Final GTE LAB Manual-2019-20

Practical-1
A. DETERMINATION OF MOISTURE CONTENT

Aim: To determine the natural moisture content of the given soil sample.
IS Code: 2720 [Part-II]-1973
Need and Scope of the Experiment
In almost all soil tests natural moisture content of the soil is to be determined. The knowledge of
the natural moisture content is essential in all studies of soil mechanics. To sight a few, natural
moisture content is used in determining the bearing capacity and settlement. The natural moisture
content will give an idea of the state of soil in the field.
Definition
The natural water content also called the natural moisture content is the ratio of the weight of
water to the weight of the solids in a given mass of soil. This ratio is usually expressed as
percentage.
The quantity of soil sample needed for the determinate of moisture content depends on the
gradation and the maximum size of particles. Following quantities are recommended.
Sl. No. Soil Max. Quantity used (gm)
01 Coarse gravel 1000 to 2000
02 Fine gravel 300 to 500
03 Coarse sand 200
04 Medium sand 50
05 Fine sand 25
06 Silt and clays 10 to 25
Apparatus Required
1. Non-corrodible air-tight container.
2. Electric oven, maintain the temperature between 1050 C to 1100 C.
3.Desiccator.
4. Weighing balance of sufficient sensitivity (0.01g).
Procedure
1. Clean the containers with lid dry it and weigh it (W1).
2. Take a specimen of the sample in the container and weigh with lid (W2).
3. Keep the container in the oven with lid removed. Dry the specimen to constant weight maintaining
the temperature between 1050 C to 1100 C for a period varying with the type of soil but usually 16 to
24 hours.
3. Record the final constant weight (W3) of the container with dried soil sample
4. Peat and other Organic soils are to be dried at lower temperature (say 60 0) possibly for a longer
period.
Department of Civil Engineering, MIT Mysore 1

Observations and Recording
Data and observation sheet for water content determination
Sl.No. Sample No. 1 2 3
1 Weight of container with lid W1 gm
2 Weight of container with lid +wet soil W2 gm
3 Weight of container with lid +dry soil W3 gm
4 Water/Moisture content, w = [(W2W3)/(W3W1)] 100
Interpretation and Reporting Result

The natural moisture content of the soil sample is
General Remarks
1. The soil specimen should be representative of the soil mass.
2. A container without lid can be used, when moist sample is weighed immediately after placing
in the container and oven dried sample is weighed immediately after cooling in a desiccator.
3. As dry soil absorbs moisture from wet soil, dried samples should be removed before placing
wet samples in the oven.
B.DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY
a. Pycnometer Method
Aim: Determine the specific gravity of soil fraction passing 4.75 mm I.S sieve by Pycnometer.
IS Code: IS 2720 [Part I and II]-1980-1992.
Need and Scope
The knowledge of specific gravity is needed in calculation of soil properties like void ratio,
degree of saturation etc. Its value helps us to some extent in identification and classification of
soils. It gives an idea about the suitability of the soil as a construction material; higher value of
specific gravity gives more strength for roads and foundations. It is used in computing the soil
particle size by means of hydrometer analysis. It is also used in estimating the critical hydraulic
gradient in soil when a sand boiling condition is being studied and in zero air-void calculations in
the compaction theory of soils.
Definition
Specific gravity G is defined as the ratio of the weight of a given volume of soil solids at a given
temperature to weight of an equal volume of distilled water at that temperature both weights
taken in air.
Apparatus Required
Pycnometer, Weighing Balance, Oven, Distilled water, Thermometer.
Pycnometer is a glass jar to which a brass conical cap is screwed with a rubber washer. A 6 mm
hole is provided in the brass cap.

Procedure
1. Weigh the clean dry pycnometer with lid accurate to 1g (W1).
a. Wash the bottle with water and allow it to drain.
b. Wash it with alcohol and drain it to remove water.
c. Wash it with ether, to remove alcohol and drain ether.
2. Take about one third height of dry soil passing 4.75 mm IS sieve in the pycnometer and find
its weight(W2).
3. Fill the pycnometer half of its height with distilled water and stir it with glass rod, remove the
entrapped air by boiling gently for 10 minutes in a water bath or occasionally rolling the
pycnometer to assist the removal of air.
4. Add distilled water till the pycnometer is full.
5. Remove remaining air by shaking after closing the screw top with one finger. Clean the outer
surface of pycnometer and then determine its weight (W3).
5. Empty the contents of pycnometer and thoroughly wash it.
6. Fill the pycnometer with distilled water till the surface of water is flush with the hole in the
screw cap and weigh the pycnometer (W4).
7. Repeat the steps 2 to 6 for more number of trials by taking fresh sample from representative soil.
8. Average of three or four determinations will be taken as specific gravity of the given soil.
Observations
S. No. Observation Number 1 2 3
1 Weight of pycnometer (W1 g)
2 Weight of pycnometer + dry soil (W2 g)
3 Weight of pycnometer + dry soil + water (W3 g)
4 Weight of pycnometer + water (W4 g)
Specific gravity, G
Average specific gravity ,G

Calculations
Interpretation and Reporting

Unless or otherwise specified specific gravity values reported shall be based on water at 27 0C. The
specific gravity of the soil particles lie within the range of 2.65 to 2.85. Soils containing organic matter
and porous particles may have specific gravity values below 2.0. Soils having heavy substances may have
value of 3.0.
b. Density Bottle Method
Aim: Determine the specific gravity of soil fraction passing 4.75 mm I.S sieve by density bottle.
IS Code: IS 2720 [Part I and II]-1980-1992
Need and Scope
The knowledge of specific gravity is needed in calculation of soil properties like void ratio, degree of
saturation etc. Its value helps up to some extent in identification and classification of soils. It gives an idea
about the suitability of the soil as a construction material; higher value of specific gravity gives more
strength for roads and foundations. It is used in computing the soil particle size by means of hydrometer
analysis. It is also used in estimating the critical hydraulic gradient in soil when a sand boiling condition
is being studied and in zero air-void calculations in the compaction theory of soils.
Definition
Specific gravity G is defined as the ratio of the weight of an equal volume of soil solids to at a given
temperature to the weight of an equal volume of distilled water at that temperature, both weights being
taken in air.
Apparatus Required
1. Density bottle of 50 ml with stopper having capillary hole.
2. Balance to weigh the materials (accuracy 10gm).
3. Wash bottle with distilled water.
4. Alcohol and ether.
Procedure
1. Clean and dry the density bottle
a. Wash the bottle with water and allow it to drain.
b. Wash it with alcohol and drain it to remove water.
c. Wash it with ether, to remove alcohol and drain ether.
2. Weigh the empty bottle with stopper (W1)
3. Take about 10 to 20 gm of oven soil sample which is cooled in a desiccator. Transfer it to the

bottle. Find the weight of the bottle and soil (W 2).
4. Put 10 ml of distilled water in the bottle to allow the soil to soak completely. Leave it for
about 2 hours.
5. Again fill the bottle completely with distilled water put the stopper and keep the bottle
under constant temperature water baths.
6. Take the bottle outside and wipe it clean and dry note. Now determine the weight of the bottle
and the contents (W3).
7. Now empty the bottle and thoroughly clean it. Fill the bottle with only distilled water and
weigh it( W4) at standard temperature.
8. Repeat the same process for 2 to 3 times, to take the average reading of it.
OBSERVATIONS
S. No. Observation Number 1 2 3
1 Weight of density bottle (W1 g)
2 Weight of density bottle + dry soil (W2 g)
3 Weight of bottle + dry soil + water (W3 g)
4 Weight of bottle + water (W4 g)
Specific gravity, G
Average specific gravity ,G
Calculations

Unless or otherwise specified specific gravity values reported shall be based on water at 27 0C.
The specific gravity of the soil particles lay within the range of 2.65 to 2.85. Soils containing organic
matter and porous particles may have specific gravity values below 2.0. Soils having heavy substances
may have value of 3.0.

Practical-2
FIELD DENSITY TEST
a. Core Cutter Method
Aim: To determine field density and dry unit weight of natural or compacted soils using core
cutter method.
IS Code: IS 2720-1975 / 1988 [Part XXIX]
Need and Scope: In-situ density of soil is to be known before the bearing capacity or settlement
characteristics are worked out .In the case of earthen dams and embankments, weather the soil
has been compacted to a specified value of dry density or not is to be known first. Also we
should know in-situ density for further continuation of work.
Apparatus
Cylindrical core cutter, steel dolly, steel rammer of weight 9 kg, weighing balance accurate to 1g
and steel container for water content determination.
Procedure
1. Measure the inside dimensions of core cutter and calculate its volume. Find out weight of core
cutter (w1).
2. In the field, clean the small area of about 1 m x 1 m to be tested and level it.
3. Place the core cutter at the centre of leveled surface and put the dolly on the core cutter and
drive the assembly into the soil with the help of rammer until the top of dolly equal to soil
surface.
4. Dig out the core cutter from the surrounding soil without disturbing the surface.
5. Trim the lower edge and upper edge with the help of straight edge.
6. Find the weight of core cutter with soil (w2)
7. Remove soil from the core cutter and keep some representative sample for water content
determination.
8. Repeat the test at two or three locations nearby and determine the average field density and
dry unit weight.

Observations and Calculations
Sl.No. Description Trials
1 2 3
1 Diameter of core cutter,(D)cm
2 Height of core cutter,(H) cm
3 Volume of core cutter,(V) cm3
4 Weight of core cutter, (w1) g
5 Weight of core cutter+ soil,(w2)
6 Weight of soil, W=(w2-w1) g
7 Field density, γb = (W/V) g/cc X 9.81= kN/m3
Water Content
8 Container number
9 Weight of empty container, (w1) g
10 Weight of container + wet soil, (w2) g
11 Weight of container + dry soil,(w3) g
12 Water content, w= {w2-w3/ w3-w1}100
13 Dry unit weight, γd= γb/1+w kN/m3
Results
General Remarks: Core cutter method is suitable for soft cohesive soils. It cannot be used for
stiff clays, sandy soils, which could damage the cutting edge.
b. Sand Replacement Method
Aim: Determine the in situ density of natural or compacted soils using sand pouring cylinders.
IS Code: IS 2720 (Part 28)- 1974
Need and Scope
In-situ density of natural soil is needed for the determination of bearing capacity of soils, for the
purpose of stability analysis of slopes, for the determination of pressures on underlying strata for
the calculation of settlement and the design of underground structures. It is very quality control
test, where compaction is required, in the cases like embankment and pavement construction.
Apparatus Required
1. Sand pouring cylinder of 3 liter/16.5 liter capacity mounted above a pouring cone and
separated by a shutter cover plate.
2. Tools for excavating holes; suitable tools such as scraper tool to make a level surface.
3. Cylindrical calibrating container with an internal diameter of 100 mm/200 mm and an internal
depth of 150 mm/250 mm fitted with a flange 50 mm/75 mm wide and about 5 mm surrounding
the open end.

