T.K.M.

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
KOLLAM - 5

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
LABORATORY MANUAL
 CONTENTS

Experiment number Name of experiment Page

no.

1 Moisture content determination 1

a. Oven drying method

2 Specific gravity determination 6

a. Pycnometer method

3 Particle size determination 10

a. Sieve analysis
b. Hydrometer analysis

4 Field density of soil 18

a. Sand replacement method
b. Core cutter method

5 Consistency limits (Atterberg limits) determination 22

a. Liquid limit test
b. Plastic limit test
c. Shrinkage limit test

6 Compaction test 30
a. Constant head permeameter test
b. Variable head permeameter test

7 Compaction test 35
a. Standard proctor compaction test
b. Heavy compaction test
8 a. Consolidation test 38
b. Swelling test

9 Shear strength determination 45

a. Direct shear test
b. Triaxial compression test
c. Vane shear test
d. Unconfined compression test
10 California bearing ratio test 62

Questions 68
 1. MOISTURE CONTENT DETERMINATION
Ref: IS : 2720 (Part II) – 1973

OVEN DRYING METHOD

I. Introduction

The water content (w) is also called natural water content or natural moisture content is the
ratio of the weight of water to the weight of the solids in a given mass of soil. This ratio is usually
expressed as percentage.

In almost all soil tests natural moisture content of the soil is to be determined. The
knowledge of the natural moisture content is essential in all studies of soil mechanics. To sight a
few, natural moisture content is used in determining the bearing capacity and settlement. The
natural moisture content will give an idea of the state of soil in the field.

II. Objective:

This test is done to determine the water content in soil by oven drying method.

III. Theory:

For many soils, the water content may be an extremely important index used for
establishing the relationship between the way a soil behaves and its properties. The consistency of
a fine-grained soil largely depends on its water content. The water content is also used in
expressing the phase relationships of air, water, and solids in a given volume of soil.

Soil mass is generally a three phase system. It consists of solid particles, liquid and gas.
For all practical purposes, the liquid may be considered to be water (although in some cases, the
water may contain some dissolved salts) and the gas as air. The phase system may be expressed
in SI units either in terms of mass-volume or weight- volume relationships. The inter relationships
of the different phases are important since they help to define the condition or the physical make-
up of the soil.

1
 The water of the soil sample can be determined by the following method.

i. Oven drying method.

ii. Pycnometer method.
iii. Sand bath method.
iv. Alcohol method.
v. Calcium carbide method.
vi. Radiation method.
vii. Torsion balance method.

After complete drying the soil sample become,

2
IV. Apparatus required: - OVEN DRYING METHOD

i. Non-corrodible air-tight container.

ii. Electric oven, maintain the temperature between 105 C to 115 C.
iii. Desiccators
iv. Balance of sufficient sensitivity
v. Gloves
vi. Spatula

Figure 1 Set up for the experiment

V. Test procedure: -

i. Clean the containers with lid dry it and weigh it (W1). Make sure you do this after you have
tarred the balance
ii. Take a specimen of the sample in the container and weigh with lid (W2).
iii. Keep the container in the oven with lid removed. Dry the specimen to constant weight
maintaining the temperature between 1050 C to 1100 C for a period varying with the type
of soil but usually 16 to 24 hours.
iv. Record the final constant weight (W3) of the container with dried soil sample. Peat and
other organic soils are to be dried at lower temperature (say 600 C ) possibly for a longer
period.

3
VII. Running the test and recording the data: -

i. Weight of can, W1 (g) =

ii. Weight of can + wet soil W2 (g) =
iii. Weight of can + dry soil W3 (g)=

(𝑊3−𝑊1)
The Water/Moisture content = w(%)= ×100
(𝑊2−𝑊3)

The natural moisture content of the soil sample is = %

Example Calculation:

Weight of can, W1 (g) = 30.5g

Weight of can + wet soil W2 (g) = 62.6g
Weight of can + dry soil W3 (g) = 58.2g
(𝑊3−𝑊1)
The Water/Moisture content =w = (𝑊2−𝑊3) × 100

w (%) = (62.6 - 58.2) *100

58.2 - 30.5

w (%) = 15.88%

4
VIII. Observation table: -

Type 1 Type 2 Type 3 Type 4

Weight of can, W1 (g)

