooler I.P. = Intermediate

Air Delivery
Pressure
H.P. = High Pressure

L.P. I.P. H.P. Intercooler :

Cylinder Cylinder Cylinder
Compressed air is cooled
between cylinders.

Intercooler

Air Intake

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 Two - Stage Reciprocating Compressor

Delivery Pr. 6 9 3 5 Overall Pr. Range : P1 – P3

Perfect Intercooling
P3 or Pd
Single – stage cycle : 8-1-5-6
Without Intercooling
H.P. Without Intercooling :
PV n = C L.P. : 8-1-4-7
Intermediate Pr. 7 4
P2 H.P. : 7-4-5-6
2 PV = C
L.P. With Intercooling :
Intake Pr. 8 1 L.P. : 8-1-4-7
P1 or Ps
H.P. : 7-2-3-6
Volume
Perfect Intercooling : After initial compression in L.P. cylinder, air is cooled in the
Intercooler to its original temperature, before entering H.P. cylinder
i.e. T2 = T1 OR
Points 1 and 2 are on SAME Isothermal line.

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 some more …..

Ideal Conditions for Multi – Stage Compressors :

A. Single – Stage Compressor :

Single – stage cycle : 8-1-5-6

6 9 3 5
 n

  −
P1 V1  5  − 1
n P n 1
W=
H.P. n −1  P1  
 
7 PV n = C
4
2 PV = C Delivery Temperature,
L.P. n −1
8  P5  n
T5 = T1 
P 
1

 1

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 some more …..

B. Two – Stage Compressor (Without Intercooling) :

6 9 3 5 Without Intercooling :
L.P. : 8-1-4-7
H.P. : 7-4-5-6
H.P.  n −1

  P4 
− 1
n n
PV = C
n W = P1 V1  
7 4 n −1  P1  
 
2 PV = C
L.P.  n −1

  P5 
− 1
n n
8 1 + P4 V4  
n −1  P4  
 

Without Intercooling  Delivery Temperature also remains SAME.

This is SAME as that of Work done in Single – Stage.

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 some more …..

C. Two – Stage Compressor (With Perfect Intercooling) :

With Intercooling :
6 9 3 5 L.P. : 8-1-4-7-8
H.P. : 7-2-3-6-7
 n −1

  P4 
− 1
n n
H.P. W = P1 V1  
n −1  P1  
7 PV n = C  
4
2 PV = C  n −1

P 
P2 V2  3 − 1
n n
+ 
L.P.
n −1  P2  
8 1  
Delivery Temperature,
n −1 n −1
 P3  n  P3  n
T3 = T2   = T1   , as T2 = T1
 P2   P2 
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 some more …..

C. Two – Stage Compressor (With Perfect Intercooling) :

6 9 3 5
With Intercooling :
L.P. : 8-1-4-7-8
H.P. : 7-2-3-6-7
H.P.

7 PV n = C
4 Now, T2 = T1
2 PV = C P2V2 = P1V1
L.P.
8 1 Also P4 = P 2

 n −1 n −1

  P2   P3 
− 2
n n n
W = P1 V1   +  
n −1  P1   P2  
 
Shaded Area 2-4-5-3-2 : Work Saving due to Intercooler…!!

VIT 35
 Condition of Minimum Work of a 2-Stage Compressor

Intermediate Pr. P2 → P1 : Area 2-4-5-3-2 → 0

Intermediate Pr. P2 → P3 : Area 2-4-5-3-2 → 0

6 9 3 5
 There is an Optimum P2 for which Area 2-4-5-3-2
is maximum,
H.P.
i.e. Work is minimum…!!
7 PV = C
n
4  n −1 n −1

   
P1 V1   2  +  3  − 2
n P n P n
2 PV = C W=
L.P. n −1   P1   P2  
8
 
1
For min. Work,
 n −1 n −1

 P2   P3 
− 2
n n
d   +  
 P1   P2  
 
= 
dW
= 0
dP2 dP2
 some more …..

 n −1   n −1   n −1    n −1   n −1  
 (P2 ) n  + (P3 ) n   −   (P2 ) n   = 0
1   −1   −  −1
or, n −1

(P1 ) n  n    n  
(P2 )−1/ n = (P1 P )
 n −1 
or,  − 2 n +1  3

 n 

or, (P2 )2 = (P1 P3 )
(P2 ) n 
6 9 3 5
P2 P
or, P2 = P1 P3 OR = 3
P1 P2
H.P.
 Equal Work per cylinder…!!
7 4
PV n = C
2 PV = C
• P2 obtained with this condition (Pr. Ratio per stage is L.P.
8 1
equal) is the Ideal Intermediate Pr. which, with Perfect
Intercooling, gives Minimum Work, Wmin.