4. Balance to weigh unto an accuracy of 1g.
5. Metal containers to collect excavated soil.
6. Metal tray with 300 mm/450 mm square and 40 mm/50 mm deep with a 100 mm/200 mm diameter
hole in the centre.
7. Glass plate about 450 mm/600 mm square and 10mm thick.
8. Clean, uniformly graded natural sand passing through 1.00 mm I.S. sieve and retained on the
600micron I.S. sieve. It shall be free from organic matter and shall have been oven dried and exposed to
atmospheric humidity.
9. Suitable non-corrodible airtight containers.
10. Thermostatically controlled oven with interior on non-corroding material to maintain the temperature
between 1050C to 1100C.
Theory
By conducting this test it is possible to determine the field density of the soil. The moisture content is
likely to vary from time and hence the field density also. So it is required to report the test result in terms
of dry density. The relationship that can be established between the dry density and known moisture
content is as follows:
Procedure
Calibration of the Cylinder
1. Fill the sand pouring cylinder with clean sand so that the level of the sand in the cylinder is within
about 10 mm from the top. Find out the initial weight of the cylinder plus sand (W1).
2. Place the cylinder on glass plate, open the shutter and allow the sand to run, when there is no further
movement of sand in the cylinder, close the shutter. Note down the weight of cylinder with remaining
sand (W2).
3. Place the sand poring cylinder centrally on the on the top of the calibration container.
4. Open the shutter and permit the sand to run into the container. When no further movement of sand is
seen, close the shutter and find its weight (W3).
5. Note down the diameter (D) and height (H) of calibrating container.
6. Determine the volume (V) of the container be filling it with water to the brim. Check this volume by
calculating from the measured internal dimensions of the container.
Determination of Dry Density of Soil in Place
7. Refill the cylinder with the sand poured to fill the conical portion and calibrating container. Find its
weight (W4)
8. Approximately 60 sq.cm of area of soil to be tested should be trimmed down to a level surface,
approximately of the size of the container.

9. Keep the metal tray on the level surface and excavate a circular hole of volume equal to that of the
calibrating container. Collect all the excavated soil in the tray and find out the weight of the excavated
soil (Ww).
10. Remove the tray, and place the sand pouring cylinder filled on the hole, so that the base of the
cylinder covers the hole concentrically.
11. Open the shutter and permit the sand to run into the hole. Close the shutter when no further movement
of the sand is seen. Remove the cylinder and determine its weight (W5).
12. Take representative sample of the excavated soil for water content determination.
Observations and Calculations

Sl. Bulk Density of Sand
1 2 3
No.
Weight of sand pouring cylinder + sand( W1) gm
Diameter of calibrating container, D cm
Height of calibrating container, H cm
Volume of calibrating container (Vcc)
Weight of cylinder + remaining sand after pouring into
conical portion (W2) gm
Weight of sand to fill the conical portion, Wc= (W1 - W2)gm
Weight of cylinder + remaining sand after pouring in to
calibrating container ,(W3) gm
Weight of sand required to fill the calibrating
container,Wcc= (W2-W3)-Wc gm
Bulk density of sand s = Wcc / Vcc gm/cc

Sl. Measurement of Soil Density
1 2 3
No.
1. Weight of wet soil from hole Ww gm
2. Weight of sand + cylinder before pouring W4 gm
3. Weight of sand + cylinder after pouring W5 gm
4.
Weight of sand in hole Ws= (W4-W5-Wc) gm
5. Volume of hole, V h= Ws/ γs cc

6. Bulk density b = (Ww /Vh) gm/cc
Water Content Determination

7. Container number
8. Weight of empty container, w1 gm
Weight of container +wet soil, w2 gm

9.
10. Weight of container + dry soil, w3 gm
11. Moisture content (%) ((w2-w3)/(w3-w1))*100

12. Dry density d = b / (1+w) gm/cc
General Remarks
1. While calibrating the bulk density of sand great care has to be taken.
2. The excavated hole must be equal to the volume of the calibrating container.

Practical-3
GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS OF SOIL SAMPLE
a. Sieve Analysis
Aim: To determine the grain size distribution of soil sample by sieve analysis.
IS Code: IS 2720 [Part-IV]-1985
Need and Scope
The grain size analysis is widely used in classification of soils. The data obtained from grain size
distribution curves is used in the design of filters for earth dams and to determine suitability of
soil for road construction, air field etc. Information obtained from grain size analysis can be used
to predict soil water movement although permeability tests are more generally used.
Apparatus
1. Balance
2. I.S sieves
3. Sieve brush
4. Mechanical sieve shaker
5. Thermostatically controlled oven
The grain size analysis is an attempt to determine the relative proportions of different
grain sizes which make up a given soil mass.
Knowledge of Equipment
1. The balance to be used must be sensitive to the extent of 0.1% of total weight of sample taken.
2. The sieves for soil tests: 4.75 mm to 75 microns.
Procedure
1. Take about 500 g of dry representative soil
2. Place the selected I.S sieves and arrange in the order as shown in the table such that the sieve
sizes go down in descending order with the largest sieve size at the top and the smallest at the
bottom. Pour the 500 gm soil on the top of the arranged sieves and place the pan at the bottom.
Cover the set of sieves with a lid and sieve it in a mechanical sieve shaker for 10 min.
3. The soil sample is separated into various fractions by sieving through above sieves placed in
the above mentioned order.
5. The weight of soil retained on each sieve is recorded.
6. The moisture content of soil if above 5% it is to be measured and recorded.
7. No particle of soil sample shall be pushed through the sieves.
Observations and Recording
Weight of soil sample:

I.S sieve Wt. Percentage Cumulative %age % finer Remarks
number or Retained in on each retained on each
size in mm each sieve sieve sieve
(gm)
4.75
2.36
1.40
1.18
0.60
0.30
0.15
0.075
PAN
Graph
Draw graph between log sieve size v/s percent finer. The graph is known as grading curve.
Corresponding to 10%, 30% and 60% finer, obtain diameters from graph are designated as D 10,
D30, D60.
Advantage of Using Semi log Graph in Sieve Analysis
Logarithmic scales for the particle diameter gives a very convenient representation of the sizes because a
wide range of particle diameter can be shown in a single plot, also a different scale need not be chosen for
representing the fine fraction with the same degree of accuracy as the coarse fraction.
Calculation
1. The percentage of soil retained on each sieve shall be calculated on the basis of total weight of
soil sample taken.
i.e., % Retained= {weight of soil retained/ Total weight of soil taken} x 100
2. Cumulative percentage of soil retained on successive sieve is found
% finer= 100- Cumulative percentage
3. Coefficient of uniformity, Cu= (D60/ D10)
4. Coefficient of curvature, (Cc= D302/ D10x D60)
Result:
The gradation curve for the given soil sample is obtained.

b. Hydrometer Analysis
Aim: Grain size analysis of soils by hydrometer analysis test.
IS Code: IS 2720 [Part-IV]-1985
Specific Objective
1. To determine the grain size distribution of soil sample containing appreciable amount of fines.
2. To draw a grain size distribution curve.
Need and Scope of the Experiment
For determining the grain size distribution of soil sample, usually mechanical analysis (sieve
analysis) is carried out in which the finer sieve used is 63 micron or the nearer opening. If a soil
contains appreciable quantities of fine fractions in (less than 63 micron) wet analysis is done.
One form of the analysis is hydrometer analysis. It is very much helpful to classify the soil as per
ISI classification. The properties of the soil are very much influenced by the amount of clay and
other fractions.
Apparatus
1. Hydrometer
2. Glass measuring cylinder-Two of 1000 ml capacity with ground glass or rubber stoppers
about 7 cm diameter and 33 cm high marked at 1000 ml volume.
3. Thermometer- To cover the range 0 to 50o C with an accuracy of0.5 o C .
4. Water bath.
5. Stirring apparatus.
6. I.S sieves apparatus.
7. Balance-accurate to 0.01 gm.
8. Oven-105 to 110.
9. Stop watch.
10. Desiccators
11. Centimeter scale.
12. Porcelain evaporating dish.
13. Wide mouth conical flask or conical beaker of 1000 ml capacity.
14. Thick funnel-about 10 cm in diameter.
15. Filter flask-to take the funnel.
16. Measuring cylinder-100 ml capacity.
17. Wash bottle-containing distilled water.
18. Filter papers.
19. Glass rod-about 15 to 20 cm long and 4 to 5 mm in diameter.
20. Hydrogen peroxide-20 volume solution.

21. Hydrochloric acid N solution-89 ml of concentrated hydrochloric acid.(specific gravity
1.18) diluted with distilled water one liter of solution.
22. Sodium hexametaphosphate solution-dissolve 33 g of sodium hexametaphosphate and 7
gm of sodium carbonate in distilled water to make one liter of solution.
Preparation of the Sample
Take 100 gm of soil in 75 microns IS Sieve and place a tray at the bottom. Wash the soil in the
sieve until u get clear water flowing through the sieve. All the soil particles finer than 75 microns
will be collected in the tray. Keep the soil suspension in the tray undisturbed so that the soil
settles at the bottom. Dry it in sunlight and then in oven. Powder it and this soil can be used for
the analysis. Take 30 g of soil and mix it with the 2 chemicals and water and stir it in the
mechanical stirrer.
Calibration of Hydrometer
Volume
(a) Volume of water displaced: Approximately 800 ml of water shall be poured in the 1000 ml
measuring cylinder. The reading of the water level shall be observed and recorded.
The hydrometer shall be immersed in the water and the level shall again be observed and
recorded as the volume of the hydrometer bulb in ml plus volume of that part of the stem that is
submerged. For practical purposes the error to the inclusion of this stem volume may be
neglected.
(b) From the weight of the hydrometer: The hydrometer shall be weighed to the nearest 0.1 gm.
The weight in gm shall be recorded as the volume of the bulb plus the volume of the stem below
the 1000 ml graduation mark. For practical purposes the error due to the inclusion of this stem
may be neglected.
Calibration
(a) The sectional area of the 1000 ml measuring cylinder in which the hydrometer is to used shall
be determined by measuring the distance between the graduations. The sectional area is equal to
the volume include between the two graduations divided by the measured distance between
them.
Place the hydrometer on the paper and sketch it. On the sketch note the lowest and highest
readings which are on the hydrometer and also mark the neck of the bulb. Mark the center of the
bulb which is half of the distance between neck of the bulb and tip of the bulb.
(b) The distance from the lowest reading to the center of the bulb is (Rh) shall be recorded
(Rh =HL + h/2).
(c) The distance from the highest hydrometer reading to the center of the bulb shall be measured
and recorded.

(d) Draw a graph for hydrometer readings HH v/s RH. A straight line is obtained. This calibration
curve is used to calibrate the hydrometer readings which are taken within 2 minutes.
(e) From 4 minutes onwards the readings are to be taken by immersing the hydrometer each
time. This makes the soil solution to rise, there by rising distance of free fall of the particle. So
correction is applied to the hydrometer readings.
(f) Correction applied to the Rh and HH
Vh= Volume of hydrometer bulb in ml.