Weight of can + wet soil W2

(g)
Weight of can + dry soil W3 (g)

Water/Moisture content
(𝑊3 − 𝑊1)
𝑤= × 100
(𝑊2 − 𝑊3)

IX. Result

X. Inference

5
 2. SPECIFIC GRAVITY DETERMINATION
Ref: (IS:2720- Part 3) -1980

PYCNOMETER METHOD

I. Introduction
The specific gravity of a substance, designated as Gs, is defined as the ratio of the density of
that substance to the density of distilled water at a specified temperature. Since it is a ratio, the
value of Gs does not depend on the system of units used and is a numerical value having no units.
In soil mechanics, the specific gravity of soil solids is an important parameter and is a factor in
many equations involving weight-volume relationships. Remember that the specific gravity of soil
solids refers only to the solid phase of the three phase soil system, it does not include the water
and air phases present in the void space. For soil solids, Gs may be written as:

II. Objective

Determine the specific gravity of soil fraction passing 4.75 mm I.S sieve by

pycnometer.

III. Apparatus Required

i. Pycnometer of about 900ml capacity with the conical brass cap screwed at its top
ii. Balance to weigh the materials (accuracy 10gm).
iii. Wash bottle with distilled water.

6
 Figure 1 Set up for the experiment
IV. Test Procedure

1. Clean and dry the pycnometer and dry it

2. Weigh the empty bottle with stopper (W1)

3. Take about 200 to 400 gm of oven dry soil sample and Transfer it to the bottle. Find the weight
of the pycnometer and soil (W2).

4. Fill the pycnometer to half its height with distilled water and mix it thoroughly with glass rod.
Add more water and stir it. Replace the screw top and fill the pycnometer flush with hole in the
conical cap. Dry the pycnometer from outside and weight it (W3)

5. Empty the pycnometer, clean it thoroughly and fill it with distilled water, to the hole of the
conical cap and weight it (W4)

6. Repeat step 2 to 4 for two more determinations of specific gravity

V. Calculations

7
 VI. Interpretation And Reporting

Unless or otherwise specified specific gravity values reported shall be based on water at 270C. So
the specific gravity at 270C = K Sp. gravity at Tx0C.

The specific gravity of the soil particles lie within the range of 2.65 to 2.85. Soils containing
organic matter and porous particles may have specific gravity values below
2.0. Soils having heavy substances may have values above 3.0.

VII. Sample Calculation:

Specimen number 1 2
Pycnometer bottle number 96 37
W1 = Mass of empty, clean pycnometer (grams) 37.40 54.51
W2= Mass of empty pycnometer + dry soil (grams) 63.49 74.07
153.6 165.7
W3= Mass of pycnometer + dry soil + water (grams)
1 6
137.3 153.7
W4= Mass of pycnometer + water (grams)
7 0
Specific gravity (GS) 2.65 2.61

Gs = (26.09) / [26.09 + (137.37 -153.61)] = 2.65

VIII. Observation Sheet

Specimen number
Pycnometer bottle number
W1 = Mass of empty, clean pycnometer (grams)

W2= Mass of empty pycnometer + dry soil (grams)

W3= Mass of pycnometer + dry soil + water (grams)
W4= Mass of pycnometer + water (grams)
Specific gravity (GS)

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 Gs =

IX. Results
Specific gravity of the given soil (GS) =

X. Inference

9
 3. PARTICLE SIZE DETERMINATION
Ref: (IS: 2720 (Part 4) -1985)
(a) SIEVE ANALYSIS
1. DRY SIEVE ANALYSIS
Ⅰ. Objective and Scope
The object of this experiment is to determine the quantitative grain size distribution of coarse
grained soil by sieving and classifying as per Indian Standard Soil Classification System. Soils usually
consist of particle of different size in varying quantities. The particle sizes and their distribution in a
soil influence the engineering properties of the soil. The results of the grain size analysis are widely
used in soil classification, filter design for earth dams, soil stabilization, soil compaction etc.
Ⅱ. Apparatus
1. Balance accurate to 0.1gm sensitivity
2. Set of IS Sieves conforming to IS 460 (part 1) 1978: 4.75mm, 2mm, 1mm, 600 micron, 425
micron, 300 micron, 150 micron, 75 micron and pan
3. Sieve brushes and a wire brush
4. Mechanical Sieve Shaker