VIT 37
 Minimum Workdone of a 2-Stage Compressor

• Putting the min. work condition, P2 = P1 P3

 n −1

 n   P3 
 1 1    − 1

2 n
• Minimum WD/cycle for a 2-stage compressor, W = 2 P V
 n −1 
  1 
P



• In general, minimum WD/cycle for a x- stage compressor,

 n −1

 n    
 − 1
Px +1 xn
W = x  1 1 
P V 
 n −1   P1  
 
• Optimum pressure ratio for a x- stage compressor,
1
p2 p3 p4 p x +1  px +1  x
= = = ........ = =  
p1 p2 p3 px  p1 

VIT 38
Inter-cooler in Multi-Stage Compressor

• An intercooler is any mechanical device used to cool a

fluids.
• Between stages of a multi-stage compression process,
typically a heat exchanger that removes heat from air
outlet from LPC.

After-Cooler in a Compressor
• It is positioned between HPC and receiver.
• Used to cool the air after coming out from the
compressor and before entering the receiver.
• Hence, the volume of air leaving the after-cooler to the
receiver will decrease.
• It reduces the size of the receiver.

VIT 39
 PROBLEM – 3

Question – 3. In a reciprocating air compressor the air is compressed at the

rate of 4 m3/min at 1 bar, 27°C up to the pressure of 8 bar following index of
compression as 1.2. The compression occurs in two stages with
intercooling at optimum intercooler pressure and perfect intercooling.
Compare the work input required if the same compression occurs in single
stage. Also compare the work input if same compression occurs in two
stages with imperfect intercooling up to 30°C at the optimum intercooling
pressure. Consider, Cp = 1.0032 kJ/kg K and R = 0.287 kJ/kg K.

VIT 40
 Solution – 3

CASE I: For single stage

compression from 1 bar to 8 bar,
process 1–2–3, PV1.2 = C.
CASE II: Two stage compression with perfect intercooling.

Optimum intercooling pressure = √8ˣ1 = 2.83 bar

CASE III: Two stage compression with imperfect intercooling.

Intercooler pressure, P2 = 2.83 bar, T2’ = 273 + 30 = 303 K

42
VIT
 Hence, work required for two stage compression,

➢ % saving in work when compression occur with perfect intercooling as compared to

single stage compression

= 8.69%

➢ % excess work to be done when two stage compression occurs with imperfect
intercooling as compared to two stage compression with perfect intercooling:

= 0.636% (Answer)
 PROBLEM – 4

Question – 4. A reciprocating air compressor has four stage compression

with 2 m3/min of air being delivered at 150 bar when initial pressure and

temperature are 1 bar, 27°C. Compression occur polytropically following

polytropic index of 1.25 in four stages with perfect intercooling between

stages. For the optimum intercooling conditions determine the intermediate

pressures and the work required for driving compressor.

VIT 44
 Solution – 4

Here there is four stage compression with perfect intercooling at optimum

intercooling conditions. 1
p2 p3 p4 p5  p5  4
So optimum stage pressure ratio, = = = =   = (150/1)1/4 = 3.499 ≈ 3.5
p1 p2 p3 p4  p1 

Intermediate pressure shall be as follows:

Between Ist and IInd stage = 3.5 bar
Between IInd and IIIrd stage = 12.25 bar
Between IIIrd and IVth stage = 42.87 bar

• Since it is perfect intercooling so temperature at inlet of each stage will be 300 k.

45
VIT
Work required for driving compressor,

or, W = 2972.11 hp

(Answer)

46
VIT
 TUTORIAL – 1

A singe stage, singe acting reciprocating compressor takes in 0.1 kg of

Helium gas at 1 bar and 20 C. The compressor has a clearance volume of
4% of stroke volume. The bore and stroke of the compressor are 100 mm
and 150 mm respectively. Take for Helium gas, Cp= 5.193 kJ/kgK and Cv=
3.116 kJ/kgK. The compressor is designed to deliver the helium gas at 4
bar, 6 bar and 8 bar at compressor speed of 300 rpm, 400 rpm and 600
rpm respectively. Calculate,
i. Isothermal efficiency and volumetric efficiencies for the variation in
deliver pressures.
ii. The power input required to drive the compressor if mechanical
efficiency as 90% for all the deliver pressures.

VIT 47
 Thank You for Your Attention !

48
VIT