A=Area of measuring cylinder in cm2.
From these two corrected readings draw graph (straight line)

Grain Size Distribution in Soil-Data and Calculation Chart
Total weight of dry soil taken, W = Specific Gravity of soil, G =
Hydrometer No: Wt. of soil gone into solution,Ws =
Meniscus correction, Cn =
Dispersion agent correction =
Reading in water RW =
Temperature correction =
% finer for wt. of soil Ws gone into solution, N= [(100G)/{Ws x (G -1)}] x R
Date Time Elapsed Hydrometer Corrected Zr Velocity Equivalent R N Remarks

Time in reading upper hydrometer or cm/s diameter of (% finer
(Sec) Meniscus Reading l V=Zr/K Particle than for
Zr
Rh - 1000 (1-lower or l / t Dmm soil)
Zr
meniscus Cm)

Practical-4
DETERMINATION OF CONSISTENCY LIMITS
a. Liquid Limit Test
Aim:
1. Prepare soil specimen as per specification.
2. Find the relationship between water content and number of blows.
3. Draw flow curve.
4. Find out liquid limit.
IS Code: IS 2720[Part -V]-1985
Need and Scope
Liquid limit is significant to know the stress history and general properties of the soil met with
construction. From the results of liquid limit the compression index may be estimated. The
compression index value will help us in settlement analysis. If the natural moisture content of
soil is closer to liquid limit, the soil can be considered as soft if the moisture content is lesser
than liquid limit, the soil is brittle and stiffer.
Theory
The liquid limit is the moisture content at which the groove, formed by a standard tool into the
sample of soil taken in the standard cup, closes for 10 mm on being given 25 blows in a standard
manner. At this limit the soil possess low shear strength.
Apparatus Required
1. Balance 4. Mixing dishes
2. Liquid limit device (Casagrande’s) 5. Spatula
3. Grooving tool 6. Electrical Oven
Procedure
1. About 150 gm of air-dried soil from thoroughly mixed portion of material passing
425 micron I.S sieve is to be obtained.
2. Distilled water is mixed to the soil thus obtained in a mixing disc to form uniform paste. The
paste shall have a consistency that would require 30 to 35 drops of cup to cause closer of
standard groove for sufficient length.
3. A portion of the paste is placed in the cup of LIQUID LIMIT device and spread into portion
with few strokes of spatula.
4. With the help of grooving tool make V shape grove, 2mm wide at bottom, 11mm wide at top
and 8mm deep.
5. Lift and drop the cup by turning handle at the rate of two revolutions per second until the two
halves of soil cake come in contact with each other for a length of about 1 cm by flow only.

6. The number of blows required to cause the groove close for about 1 cm shall be recorded.
7. A representative portion of soil is taken from the cup for water content determination.
8. Repeat the test with different moisture contents at least three more times for blows
between 10 and 40.
Observations
Details of the sample: .......
Natural moisture content: ........ Room temperature: ..............
Determination Number 1 2 3 4
Container number
Weight of container ,W1g
Weight of container+ wet
soil, W2g
Weight of container + dry soil,w3g
Weight of water= (W2-W3) g
Weight of dry soil=(W3-W1)g
Moisture content =
{(W2-W3)/(W3-W1)}100(%)
No. of blows
Computation / Calculation
Draw a graph showing the relationship between water content (y-axis) and number of blows (x-
axis) on semi-log graph. The curve obtained is called flow curve. The moisture content
corresponding to 25 blows gives the liquid limit. It is usually expressed to the nearest whole
number.

Interpretation and Recording
Flow index,If = (W2-W1) / (logN1/N2) = slope of the flow curve.
Plasticity Index = wl - wp =
Toughness Index = Ip /If =
Plasticity Index, Ip = (WL-Wp)=
b. Plastic Limit Test
Aim: Determination of plastic limit of the given soil sample.
IS Code: IS 2720[part -V]-1985
Need and Scope
Soil is used for making bricks, tiles, soil - cement blocks in addition to its use as foundation for
structures.
Apparatus Required
1. Porcelain dish.
2. Glass plate for rolling the specimen.
3. Air tight containers to determine the moisture content.
4.Balance of capacity 200gm and sensitive to 0.01gm
5. Oven thermostatically controlled with interior of non-corroding material to maintain
the temperature around 1050 and 1100C.
Procedure
1. Take about 20 gm of thoroughly mixed portion of the material passing through 425 micron
I.S. sieve obtained in accordance with I.S. 2720 (part 1).
2. Mix it thoroughly with distilled water in the evaporating dish till the soil mass becomes
plastic enough to be easily molded with fingers.
3. Allow it to season for sufficient time (for 24 hrs) to allow water to permeate throughout the
soil mass
4. Take about 10gms of this plastic soil mass and roll it between fingers and glass plate with just
sufficient pressure to roll the mass into a threaded of uniform diameter throughout its length.
The rate of rolling shall be between 60 and 90 strokes per minute.
5. Continue rolling till you get a threaded of 3mm diameter.
6. Kneed the soil together to a uniform mass and re-roll.
7. Continue the process until the thread crumbles when the diameter is 3 mm.
8. Collect the pieces of the crumbled thread in air tight container for moisture
content determination.
9. Repeat the test to at least 3 times and take the average of the results calculated to the nearest
whole number.
Observation and Reporting
Compare the diameter of thread at intervals with the rod. When the diameter reduces to 3 mm,
note the surface of the thread for cracks.
Presentation of Data
Container No.
Wt. of container + lid,W1
Wt. of container + lid + wet sample,W 2
Wt. of container + lid + dry sample,W3
Wt. of dry sample = W3 - W1
Wt. of water in the soil = W2- W3
Water content (%) = {(W2- W3) / (W3 - W1)  100
Average Plastic Limit=...............
Plasticity Index (Ip) = (LL - PL)=............ Toughness Index =Ip/If

c. Shrinkage Limit Test
Aim: To determine the shrinkage limit and calculate the shrinkage ratio for the given soil.
IS Code: IS 2720[Part –VI]-1972
Theory
As the soil loses moisture, either in its natural environment, or by artificial means in laboratory it
changes from liquid state to plastic state, from plastic state to semi-solid state and then to solid
state. Volume changes also occur with changes in water content. But there is particular limit at
which any moisture change does not cause soil any volume change.
Need and Scope
Soils which undergo large volume changes with change in water content may be troublesome.
Volume changes may not and usually will not be equal.
A shrinkage limit test should be performed on a soil.
1. To obtain a quantitative indication of how much change in moisture can occur before any
appreciable volume changes occurs
2. To obtain an indication of change in volume.
The shrinkage limit is useful in areas where soils undergo large volume changes when going
through wet and dry cycles (as in case of earth dams)
Apparatus
1. Evaporating Dish. Porcelain, about 12cm diameter with flat bottom.
2. Spatula
3. Shrinkage Dish. Circular, porcelain or non-corroding metal dish (3 nos) having a flat bottom
and 45 mm in diameter and 15 mm in height internally.
4. Straight Edge. Steel, 15 cm in length.
5. Glass cup. 50 to 55 mm in diameter and 25 mm in height , the top rim of which is ground
smooth and level.
6. Glass plates two numbers, each 75 mm x 75 mm one plate shall be of plain glass and the other
shall have prongs.
7. Sieves 2mm and 425- micron IS sieves.
8. Oven-thermostatically controlled.
9. Graduate-Glass, having a capacity of 25 ml and graduated to 0.2 ml and 100 cc one mark
flask.

10. Balance-Sensitive to 0.01 g minimum.
11. Mercury. Clean, sufficient to fill the glass cup to over flowing.
12. Wash bottle containing distilled water.
Procedure
Preparation of soil paste
1. Take about 100 gm of soil sample from a thoroughly mixed portion of the material passing
through 425-micron I.S. sieve.
2. Place about 30 gm the above soil sample in the evaporating dish and thoroughly mixed with
distilled water and make a creamy paste.
Use water content somewhere around the liquid limit.
Filling the shrinkage dish
3. Coat the inside of the shrinkage dish with a thin layer of Vaseline to prevent the soil sticking
to the dish.
4. Fill the dish in three layers by placing approximately 1/3 rd of the amount of wet soil with the
help of spatula. Tap the dish gently on a firm base until the soil flows over the edges and no
apparent air bubbles exist. Repeat this process for 2nd and 3rd layers also till the dish is
completely filled with the wet soil. Strike off the excess soil and make the top of the dish
smooth. Wipe off all the soil adhering to the outside of the dish.
5. Weigh immediately, the dish with wet soil and record the weight.
6. Air-dry the wet soil cake for 6 to 8hrs, until the colour of the pat turns from dark to light. Then
oven-dry those to constant weight at 1050C to 1100C say about 12 to 16 hrs.
7. Remove the dried disk of the soil from oven. Cool it in a desiccator. Then obtain the weight of
the dish with dry sample.
8. Determine the weight of the empty dish and record.
9. Determine the volume of shrinkage dish which is evidently equal to volume of the wet soil as
follows. Place the shrinkage dish in an evaporating dish and fill the dish with mercury till it
overflows slightly. Press it with plain glass plate firmly on its top to remove excess mercury.
Pour the mercury from the shrinkage dish into a measuring jar and find the volume of the
shrinkage dish directly. Record this volume as the volume of the wet soil pat.
Volume of the Dry Soil Pat
10. Determine the volume of dry soil pat by removing the pat from the shrinkage dish and
immersing it in the glass cup full of mercury in the following manner.
Place the glass cup in a larger dish and fill the glass cup to overflowing with mercury. Remove
the excess mercury by covering the cup with glass plate with prongs and pressing it over the top

of the cup. See that no air bubbles are entrapped. Wipe out the outside of the glass cup to remove
the adhering mercury. Then, place it in another larger dish, which is, clean and empty carefully.
Place the dry soil pat on the mercury in the cup and force the pat into the mercury by pressing it
by the same glass plate containing three prongs. The mercury spills over into the larger plate.
Collect the mercury that is displayed by the soil pat and find its mass. The volume of the soil pat
is then determined by dividing this mass by the specific gravity of mercury.
Calculation
Shrinkage ratio= Sr = {Wo/ Vo}

Caution
Do not touch the mercury with gold rings.
Tabulation and Results
Sl.No Determination No. 1 2 3

1 Wt. of container in gm,W1
2 Wt. of container + wet soil pat in gm,W 2
Wt. of container + dry soil pat in gm,W3
3 Wt. of oven dry soil pat, W0 in gm
Wt. of water in gm
4 Moisture content (%), w
5 Volume of wet soil pat (V), in cm
6 Volume of dry soil pat (V0) in cm3
7 By mercury displacement method
8 a. Weight of displaced mercury
b. Specific gravity of the mercury
9 Shrinkage limit (WS)
10 Shrinkage ratio (Wr)

Practical-5
COMPACTION OF SOIL
a. Standard Proctor Test
Aim: To determine optimum moisture content and maximum dry density of the given soil
IS Code: IS 2720 [part-VII]-1980/1987
Need and Scope
Compaction is a process by which the soil particles are artificially rearranged and packed together in a
closer state of contact by mechanical means in order to decrease the porosity of the soil and thus increase
its dry density. This method covers the determination of the relationship between the moisture content and
density of soils compacted in a mould of a given size with a 2.5 kg rammer dropped from a height of 30
cm.
Apparatus
1. Proctor mould having a capacity of about 1000 cc with an internal diameter of 10 cm and a height
of 12.74 cm. The mould shall have a detachable collar assembly and a detachable base plate.
2. Rammer: A mechanical operated metal rammer having a 5.08 cm diameter face and a weight of
2.5 kg. The rammer shall be equipped with a suitable arrangement to control the height of drop to
a free fall of 30 cm.
3. Sample extruder.
4. A balance of 10 kg capacity.
5. Sensitive balance.
6. Straight edge.
7. Graduated cylinder.
8. Mixing tools such as mixing pan, spoon, trowel, spatula etc.
9. Moisture tins.
Procedure
1. Take about 3kg of representative oven dried sample passing 4.75mm I.S sieve in the given pan.
Thoroughly mix the sample with sufficient water to dampen it to approximately four to six percentage
points below optimum moisture content.
2. Weigh the proctor mould without base plate and collar. Fix the collar and base plate. Place the soil in
the Proctor mould and compact it in 3 layers giving 25 blows per layer with the 2.5 kg rammer falling
through.
3. Remove the collar, trim the compacted soil even with the top of the mould by means of the straight
edge and weigh.
4. Divide the weight of the compacted specimen by about 1000 cc and record the result as the wet weight
wet in grams per cubic centimeter of the compacted soil.
5. Remove the sample from the mould and slice vertically through and obtain a small sample for moisture
determination.