Ⅲ. Test Procedure
Soil sample as received from the field shall be dried in air or sun. if a drying apparatus is used
the temperature of the sample should not exceed 60oC. The clods may be broken with a wooden mallet
to hasten drying. The organic matter like tree roots and pieces of bark as well as materials other than
soil should be removed from the sample. Weigh accurately about 500-1000 gms of oven dry soil. Clean
the sieves and pan with brush. Arrange the sieves 4.75mm, 2mm, 1mm, 600 micron, 425 micron, 300
micron, 150 micron and 75 micron in order, keeping the sieve of 4.75mm on the top. Then shake the
sample using a mechanical shaker for about 5-10 minutes. Weight of soil retained on each sieve and
pan can be found out. Plot the grain size in mm on abscissa to log scale and percentage finer by weight
on the ordinate. Draw a curve connecting these points to obtain the grain size distribution curve.

Ⅳ. Precautions

(ⅰ) Ensure that no soil taken is lost during the grain size analysis.
(ⅱ) IS 75 micron sieve should be very carefully handled.

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Ⅴ. Data and Observation Sheet

1. Weight of soil sample = …………gm

Sieve No. Sieve Weight of soil % Cumulative % finer

IS Designation opening retained(gm) retained % retained
in mm

4.75 mm 4.75

2.00mm 2.00

1.00mm 1.00

600 micron 0.6

425 micron 0.425

300 micron 0.300

150 micron 0.150

75 micron 0.075

pan

ⅤⅠ. Results
Effective size (D10) =
𝐷60
Uniformity Coefficient = =
𝐷10
2
𝐷3𝑂̇
Coefficient of curvature Cc = 𝐷 =
60 ∗𝐷10

Percentage gravel =
Percentage sand =
Percentage clay and silt =
Classification as per Indian Standard Soil Classification System :
D60 = Diameter corresponding to 60% finer
D30 = Diameter corresponding to 30% finer
D10 = Diameter corresponding to 10% finer

VII. Inference

11
b. HYDROMETER ANALYSIS

Ⅰ. Objective and Scope

To determine the grain size distribution of particle fine than 75-micron sieve by sedimentation
analysis, as classify them. The soil fraction finer than 75-micron size is kept in suspension in a liquid
(usually water) medium.

II. General Introduction and Theory

In the wet mechanical analysis or sedimentation analysis, the soil fraction finer than 75 microns
size is kept in suspension in a liquid (usually water) medium. The methods for determining the grain
size distribution of such soils are based on Stoke's law which defines the rate of free fall of a sphere
through a liquid. According to Stoke's law, this terminal velocity is given by

V = terminal velocity of the spherical soil particle in cm/sec

D = diameter of the spherical soil particle in cm.
γs, γw = unit weights of soil grains and water in gm/cc
μ = viscocity of liquid medium in gm.sec/cm2

III. Apparatus
ⅰ) Density hydrometer conforming to IS.3104-1965 (ii) Two glass measuring cylinders of
1000ml capacity (iii) Thermometer to cover the range 0 to 50°C accurate to 0.5°C. (iv) Stirrer or mixer
(v) 75 micron IS Sieve (vi) Balance accurate to 0.01 g. sensitivity (vii) stop watch (viii) Deflocculating
agents (ix) Glass rods (x) Bottles containing distilled water (xi) conical flask of 1000ml capacity, (xii)
Measuring cylinders of 100ml capacity.