6. Thoroughly break up the remainder of the material until it will pass through 4.75 mm IS sieve as
judged by the eye. Add water in sufficient amounts to increase the moisture content of the soil sample by
one or two percentage and repeat the above procedure for each increment of water added. Continue this
series of determination until there is either a decrease or no change in the wet unit weight of the
compacted soil.
Calculation
Wet density gm/cc =weight of compacted soil / volume of compaction mould
Dry density= wet density/ (1+w)

Where w is the moisture content of the soil.
Plot the dry density against moisture content and find out the maximum dry density and optimum
moisture content for the soil.
Observations and Tabulation
Diameter of compaction mould= cm.
Height of mould = cm
Volume of mould = cc
Weight of mould = gm
Density
Determination No. 1 2 3 4 5
Water to be added (percent)
Weight of water to be added (gm)
Weight of mould + compacted soil
Weight of compacted soil (gm)
Average moisture content (percent)
Wet density(gm /cc)
Dry density (gm/cc)
Water content
Container No.
Wt. of container + wet soil gm.,W2
Wt. of container + dry soil gm, W3
Wt of container alone gm, W1
Wt. of water, gm, Ww
Wt. of dry soil, gm., Ws
Percentage of water Content w=(Ww/Ws)*100
1. Plot the graph to show the relationship between water content and dry density in the form
of compaction curve.
2. Derive optimum moisture content and maximum dry density with respect to peak of the
compaction curve.
Results
Optimum moisture content, OMC = Maximum dry density, γd=

b. Modified Proctor Test
Aim: To determine optimum moisture content and maximum dry density of the given soil
IS Code: IS 2720 [part-VIII]-1983
Need and Scope
Higher compaction is needed for heavier transport, air fields and military aircraft. This method covers the
determination of the relationship between the moisture content and density of soils compacted in a mould
of a given size with a 4.9 kg rammer dropped from a height of 45 cm. For a same soil, the effect of
heavier compaction is to increase in the maximum dry density and to decrease the optimum water content.
Apparatus
1. Proctor mould having a capacity of about 1000 cc with an internal diameter of 10 cm and a height
of 12.74 cm. The mould shall have a detachable collar assembly and a detachable base plate.
2. Rammer: A mechanical operated metal rammer having a 5.08 cm diameter face and a weight of
4.9 kg. The rammer shall be equipped with a suitable arrangement to control the height of drop to
a free fall of 45 cm.
3. Sample extruder.
4. A balance of 10 kg capacity.
5. Sensitive balance.
6. Straight edge.
7. Graduated cylinder.
8. Mixing tools such as mixing pan, spoon, trowel, spatula etc.
9. Moisture tins.
Procedure
1. Take a representative oven-dried sample, approximately 5 kg in the given pan. Thoroughly mix the
sample with sufficient water to dampen it to approximately four to six percentage points below optimum
moisture content.
2. Weigh the proctor mould without base plate and collar. Fix the collar and base plate. Place the soil in
the Proctor mould and compact it in 5 layers giving 25 blows per layer with the 4.9 kg rammer falling
through.
3. Remove the collar, trim the compacted soil even with the top of the mould by means of the straight
edge and weigh.
4. Divide the weight of the compacted specimen by about 1000 cc and record the result as the wet weight
wet in grams per cubic centimeter of the compacted soil.
5. Remove the sample from the mould and slice vertically through and obtain a small sample for moisture
determination.
6. Thoroughly break up the remainder of the material until it will pass through 4.75 mm IS sieve as
judged by the eye. Add water in sufficient amounts to increase the moisture content of the soil sample by

one or two percentage points and repeat the above procedure for each increment of water added. Continue
this series of determination until there is either a decrease or no change in the wet unit weight of the
compacted soil.
Calculation
Wet density gm/cc =weight of compacted soil /1000.
Dry density= wet density/(1+w)
Where w is the moisture content of the soil.
Plot the dry density against moisture content and find out the maximum dry density and optimum
moisture for the soil.
Observations
Diameter of compaction mould = cm. Height of mould = cm
Volume of mould = cc Weight of mould = gm
Density
Determination No. 1 2 3 4 5
Water to be added (percent)
Weight of water to be added (gm)
Weight of mould + compacted soil
Weight of compacted soil (gm)
Average moisture content (percent)
Wet density(gm /cc)
Dry density (gm/cc)
Water Content Determination
Container No.
Wt. of container + wet soil gm.
Wt. of container + dry soil gm
Wt of container alone gm.
Wt. of water gm
Wt. of dry soil gm.
Percentage of water Content

1. Plot the graph to show the relationship between water content and dry density in the form of
compaction curve.
2. Derive optimum moisture content and maximum dry density with respect to peak of the
compaction curve.
Results
Optimum moisture content, OMC =
Maximum dry density, γd=

Practical-6
PERMEABILITY TEST
a. Constant Head
Aim: To determine the coefficient of permeability of a soil using constant head method.
IS Code: IS 2720 [part- XVII]-1986
Need and Scope
The knowledge of this property is much useful in solving problems involving yield of water
bearing strata, seepage through earthen dams, stability of earthen dams, and embankments of
canal bank affected by seepage, settlement etc.
Planning and Organization
1. Preparation of the soil sample for the test
2. Finding the discharge through the specimen under a particular head of water.
Definition of Coefficient of Permeability
The rate of flow of water under laminar flow conditions through a unit cross sectional are of
porous medium under unit hydraulic gradient is defined as coefficient of permeability.
Equipment
1. Permeometer mould of non-corrodible material having a capacity of 1000 ml, with an internal
diameter of 100 +0.1 mm and internal effective height of 127.3+ 0.1 mm.
2. The mould shall be fitted with a detachable base plate and removable extension counter.
3. Compacting equipment: 50 mm diameter circular face, weight 2.76 kg and height of fall 310
mm as specified in I.S 2720 part VII 1965.
4. Drainage bade: A bade with a porous disc, 12 mm thick which has the permeability 10 times
the expected permeability of soil.
5. Drainage cap: A porous disc of 12 mm thick having a fitting for connection to water inlet or
outlet.
6. Constant head tank: A suitable water reservoir capable of supplying water to the permeometer
under constant head.
7. Graduated glass cylinder to receive the discharge.
8. Stop watch to note the time.
9. A meter scale to measure the head differences and length of specimen.
Preparation of Specimen for Testing
A. Undisturbed Soil Sample
1. Note down the sample number, borehole number and its depth at which the sample was taken.
2. Remove the protective cover (paraffin wax) from the sampling tube.
3. Place the sampling tube in the sample extraction frame, and push the plunger to get a cylindrical form
sample not longer than 35 mm in diameter and having height equal to that of mould.

4. The specimen shall be placed centrally over the porous disc to the drainage base.
5. The angular space shall be filled with an impervious material such as cement slurry or wax, to provide
sealing between the soil specimen and the mould against leakage from the sides.
6. The drainage cap shall then be fixed over the top of the mould.
7. Now the specimen is ready for the test.
Disturbed Soil Sample
1. A 2.5 kg sample passing 4.75 mm IS sieve shall be taken from a thoroughly mixed air dried or oven
dried material.
2. The moisture content of the 2.5 kg sample shall be optimum moisture content of the soil.
3. Add required quantity of water to get the desired moisture content.
4. Mix the soil thoroughly.
5. Weigh the empty permeometer mould.
6. After greasing the inside, clamp it between the compaction base plate and extension collar.
7. Place the assembly on a solid base and fill it with sample and compact it in two layers with 15 blows
8. After completion of a compaction the collar and excess soil are removed.
9. Find the weight of mould with sample.
10. Place the filter paper or fine wire mesh on the top of the soil specimen and fix the perforated base
plate on it.
11. Turn the assembly upside down and remove the compaction plate. Insert the sealing gasket and place
the top perforated plate on the top of soil specimen. And fix the top cap.
12. Now, the specimen is ready for test.
Test Procedure
1. For the constant head arrangement, the specimen shall be connected through the top inlet to the
constant head reservoir.
2. Open the bottom outlet.
3. Establish steady flow of water.
4. The quantity of flow for a convenient time interval may be collected.
5. Repeat three times for the same interval.
Observation and Recording
The flow is very low at the beginning, gradually increases and then stands constant. Constant head
permeability test is suitable for cohesion less soils. For cohesive soils falling head method is suitable.
Computation: Coefficient of permeability for a constant head test is given by

Presentation of data
The coefficient of permeability is reported in cm/sec at 27 o C. The dry density, the void ratio and
the degree of saturation shall be reported. The test results should be tabulated as below:
Permeability Test Record

Observations
Diameter of specimen = cm Length of specimen (L) = cm
Area of specimen (A) = cm2 Specific gravity of soil G s =
Volume of specimen (V) = cm3 Weight of dry specimen (Ws) = gm
Moisture content (w) = %

Experiment No. 1 2 3
Length of specimen L(cm)

Area of specimen A(cm2)
Time t (sec)
Discharge q(cm3)
Height of water h(cm)
Temperature (o C)

b. Falling Head Method
Aim: To determine the coefficient of permeability of the given soil sample, using falling head method.
IS Code: IS 2720 [part -XVII]-1986
Need and Scope
The test results of the permeability experiments are used:
1. To estimate ground water flow.
2. To calculate seepage through dams.
3. To find out the rate of consolidation and settlement of structures.
4. To plan the method of lowering the ground water table.
5. To calculate the uplift pressure and piping.
6. To design the grouting.
7. And also for soil freezing tests.
8. To design pits for recharging.
Thus the study of seepage of water through soil is very important, with wide field applications.
The falling head method of determining permeability is used for soil with low discharge, where as
the constant head permeability test is used for coarse-grained soils with a reasonable discharge in a given
time. For very fine-grained soil, capillarity permeability test is recommended.
Principle of the Experiment

The passage of water through porous material is called seepage. A material with continuous voids is
called a permeable material. Hence permeability is a property of a porous material which permits passage
of fluids through inter-connecting voids.
Hence permeability is defined as the rate of flow of water under laminar conditions through a unit
cross-sectional area perpendicular to the direction of flow through a porous medium under unit hydraulic
gradient and under standard temperature conditions.
The principle behind the test is Darcy’s law for laminar flow. The rate of discharge is proportional to: i xA
q= kiA
Where q= Discharge per unit time.
A=Total area of c/s of soil perpendicular to the direction of flow.
i=hydraulic gradient.
k=Darcy’s coefficient of permeability = the mean velocity of flow that will occur through the cross-
sectional area under unit hydraulic gradient.

The tools and accessories needed for the test are:
1. Permeometer with its accessories.
2. Standard soil specimen.
3. De-aired water.
4. Balance to weigh up to 1 gm.

5. I.S sieves 4.75 mm and 2 mm.
6. Mixing pan.
7. Stop watch.
8. Measuring jar.
9. Meter scale.
10. Thermometer.
11. Container for water.
12. Trimming knife etc.
(a) The permeometer is made of non-corrodible material with a capacity of 1000 ml, with an internal
diameter of 100+0.1 mm and effective height of 127.3+ 0.1 mm.
(b) The mould has a detachable base plate and a removable exterior collar.
(c) The compacting equipment has a circular face with 50 mm diameter and a length of 310 mm with a
weight of 2.6 kg.
(d) The drainage base is a porous disc, 12 mm thick with a permeability 10 times that of soil.
(e) The drainage cap is also a porous disc of 12 mm thickness with an inlet/outlet fitting.
(f) The container tank has an overflow valve. There is also a graduated jar to collect discharge.
(g) The stand pipe arrangements are done on a board with 2 or 3 glass pipes of different diameters.
Preparation of the Specimen
The preparation of the specimen for this test is important. There are two types of specimen, the
undisturbed soil sample and the disturbed or made up soil sample.
A. Undisturbed Soil Specimen
It is prepared as follows:
1. Note down-sample no., borehole no., depth at which sample is taken.
2. Remove the protective cover (wax) from the sampling tube.
3. Place the sampling tube in the sample extract or and push the plunger to get a cylindrical shaped
specimen not larger than 85 mm diameter and height equal to that of the mould.
4. This specimen is placed centrally over the drainage disc of base plate.
5. The annular space in between the mould and specimen is filled with an impervious material
like cement slurry to block the side leakage of the specimen.
6. Protect the porous disc when cement slurry is poured.
7. Compact the slurry with a small tamper.
8. The drainage cap is also fixed over the top of the mould.
9. The specimen is now ready for test.
B. Disturbed Specimen
The disturbed specimen can be prepared by static compaction or by dynamic compaction.
(a) Preparation of statically compacted (disturbed) specimen.

1. Take 2.5 kg of representative soil and mix with water to O.M.C determined by I.S Light
Compaction test. Then leave the mix for 24 hours in an airtight container.
2. Find weight ‘W’ of soil mix for the given volume of the mould and hence find the dry
3. Now, assemble the permeometer for static compaction. Attach the 3 cm collar to the bottom end of 0.3
liters mould and the 2 cm collar to the top end. Support the mould assembly over 2.5 cm end plug, with
2.5 cm collar resting on the split collar kept around the 2.5 cm- end plug. The inside of the 0.3 lit. Mould
is lightly greased.
4. Put the weighed soil into the mould. Insert the top 3 cm end plug into the top collar, tamping the soil
with hand.
5. Keep, now the entire assembly is on a compressive machine and remove the split collar. Apply the
compressive force till the flange of both end plugs touches the corresponding collars. Maintain this load
for 1 minute and then release it.
6. Then remove the top 3 cm plug and collar place a filter paper on fine wire mesh on the top of the
specimen and fix the perforated base plate.
7. Turn the mould assembly upside down and remove the 2.5 cm end plug and collar. Place the top
perforated plate on the top of the soil specimen and fix the top cap on it, after inserting the seating gasket.
8. Now the specimen is ready for test.
(B) Preparation of Dynamically Compacted Disturbed sample
1. A 2.5 kg sample passing 4.75 mm IS sieve shall be taken from a thoroughly mixed air dried or oven
dried material.
2. The moisture content of the 2.5 kg sample shall be optimum moisture content of the soil.
3. Add required quantity of water to get the desired moisture content.
4. Mix the soil thoroughly.
5. Weigh the empty permeometer mould.
6. After greasing the inside, clamp it between the compaction base plate and extension collar.
7. Place the assembly on a solid base and fill it with sample and compact it in two layers with 15 blows
8. After completion of a compaction the collar and excess soil are removed.
9. Find the weight of mould with sample.
10. Place the filter paper or fine wire mesh on the top of the soil specimen and fix the perforated base
plate on it.
11. Turn the assembly upside down and remove the compaction plate. Insert the sealing gasket and place
the top perforated plate on the top of soil specimen. And fix the top cap.
12. Now, the specimen is ready for test.
Experimental Procedure
1. Prepare the soil specimen as specified.
2. Saturate it. De-aired water is preferred.
3. Assemble the permeometer in the bottom tank and fill the tank with water.

4. Inlet nozzle of the mould is connected to the stand pipe. Allow some water to flow until steady flow is
obtained.
5. Note down the time interval‘t’ for a fall of head (‘h’) in the stand pipe.
6. Repeat step 5 three times to determine‘t’ for the same head.
7. Find ‘a’ by collecting ‘q’ for the stand pipe. Weigh it correct to 1 gm and find ‘a’ from q/h=a.
Therefore the coefficient of permeability
Description 1st set 2nd set

1.Area of stand pipe (dia. 5 cm) ,a
2.Cross sectional area of soil specimen, A
3.Length of soil specimen, L
4.Initial reading of stand pipe, h1
5.Final reading of stand pipe, h2

6.Time,t
7. Test temperature, T
8. Coefficient of permeability at T, kt
9.Coefficient of permeability at 27o C, k27

General Remarks
1. During test there should be no volume change in the soil, there should be no compressible air present in
the voids of soil i.e. soil should be completely saturated. The flow should be laminar and in a steady state
condition.
2. Coefficient of permeability is used to assess drainage characteristics of soil, to predict rate of
settlement founded on soil bed.

Practical-7
STRENGTH TESTS
a. Direct Shear Test
Aim: To determine the shearing strength of the soil using the direct shear apparatus.
IS Code: IS 2720 [Part -13]-1986
Need and Scope
In many engineering problems such as design of foundation, retaining walls, slab bridges, pipes,
sheet piling, the value of the angle of internal friction and cohesion of the soil involved are
required for the design. Direct shear test is used to predict these parameters quickly. The
laboratory report covers the laboratory procedures for determining these values for cohesionless
soils.
Apparatus
1. Direct shear box apparatus 2. Loading frame (motor attached).
3. Dial gauge. 4. Proving ring.
5. Tamper. 6. Straight edge.
7. Balance to weigh up to 200 mg. 8. Aluminum container.
9. Spatula.
Strain controlled direct shear machine consists of shear box, soil container, loading unit, proving
ring, dial gauge to measure shear deformation and volume changes. A two piece square shear
box is one type of soil container used.
A proving ring is used to indicate the shear load taken by the soil initiated in the shearing plane.
Procedure
Preparation of Specimen
1. The undisturbed specimen is prepared by pushing a cutting ring of 10 cm diameter and 3 cm
height in to the undisturbed soil sample obtained from the field. The square specimen of size
6 cm x 6 cm is then cut from the circular specimen.
2. In order to obtain remoulded specimen the soil may be compacted to the required density and
water content. The sample is then extracted and trimmed to the required size.
3. Alternatively the soil may be compacted at the required density and water content directly in
the shear box mould.
4. Non cohesive soils and dry soils may be tamped in the shear box itself with base plate and grip
plate as required at the bottom and top.

Test Procedure
1. Place the base plate in the shear box and porous stone and grip plate below the specimen.
Place also grip plate and porous stone above the specimen
2. Fix the assembly in position of shear machine.
3. Place the loading pad on the top of the porous stone.
4. Set the lower part of the shear box to receive the load and upper part of the box to proving ring.
5. Place the loading yoke on the top of the loading pad.
6. Put normal stress on the hanger of the loading yoke.
7. Remove the shear locks so that the parts are moving against each other.
8. Conduct the test by applying horizontal shear load. The rate of strin may vary from 1 to 2.5 mm/ min.
9. Take the readings of proving and dial gauge displacement till the specimen fails.
10. At the end of the test, remove the specimen shear box and repeat the above procedure for 3
or 4 under varying normal stress.
11. Shear loads corresponding proving reading can be calculated by using the calibration chart of
the corresponding proving ring.
12. Plot the applied normal stress along x- axis and shear stress along y-axis. Draw the failure
envelope. The slope of failure envelope gives us the angle of internal friction the vertical
intercept gives the cohesion.

Data Calculation Sheet for Direct Shear Test
Normal stress 0.5 kg/cm2 L.C=....... P.R.C=.........
Hori .Dial gauge Shear deformation Vertical gauge Vertical deformation= Proving reading Shear stress = div.col.(5)x
Reading Initial Col.(1) x Least reading Initial div.in col.3 x L.C of Initial reading proving ring constant/ Area
reading div. gauge count of dial Reading dial gauge of the specimen(kg/cm2)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
Similarly for normal stress of 1.0 kg/cm2 and 1.5 kg/cm2

Proving Ring constant....... Least count of the dial........
Calibration factor....... Leverage factor........
Dimensions of shear box 60 mm x 60 mm Empty weight of shear box........
Least count of dial gauge......... Volume change.......
Sl.No Normal load (kg) Normal Normal stress(kg/cm2) Shear stress proving Ring
stress(kg/cm2) load x leverage/Area reading x calibration / Area of
load x leverage/Area container
1

General Remarks
1. In the shear box test, the specimen is not failing along its weakest plane but along a
predetermined or induced failure plane i.e. horizontal plane separating the two halves of the
shear box. This is the main drawback of this test. Moreover, during loading, the state of stress
cannot be evaluated. It can be evaluated only at failure condition i.e Mohr’s circle can be drawn
at the failure condition only. Also failure is progressive.

2. Direct shear test is simple and faster to operate. As thinner specimens are used in shear box,
they facilitate drainage of pore water from a saturated sample in less time. This test is also useful
to study friction between two materials - one material in lower half of box and another material
in the upper half of box.

3. The angle of shearing resistance of sands depends on state of compaction, coarseness of
grains, particle shape and roughness of grain surface and grading. It varies between 28o
(uniformly graded sands with round grains in very loose state) to 46 o(well graded sand with
angular grains in dense state).
4. The volume change in sandy soil is a complex phenomenon depending on gradation, particle
shape, state and type of packing, orientation of principal planes, principal stress ratio, stress
history, magnitude of minor principal stress, type of apparatus, test procedure, method of
preparing specimen etc. In general loose sands expand and dense sands contract in volume on
shearing. There is a void ratio at which either expansion contraction in volume takes place. This
void ratio is called critical void ratio. Expansion or contraction can be inferred from the
movement of vertical dial gauge during shearing.
5. The friction between sand particles is due to sliding and rolling friction and interlocking
action.
The ultimate values of shear parameter for both loose sand and dense sand approximately attain
the same value so, if angle of friction value is calculated at ultimate stage, slight disturbance in
density during sampling and preparation of test specimens will not have much effect.
b. Unconfined Compression Test

Aim: To determine shear parameters of cohesive soil
IS Code: IS 2720 [Part-X]-1991
Need and Scope
It is not always possible to conduct the bearing capacity test in the field. Sometimes it is cheaper
to take the undisturbed soil sample and test its strength in the laboratory. Also to choose the best

material for the embankment, one has to conduct strength tests on the samples selected. Under
these conditions it is easy to perform the unconfined compression test on undisturbed and
remoulded soil sample. Now we will investigate experimentally the strength of a given soil
sample.
We have to find out the diameter and length of the specimen.
Equipments
1. Loading frame of capacity of 2 t, with constant rate of movement.
2. Proving ring of 0.01 kg sensitivity for soft soils; 0.05 kg for stiff soils.
3. Soil trimmer.
4. Frictionless end plates of 72 mm diameter (Perspex plate with silicon grease coating).
5. Evaporating dish (Aluminum container).
6. Soil sample of 72 mm length.
7. Dial gauge (0.01 mm accuracy).
8. Balance of capacity 200 g and sensitivity to weigh 0.01 g.
9. Oven: thermostatically controlled with interior of non-corroding material to maintain the
temperature at the desired level.
10. Sample extractor and split sampler.
11. Dial gauge (sensitivity 0.01mm).
12. Vernier calipers.
Experimental Procedure (Specimen)
1. In this test, a cylinder of soil without lateral support is tested to failure in simple
compression, at a constant rate of strain. The compressive load per unit area required to
fail the specimen is called unconfined compressive strength of the soil.
Preparation of specimen for testing
1. Undisturbed cylindrical specimen may be cut from the bigger undisturbed sample
obtained from the field. Alternatively field undisturbed sample may be obtained directly
in a thin sampling tube having same internal diameter.
2. Remoulded sample may be prepared by compacting soil at the desired water content and
dry density in a compaction mould and then cut by the sampling tube.
3. Alternatively remoulded specimen may be prepared directly in the split mould.
Test procedure
1. Measure the initial diameter and height of the specimen.
2. Place the specimen on the base plate of the load frame. Adjust the upper plate to make to
make contact with upper plate.

3. Adjust the center line of the specimen such that the proving ring and the steel ball are in
the same line.
4. Fix a dial gauge to measure the vertical compression of the specimen.
5. Adjust the gear position on the load frame to give suitable vertical displacement.
6. Set the load dial gauge (proving ring) and strain dial gauge to zero.
7. Start applying the load and record the readings of the proving ring dial and compression
dial for every 1 mm compression.
8. Continue loading till failure is complete.
9. Load at failure divided by the corrected area gives unconfined compressive strength.
10. Draw the sketch of the failure in the specimen pattern on the paper. Measure the angle
between the crack and the horizontal.
11. Repeat the above procedure three or four times on the identical samples of the same soil.
12. By knowing UCC strength and failure angle shear strength parameters may be obtained
by plotting failure envelope.

Sample details
Type UD/R: soil description= Degree of saturation= %
Specific gravity (GS) = Diameter (Do) of the sample= cm
Bulk density = Area of cross-section, Ao = cm2
Water content = Initial length (Lo) of the sample = mm
Elapsed Compression dial Strain ,e= L/L0x100 Area A = Ao /(1-e) Proving ring Axial Compressive
time(min.) reading (L) (mm) (cm)2 reading (Div.) load (kg) stress(kg/cm2)

Unconfined compression strength of the soil = qu =
Shear strength of the soil = qu/2 =
Sensitivity = (qu for undisturbed sample)/ (qu for remoulded sample).
General Remarks
Minimum three samples should be tested; correlation can be made between unconfined strength
and field SPT value N.
Up to 6% strain the readings may be taken at every 1/2 min (30 sec).
b. Un-drained Triaxial Test

Aim: To find the shear strength parameters of the soil by Un-drained Triaxial Test.
IS Code: IS 2720 (Part 11):1993
Need and Scope of the Test

The standard consolidated un-drained test is compression test, in which the soil specimen is first
consolidated under all round pressure in the triaxial cell before failure is brought about by
increasing the major principal stress.
It may be performed with or without measurement of pore pressure although for most
applications the measurement of pore pressure is desirable.
A constant rate of strain compression machine of which the following is a brief description of
one is in common use.
a) A loading frame in which the load is applied by yoke acting through an elastic dynamometer,
more commonly called a proving ring which used to measure the load. The frame is operated
at a constant rate by a geared screw jack. It is preferable for the machine to be motor driven,
by a small electric motor.
b) A hydraulic pressure apparatus including an air compressor and water reservoir in which air
under pressure acting on the water raises it to the required pressure, together with the necessary
control valves and pressure dials.
A triaxial cell to take 3.6 cm dia and 7.2 cm long samples, in which the sample can be
subjected to an all round hydrostatic pressure, together with a vertical compression load acting
through a piston. The vertical load from the piston acts on a pressure cap. The cell is usually
designed with a non-ferrous metal top and base connected by tension rods and with walls formed
of perspex.

Apparatus for Preparation of the Sample
a) 3.6 cm internal diameter 7.2 cm long sample tubes.
b) Rubber ring.
c) An open ended cylindrical section former, 3.6 cm inside dia, fitted with a small rubber
tube in its side.
d) Stop clock.
e) Moisture content test apparatus.
The machine is set in motion (or if hand operated the hand wheel is turned at a constant rate) to
give a rate of strain 2% per minute.
The strain dial gauge reading is then taken and the corresponding proving ring reading is taken
the corresponding proving ring chart.
The load applied is known.
The experiment is stopped at the strain dial gauge reading for 15% length of the sample or 15%
strain.
Length: Proving ring constant:

Diameter: 3.6 cm Initial area L:
Initial Volume: Strain dial least count (const):
Cell Strain dial Proving ring Load on Corrected Deviator
pressure reading sample kg area cm2 stress
kg/cm2
0
50
100
150
200
0.5 250
300
350
400
450
0
50
1.0
100

150
200
250
300
350
400
450
0
50
100
150
200
1.5 250
300
350
400
450
Compressive
Wet bulk Cell Strain Shear Angle of
Sample stress Moisture
density pressure at strength shearing
No. at failure content
gm/cc kg/cm2 failure (kg/cm2) resistance
1.
2.
3.
General Remarks
a) It is assumed that the volume of the sample remains constant and that the area of the
sample increases uniformly as the length decreases. The calculation of the stress is based
on this new area at failure, by direct calculation, using the proving ring constant and the
new area of the sample. By constructing a chart relating strain readings, from the proving
ring, directly to the corresponding stress.

b) The strain and corresponding stress is plotted with stress abscissa and curve is drawn.
The maximum compressive stress at failure and the corresponding strain and cell pressure
are found out.
c) The stress results of the series of triaxial tests at increasing cell pressure are plotted on a
Mohr stress diagram. In this diagram a semicircle is plotted with normal stress as abscissa
shear stress as ordinate.
d) The condition of the failure of the sample is generally approximated to by a straight line
drawn as a tangent to the circles, the equation of which is  = C +  tan. The value of cohesion,
C is read of the shear stress axis, where it is cut by the tangent to the Mohr circles, and the angle
of shearing resistance () is angle between the tangent and a line parallel to the shear stress.

Practical-8
VANE SHEAR TEST
Aim: To find shear strength of a given soil specimen.
IS Code: IS 4434: 1978 [Reaffirmed 1987]
Need and Scope
The structural strength of soil is basically a problem of shear strength.
Vane shear test is a useful method of measuring the shear strength of clay. It is a cheaper and quicker
method. The test can also be conducted in the laboratory. The laboratory vane shear test for the
measurement of shear strength of cohesive soils is useful for soils of low shear strength (less than 0.3
kg/cm2) for which triaxial or unconfined tests cannot be performed. The test gives the undrained
strength of the soil. The undisturbed and remoulded strength obtained are useful for evaluating the
sensitivity of soil.
Equipment
1. Vane shear apparatus. 3. Specimen container.
2. Specimen. 4. Calipers.
Experimental Procedure
1. Prepare two or three specimens of the soil sample of dimensions of at least 37.5 mm diameter and
75 mm length in specimen. (L/D ratio 2 or 3).
2. Mount the specimen container with the specimen on the base of the vane shear apparatus. If the
specimen container is closed at one end, it should be provided with a hole of about 1 mm diameter at
the bottom.
3. Gently lower the shear vanes into the specimen to their full length without disturbing the soil
specimen. The top of the vanes should be at least 10 mm below the top of the specimen. Note the
readings of the angle of twist.
4. Rotate the vanes at a uniform rate say 0.1o/s by suitable operating the torque application handle
until the specimen fails.
5. Note the final reading of the angle of twist.
6. Find the value of blade height in cm.
7. Find the value of blade width in cm.
Calculations

Observations
Name of the project:
Soil description:
Sl.No Initial Final Difference T=Spring S=TxG Average Spring

Reading Reading (Deg.) Constant/180x Kg/cm2 'S' Constant
(Deg) (Deg.) Difference Kg/cm2 Kg-cm
Kg-cm
GENERAL REMARKS:
This test is useful when the soil is soft and its water content is nearer to liquid limit.

Practical-9
CONSOLIDATION TEST
Aim: To determine the settlements due to primary consolidation of soil by conducting one
dimensional test.
IS Code: IS2720 [Part-XV]-1986
Need and Scope
The test is conducted to determine the settlement due to primary consolidation. To determine:
i. Rate of consolidation under normal load.
ii. Degree of consolidation at any time.
iii. Pressure-void ratio relationship.
iv. Coefficient of consolidation at various pressures.
v. Compression index.
From the above information it will be possible for us to predict the time rate and extent of
settlement of structures founded on fine-grained soils. It is also helpful in analyzing the stress
history of soil. Since the settlement analysis of the foundation depends mainly on the values
determined by the test, this test is very important for foundation design.
1. Consolidometer consisting essentially
a) A ring of diameter = 60mm and height = 20mm
b) Two porous plates or stones of silicon carbide, aluminum oxide or porous metal.
c) Guide ring.
d) Outer ring.
e) Water jacket with base.
f) Pressure pad.
g) Rubber basket.
2. Loading device consisting of frame, lever system, loading yoke dial gauge fixing device
and weights.
3. Dial gauge to read to an accuracy of 0.002mm.
4. Thermostatically controlled oven.
5. Stopwatch to read seconds.
6. Sample extractor.
7. Miscellaneous items like balance, soil trimming tools, spatula, filter papers, sample
containers.

PRINCIPLE INVOLVED
When a compressive load is applied to soil mass, a decrease in its volume takes place, the
decrease in volume of soil mass under stress is known as compression and the property of soil
mass pertaining to its tendency to decrease in volume under pressure is known as
compressibility. In a saturated soil mass having its void filled with incompressible water,
decrease in volume or compression can take place when water is expelled out of the voids. Such
a compression resulting from a long time static load and the consequent escape of pore water is
termed as consolidation.
Then the load is applied on the saturated soil mass, the entire load is carried by pore water in
the beginning. As the water starts escaping from the voids, the hydrostatic pressure in water gets
gradually dissipated and the load is shifted to the soil solids which increases effective on them,
as a result the soil mass decrease in volume. The rate of escape of water depends on the
permeability of the soil.
1) From the sample tube, eject the sample into the consolidation ring. The sample should project
about one cm from outer ring. Trim the sample smooth and flush with top and bottom of the
ring by using a knife. Clean the ring from outside and keep it ready from weighing.
2) Remoulded sample:
a) Choose the density and water content at which samples have to be compacted from the
moisture density relationship.
b) Calculate the quantity of soil and water required to mix and compact.
c) Compact the specimen in compaction mould in three layers using the standard rammers.
d) Eject the specimen from the mould using the sample extractor.
Procedure
1. Saturate two porous stones either by boiling in distilled water about 15 minute or by
keeping them submerged in the distilled water for 4 to 8 hrs. Wipe away excess water.
Fittings of the consolidometer which is to be enclosed shall be moistened.
2. Assemble the consolidometer, with the soil specimen and porous stones at top and bottom
of specimen, providing a filter paper between the soil specimen and porous stone.
Position the pressure pad centrally on the top porous stone.
3. Mount the mould assembly on the loading frame, and center it such that the load applied
is axial.
4. Position the dial gauge to measure the vertical compression of the specimen. The dial
gauge holder should be set so that the dial gauge is in the begging of its releases run,
allowing sufficient margin for the swelling of the soil, if any.

5. Connect the mould assembly to the water reservoir and the sample is allowed to saturate.
The level of the water in the reservoir should be at about the same level as the soil
specimen.
6. Apply an initial load to the assembly. The magnitude of this load should be chosen by
trial, such that there is no swelling. It should be not less than 50 g/cm3 for ordinary soils
& 25 g/cm2 for very soft soils. The load should be allowed to stand until there is no
change in dial gauge readings for two consecutive hours or for a maximum of 24 hours.
7. Note the final dial reading under the initial load. Apply first load of intensity 0.1 kg/cm2
start the stop watch simultaneously. Record the dial gauge readings at various time
intervals. The dial gauge readings are taken until 90% consolidation is reached. Primary
consolidation is gradually reached within 24 hrs.
8. At the end of the period, specified above take the dial reading and time reading. Double
the load intensity and take the dial readings at various time intervals. Repeat this
procedure fir successive load increments. The usual loading intensity are as follows :
0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 4 and 8 kg/cm2.
9. After the last loading is completed, reduce the load to 1/2 of the value of the last load and
allow it to stand for 24 hrs. Reduce the load further in steps of 1/4 the previous intensity
till an intensity of 0.1 kg/cm2 is reached. Take the final reading of the dial gauge.
10. Reduce the load to the initial load, keep it for 24 hrs and note the final readings of the dial
gauge.
11. Quickly dismantle the specimen assembly and remove the excess water on the soil
specimen in oven, note the dry weight of it.
Observation and Reading
Empty weight of ring: 635 gm Area of ring: 4560 mm2 (45.60 cm2)
Diameter of ring: 76.2 mm (7.62 cm) Volume of ring: 115.82 cm3
Height of ring: 25.4 (2.54 cm) Specific gravity of soil sample No:
Dial Gauge = 0.0127 mm (least count)

Table 

Pressure Intensity 0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 4 8

(kg/cm2)
Elapsed time √t Dial Readings
Initial reading
0.25
1.00
2.25
9.00
12.25
16.00
20.25
25.00
30.25
36.00
42.25
49.00
56.25
64.00
72.25
81.00
90.25
100.00
121.00
144.00
169.00
196.00
225.00
256.00
1440 (24 Hours
(Unloading)
0 loading

Observation Sheet for Consolidation Test: Pressure Voids Ratio
Applied Final dial Dial Specimen Height Height of Void ratio
pressure reading change height solids voids
0
0.1
0.2
0.5
1.0
2.0
4.0
8.0
4.0
2.0
1.0
0.5
0.2
0.1
Calculations
1. Height of solids (HS) is calculated from the equation
HS = WS/G x A
2. Void ratio. Voids ratio at the end of various pressures are calculated from equation
e = (H - HS)/HS
3. Coefficient of consolidation. The Coefficient of consolidation at each pressures increment is
calculated by using the following equations:
i. Cv = 0.197 d2/t50 (Log fitting method)

ii. Cv = 0.848 d2/t90 (Square fitting method)
In the log fitting method, a plot is made between dial reading and logarithmic of time, the time
corresponding to 50% consolidation is determined.
In the square root fitting method, a plot is made between dial readings and square root of time
and the time corresponding to 90% consolidation is determined. The values of C v are recorded in
table.
4. Compression Index. To determine the compression index, a plot of voids ratio (e) V s logt is
made. The initial compression curve would be a straight line and the slope of this line would give
the compression index Cc.
5. Coefficient of compressibility. It is calculated as follows
av = 0.435 Cc/Avg. pressure for the increment
Where Cc = Coefficient of compressibility
6. Coefficient of permeability. It is calculated as follows
K = Cv.av (unit weight of water)/(1+e).
Graphs
1. Dial reading VS log of time or
Dial reading VS square root of time.
2. Voids ratio VS log x (average pressure for the increment).
General Remarks
1. While preparing the specimen, attempts has to be made to have the soil strata orientated in the
same direction in the consolidation apparatus.
2. During trimming care should be taken in handling the soil specimen with least pressure.
3. Smaller increments of sequential loading have to be adopted for soft soils.

Practical-10
RELATIVE DENSITY TEST
Aim: To determine the relative density of given coarse grained material.
IS Code: IS 2720 [Part-IVX] - 1983
Cushioned steel vibrating deck 75x75 cm size, R.P.M : 3600 ; under a 115 kg load, 440V, 3 phase supply.
Two cylindrical metallic moulds, 3000 cc and 15000 cc.
10 mm thick surcharge base plate with handle separately for each mould. Surcharge weights, one for each
size having a weight equal to 140 gm / sq.cm.
Dial gauge holder, which can be slipped into the eyelets on the moulds sides.
Guide sleeves with clamps for each mould separately.
Calibration bar 75x300x3 mm.
Definitions
Relative density or density index is the ratio of the difference between the void ratios of a cohesionless
soil in its loosest state and existing natural state to the difference between its void ratio in the loosest and
densest states.
Where,
emax = void ratio of coarse grained soil ( cohesionless) in its loosest state.
emin = void ratio of coarse grained soil (cohesionless) in its densest state.
e = void ratio of coarse grained soil (cohesionless) in its natural existing state in the field.
THEORY
Porosity of a soil depends on the shape of grain, uniformity of grain size and condition of sedimentation.
Hence porosity itself does not indicate whether a soil is in loose or dense state. This information can only
be obtained by comparing the porosity or void ratio of the given soil with that of the same soil in its
loosest and densest possible state and hence the term, relative density is introduced.
Relative density is an arbitrary character of sandy deposit. In real sense, relative density
expresses the ratio of actual decrease in volume of voids in a sandy soil to the maximum possible

decrease in the volume of voids i.e how far the sand under investigation can be capable to the
further densification beyond its natural state. Determination of relative density is helpful in
compaction of coarse grained soils and in evaluating safe bearing capacity in case of sandy soils.
For very dense gravelly sand, it is possible to obtain relative density greater the one. This means
that such natural dense packing could not be obtained in the laboratory.
Procedure
Calibration of Mould
1. Measure inside diameter of mould at different depths using a bore gauge and take the average.
2. Keep the mould on a flat surface or flat plate. Measure the height at different positions and
take the average (accuracy = 0.025 mm).
3. Calculate the volume.
4. Fill the mould with distilled water till over flowing takes place.
5. Slid thick glass plate over the top surface of mould.
6. Weigh the water filling the mould.
7. Note the temperature of water.
8. Obtain density of water for the above temperature from physical tables.
9. Calculate the volume of the mould which is weight of water filling the mould /density of
water.
Preparation of the Sample:
1. Dry the soil sample in a thermostatically controlled electric oven.
2. Cool in the sample in a desiccator.
3. Segregate soil lumps without breaking individual particles
4. Sieve it through the required sieve size.
Minimum Density
The mould is weighed accurately (W). Pour the dry pulverized soil into the mould through a
funnel in a steady stream. The spout is adjusted so that the free fall of soil particle is always 25
mm. While pouring soil the spout must have a spiral motion from the rim to the centre. The
process is continued to fill up the mould with soil up to about 25mm above the top. It is then
leveled, with the soil and weight is recorded (W1).

Maximum Density
Weigh the empty mould (W). Put the collar on top of the mould and clamp it. Fill the mould with
the oven dried soil sample till 1 / 2 or 2 / 3 of the collar is filled. Place the mould on the vibrating
deck and fix it with nuts and bolts. Then place the surcharge weight on it. The vibrator is allowed
to run for 8 minutes. Then mould is weighed with the soil and weight is recorded (W2).
Natural Density
Weigh the mould with dry soil. Knowing the volume of the mould and weight of dry soil natural
d, can be calculated.

Practical-11
Demonstration of Swell Pressure Test
IS Code: IS 2720 [Part-40]-1977
A) Free Swell Test
This is performed by pouring slowly 10cc of dry soil passing through 425  sieve in to a 100cc
graduated cylinder filled with water.
The volume of swelled soil is read after 24hrs from the graduation of the cylinder.
The free swell value in % is determined by
(Final.volume  Initial.Volume)
Free swell in % = 100
Initial.volume
B) Differential Free Swell Test
Two samples of dried soil weighing 100gm each passing through 425  sieve are taken it put in
graduated 500cc glass cylinder containing distilled water. The other sample is put in similar
cylinder containing Kerosene oil sample are left undistributed for 24hrs and then their volume
are noted the differential free swell is them determined as
Soil.volume.in.water  soil.volume.in.ker o sin e
DFS = 100
Soil.volume.in.ker o sin e

Practical-12
Demonstration of Augers, Split Spoon Sampler, Rapid Moisture Meter, Proctor’s Needle
1. Augurs
Augers are used in cohesive and other soils above water table. Hard augers are used for depth up
to 6m. Mechanically operated augers are used for greater depth and they can also be used in
gravelly soils. Samples obtained from this type of boring are badly disturbed & hence auger
boring is fairly satisfactory for highway exploration at shallow depth & for exploration of
borrow pits. Cylindrical augers & shell with cutting edge and the teeth at the lower end can be
used for making deep boring. Hand operated rings are used for depths up to 25m & mechanized
rings up to 50m. Augers are suitable for soft and stiff clays. Small boulder, then soft strata of
rock can be break by chisel bits attached to drill rods.
2. Samplers
Soil samplers are classified as 'thick wall' samplers and 'thin wall' samplers. Split spoon sampler
(or split tube sampler) is of the thick-wall type, and 'Shelby' tubes are of the thin-wall type.
Depending upon the mode of operation, samplers may be classified as the open drive
sampler, stationary piston sampler and rotary sampler.
Open drive sampler can be of the thick wall type as well as of the thin wall type. The head
of the sampler is provided with valves to permit water and air to escape during driving, The
check valve helps to retain the sample when the sampler is lifted. The tube may be seam· less or
may be split in two parts; in the latter case it is known as the split tube or split spoon sampler.
Stationary piston sampler consists of a sampler with a piston attached to a long piston rod
extending up to the ground surface through drill rods. The lower end of the sampler is kept
closed with the piston while the sampler is lowered through the bore hole. When the desired
elevation is reached, the piston rod is clamped, thereby keeping the piston stationary, and the
sampler tube is advanced further into the soil. The sampler is then lifted and the piston rod
clamped in position. The piston prevents the entry of water and soil into the tube when it is
being lowered, and also helps to retain the sample during the process of lifting the tube. The
sampler is, therefore, very much suited for sampling in soft soils and saturated sands.
Rotary samplers are of the core barrel type with an outer tube provided with cutting teeth
and a removable thin liner inside. It is used for sampling in stiff cohesive soils.
Sample Disturbance
The design features of a sampler, governing the degree of disturbance of a soil sample are the
dimensions of the cutting edge and these of the sampling tube, the characteristics of the non

return valve and the wall friction. In addition, the method of sampling also affects the sample
disturbance. The lower end of a sampler with the cutting edge is shown in Fig.
Fig: Sampler tube

The following are defined with respect to the diameters marked in Fig. 18.5:
Area Ratio, Ar = (Dw 2 -Dc 2) x 100%
Dc2
Inside clearance, Ci = (Ds - Dc) x 100%

Dc
Outside clearance, Co = (Dw-DT) x 100%
DT
The walls of the sampler should be kept smooth and properly oiled to reduce wall friction
in order that sample disturbance be minimized. The non-return valve should have a large
orifice to allow the air and water to escape quickly and easily when driving the sampler.
Area ratio is the most critical factor which affects sample disturbance; it indicates the ratio
of displaced volume of soil to that of the soil sample collected. If Ar is less than 10%, the
sample disturbance is supposed to be small. Ar may be as high as 30% for a thick wall sampler
like split spoon and may be as low as 6 to 9% for thin wall samplers like shelby tubes. The
inside clearance, Ci should not be more than 1 to 3%, the outside clearance Co should also not
be much greater than Ci. Inside clearance allows for elastic expansion of the soil as it enters the
tube, reduces frictional drag on the sample from the wall of the tube, and helps to retain the
core. Outside clearance facilitates the withdrawal of the sample from the ground.
The recovery ratio Rr = L/H
where, L = length of the sample within the tube, and

H = depth of penetration of the sampling tube.
This value should be 96 to 98% for a satisfactory undisturbed sample. This concept is
more commonly used in the case of rock cores.
Split-Spoon Sampler
The split spoon sampler is basically a thick-walled steel tube, split length wise. The sampler as
standardized by the I.S.I. (IS: 2131-1986-Standard Penetration Test for soils).
A drive shoe attached to the lower end serves as the cutting edge. A sample head-may be
screwed at the upper end of split spoon. The standard size of the spoon sampler is of 35 mm
internal and 50.8 mm external diameter. The sampler is lowered to the bottom of the bore hole
by attaching it to the drill rod. The sampler is then driven by forcing it into the soil by blows
from a hammer. The assembly of the sampler is then extracted from the hole and the cutting
edge and coupling at the top are unscrewed. The two halves of the barrel are separated and the
sample is thus exposed. The sample may be placed in a glass jar and sealed, after visual
examination.
Thin-walled Sampler
Thin-walled sampler, as standardized by the ISI (I.S.: 2132-1986 Code of Practice for Thin-
walled Tube Sampling of Soils). The sampling tube shall be made of steel, brass, or aluminum.
The lower end is levelled to form a cutting edge and is tapered to reduce wall friction. After
having extracted the sample in the same manner as in the case of split spoon type, the tube is
sealed with wax on both ends and transported to the laboratory.
3. Rapid Moisture Meter or Calcium Carbide Method
A device known as 'Rapid Moisture Tester' has been developed for rapid determination of the
water content of a soil sample. The principle of operation is based on the reaction that occurs
between carbide reagent and soil moisture. The wet soil sample of wt 26gm is placed in a sealed
container with calcium carbide, and the acetylene gas produced exerts pressure on a sensitive
diaphragm placed at the end of the container. This pressure is correlated to the moisture content
and is calibrated on a dial gauge on the other side of the diaphragm.
However, the reading gives the moisture expressed as a percentage of the wet weight of
the soil. It may be converted to the moisture content expressed as a percentage of the dry weight
by the following relationship:
𝑊𝑊
𝑊= × 100
(1 − 𝑊𝑊)
where wr = moisture content obtained by the rapid moisture tester, expressed as a decimal
fraction.
The method is rapid and results may be got in about ten minutes. The field kit consists of

the moisture tester, a single small pan weighing balance, a bottle of calcium carbide and a brush.
This method is becoming popular in the field control of compaction where quick results are
imperative.
Even nuclear approaches have been developed for the determination of moisture content.
Sometimes, penetration resistance is calibrated against water content and is determined by a
penetrometer needle In this method of wet soil sample is placed in an air tight container and it is
mixed with sufficient quantity of fresh calcium carbide powder the mixture is shaken
vigorously the acetylene produced by reaction of moisture of the soil and calcium carbide. Exert
pressure on a sensitive diaphragm reads the H2O content directly.
So, the water content of given soil sample =
4. Proctor Needle
The Proctor needle method is one of the method developed for rapid determination of moisture
contents of soils in-situ. It consists of a needle attached to a spring loaded plunger, the stem of
'Which is calibrated to read the penetration resistance of the needle in Ibs/in 2 or kg/cm2 The
needle is supplied with a series of bearing points so that a wide range of penetration resistances
can be measured. The bearing areas that are normally provided are 0.05, 0.1, 0.25. 0.50 and
1.0sq. inch.
Laboratory Penetration Resistance Curve
A suitable needle point is selected for a soil to be compacted. If the soil is cohesive, a needle
with a larger bearing area is selected. For cohesionless soils, a needle with a smaller bearing area
will be sufficient. The soil sample is compacted in the mold. The penetrometer with a known
bearing area of the tip is forced with a gradual uniform push at rate of about 1.25 cm per sec to a
depth of 7.5 cm into the soil. The penetration resistance in kg/cm2 is read off the calibrated shaft
of the penetrometer. The water content of the soil and the corresponding 'density is also
determined. The procedure is repeated for the same soil compacted at different moisture
contents. Curves giving the moisture-density and penetration resistance-moisture content
relationship are plotted.
To determine the moisture content in the field, a sample of the wet soil is compacted into
the mould under the same conditions as used in the laboratory for obtaining the penetration
resistance curve. The Proctor needle is forced into the soil and its resistance is determined. The
moisture content is read from the laboratory calibration curve.
This method is quite rapid, and is sufficiently accurate for fine-grained cohesive soils.
However, presence of gravel or small stones in the soil makes the reading on the Proctor needle
less reliable. It is not very accurate in cohesionless sands.

VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What do you mean by three phase diagram?
2. What is the difference between void ratio and porosity?
3. On what type of soils does void ratio and water content plays an important role?
4. What is relative density? It is the characteristic features of what soils?
5. What are the different methods for finding water content of soil?
6. Why do we heat the soil sample at a temperature of 105 to 110 o in a thermostatically
controlled electric oven?
7. Can you use kerosene for finding specific gravity of soil?
8. What are the uses of specific gravity? How do you remove entrapped air in a specific
gravity test while taking the weight of (Pycnometer + soil + water)?
9. About 3cc of air is entrapped while taking the weight of (pycnometer + soil + water).
What is the influence on the true specific gravity of soil grains?
10. Explain index properties of soil. Name the various index properties. How are they
related?
11. Define grading curve. What is the reason for plotting the grading curve on logarithmic
scale?
12. What is effective diameter? Define uniformity co-efficient and co-efficient of curvature.
Give their significance.
13. Under what circumstances is the sedimentation analysis suggested as a part of grain size
analysis? What are the corrections proposed fir the same?
14. Why plasticity chart is required for soil classification?
15. What are plasticity characteristics? Amplify the symbols GW, GM, SP and SC.
16. Abbreviate ASTM and BIS
17. Does viscosity of water affect the sedimentation analysis?
18. Which is the other method for liquid limit determination other than casagrande method?
19. What is the degree of saturation of soil at its shrinkage limit and what care should be
taken while filling soil in the dish?
20. Foe what water content plastic limit of same soil may be approximated?
21. Why cracks are present in dry paddy field?
22. Can we use water instead of mercury in shrinkage limit test?
23. Distinguish between undisturbed, disturbed and remoulded soil sample. Mention their
importance in laboratory test.
24. Explain what field test would distinguish organic and inorganic soils.

25. What is Stoke’s law? How is it applied for hydrometer analysis?
26. What are the corrections applied for hydrometer reading?
27. Can water content of soil sample may be estimated without heating it? If so, name the
methods.
28. What is Darcy’s law? What are the assumptions made?
29. What type of test do you recommend for determining permeability co-efficient of soil of
cohesion less type and cohesive type?
30. Explain the difference between seepage of water and percolation of water.
31. Distinguish between seepage velocity and superficial velocity.
32. List the factors that affect the permeability of soil. Which factor has the greatest
significance?
33. Distinguish between co-efficient of permeability and co-efficient of percolation.
34. Explain the quick sand phenomenon? Why is there more likelihood of quick condition in
sands than in clays?
35. Given a particular soil sample, when will you determine the permeability in vertical
direction and when will you determine permeability in horizontal direction?
36. What is flow net? What are the methods by which you can obtain the same?
37. What are the most significant consequences of capillarity on soil behavior?
38. Differentiate between (i) neutral stress and effective stress
(ii) Hydrostatic pressure and seepage pressure
(iii) Combined pressure and capillary pressure
39. How do you find permeability in the field test?
40. What is phreatic line?
41. Distinguish between discharge velocity and seepage velocity.
42. Why we are using large storage tank in constant head permeability test?
43. Give the significance of flow line, phreatic line, equi-potential line and zero air void line.
44. What is pre-consolidation pressure? How do you determine the same?
45. Explain the terms under-consolidated, normally consolidated and over consolidated soils.
46. Define the terms immediate, primary and secondary settlements.
47. What are the factors affecting compaction?
48. Discuss the effects of increased compactive effort on the OMC and MDD.
49. What are the differences between compaction and consolidation?
50. A multistoried building is proposed to be constructed in an industrial locality. List the
tests you will conduct to determine the type and size of foundation.
51. What are compaction characteristics? Explain practical significance of them.

52. What do you mean by compaction control? How the same can be achieved?
53. Explain why different soils have different optimum moisture contents.
54. Differentiate between standard and modified compaction tests. Mention their suitability
for various structures.
55. What is field compaction? Mention various field compaction equipments and their
relevance.
56. Why we have to conduct subsoil exploration?
57. Explain dry of optimum, optimum and wet of optimum. Mention the structure of soil at
various optimum levels.
58. How do you classify soils based on colour, particle size, consistency, permeability,
compaction, settlement and shear strength?
59. What are the different methods of soil exploration?
60. Why do you say triaxial test is better than direct shear test?
61. Distinguish between drained, consolidated undrained and undrained tests. Which test do
you recommend for the following works? Bearing capacity of foundation, stability during
sudden drawdown of an embankment.
62. What are effective stress parameters and total stress parameters?
63. Name the test you conduct on soil sample for following works (shear test):
(i)An earthen dam, (ii) A highway pavement, (iii) Foundation of a building.
64. What are the limitations of direct shear test?
65. When do you prefer unconfined compression test and why?
66. What id deviator stress?
67. What is the condition of the specimen using for UCC and triaxial test?
68. Give reasons for the following
(i) Soils having higher shrinkage limit is preferable compared to soils with lower
shrinkage limit, for construction of embankment.
(ii) A well graded soil can be expected to have better shear strength compared to poorly
graded soils, for the same density.
69. Differentiate between unconfined compression test and triaxial compression test.
70. Draw Mohr’s – coulomb failure for ф soils, C-ф soils and C- soil.

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Practical-1

A. DETERMINATION OF MOISTURE CONTENT

Department of Civil Engineering, MIT Mysore 1

Interpretation and Reporting Result

Department of Civil Engineering, MIT Mysore 2

Department of Civil Engineering, MIT Mysore 3

Interpretation and Reporting

Department of Civil Engineering, MIT Mysore 4

Average specific gravity ,G

Interpretation and Reporting

Department of Civil Engineering, MIT Mysore 5

Department of Civil Engineering, MIT Mysore 6

Department of Civil Engineering, MIT Mysore 7

Department of Civil Engineering, MIT Mysore 8

Observations and Calculations

Department of Civil Engineering, MIT Mysore 9

5. Volume of hole, V h= Ws/ γs cc

Water Content Determination

Weight of container +wet soil, w2 gm

11. Moisture content (%) ((w2-w3)/(w3-w1))*100

Department of Civil Engineering, MIT Mysore 10

GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS OF SOIL SAMPLE

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The gradation curve for the given soil sample is obtained.

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Department of Civil Engineering, MIT Mysore 13

Department of Civil Engineering, MIT Mysore 14

Vh= Volume of hydrometer bulb in ml.

Department of Civil Engineering, MIT Mysore 15

Total weight of dry soil taken, W = Specific Gravity of soil, G =

Hydrometer No: Wt. of soil gone into solution,Ws =

Dispersion agent correction =

% finer for wt. of soil Ws gone into solution, N= [(100G)/{Ws x (G -1)}] x R

Date Time Elapsed Hydrometer Corrected Zr Velocity Equivalent R N Remarks

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Department of Civil Engineering, MIT Mysore 17

Department of Civil Engineering, MIT Mysore 18

Average Plastic Limit=...............

Plasticity Index (Ip) = (LL - PL)=............ Toughness Index =Ip/If

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Department of Civil Engineering, MIT Mysore 21

Department of Civil Engineering, MIT Mysore 22

Shrinkage ratio= Sr = {Wo/ Vo}

Tabulation and Results

Sl.No Determination No. 1 2 3

Department of Civil Engineering, MIT Mysore 23

Department of Civil Engineering, MIT Mysore 24

Dry density= wet density/ (1+w)

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Department of Civil Engineering, MIT Mysore 26

Interpretation and Reporting

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Department of Civil Engineering, MIT Mysore 28

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Permeability Test Record

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Length of specimen L(cm)

Interpretation and Reporting

Department of Civil Engineering, MIT Mysore 31

Principle of the Experiment

sectional area under unit hydraulic gradient.

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