IV. Calibration of Hydrometer

Hydrometer reading in a soil suspension gives the unit weight of the suspension at the centre of
immersion, ie, at the centre of hydrometer. This depth where the centre of hydrometer bulb floats should
be found out correctly corresponding to any hydrometer reading. The depth from the surface of
suspension, up to the centre of bulb, where the density is actually measured should be evaluated. This
depth is called effective depth. Evaluation of this effective depth corresponding to any hydrometer
reading requires calibration of hydrometer. Hence calibration is actually measuring the distance from
readings on the stem up to the centre of the bulb.

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Volume of the hydrometer can be obtained by measuring the mass of the hydrometer and density of the
hydrometer. Cross-sectional area of the measuring jar shall be determined by measuring the distance
between two graduations. The area of the jar Aj is equal to the volume included between two
graduations divided by the measured distance

Ⅴ. Method of Preparation of Soil suspension

a) Take about 50gm of oven dried soil passing through 75 micron sieve and mix with distilled
water on a dish or beaker to form a smooth paste. To have proper dispersion of soil, some
amount of dispersing or deflocculating agent is also added to the soil. Some of the commonly
used dispersing agents are sodium oxalate, sodium silicate, sodium hexametaphosphate etc. To
the oven dried soil, add 100ml of sodium hexametaphosphate solution. The sodium
hexametaphosphate solution is prepared by dissolving 33gm of sodium hexametaphosphate and
7 gms of sodium carbonate in distilled water to make one litre of solution.

b) Transfer the whole paste to a high speed mechanical stirrer using a jet of distilled water, to wash
all traces of soil out of the dish. The soil suspension is stirred well for about 15 minutes.

c) Transfer the suspension to a 1000ml capacity sedimentation jar using a jet of water. Care should
be taken to see that all the particles are transferred to the jar. The jar is then filled up to 1000ml
by adding distilled water.

d) Mix the soil and water in jar by placing the palm of the hand over the open end turning the
graduated jar upside down and back. When jar is upside down it should be ensured that no soil

13
 is stuck to the bottom of the jar. Shake the jar for about 30 seconds and then keep it on the table.
Now the soil suspension is ready for the test.

Fig.1 Test Apparatus

ⅤⅠ. Test Procedure

As soon as the jar is kept on the table, start a stop watch and insert hydrometer into the jar. It
should float at the centre of the jar and should not touch sides. Take hydrometer readings at total elapsed
time of 1/4,1/2 1,2,4,8,15,30,60 minutes etc. First 5 reading (i.e. up to 4 minutes) should be taken
without removing the hydrometer from the suspension. Subsequent reading should be taken after
removing the hydrometer from the suspension and then inserting it about 30 seconds before the actual
time interval. After 2 minutes reading remove the hydrometer re-mix and restart the test. But take no
readings up to 2 minutes. Hydrometer should be kept in the jar of distilled water each time after taking
the reading. Before each insertion clean and dry the hydrometer stem. Take temperature readings off
and on while performing the experiment. As the soil suspension is opaque, take hydrometer readings at
the top of the meniscus. Continue taking readings until readings have been obtained at elapsed times
large enough to give minimum soil particle diameter desired.

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ⅤIⅠ. Evaluation of Composite Correction
An identical measuring jar with 1000ml capacity is taken, and filled with distilled water and the
same quantity of dispersing agent. Temperature of both the cylinder should be same. Hydrometer is
immersed in this jar containing distilled water and dispersing agent and reading is taken at the top of
the meniscus. The negative of the hydrometer reading so obtained gives the composite correction. The
composite correction is found before the start of the test and also at every time interval of 30 minutes

Corrected hydrometer reading = Observed Reading (Rh) ± C

C = Composite correction
ⅤⅠⅠⅠ. Data and observation sheet
Dry weight of particles put in 1000ml suspension =

Volume of hydrometer (cc) =

Test temperature =

Cross sedimentation area of jar =

Viscosity at test temperature =

Composite correction C =

Specific gravity of soil G =

15
 Percentage
Observed Corrected Effective Particle dia
Elapsed time in hydrometer
hydrometer finer
minutes
reading Rh reading R depth (He) cms D mm
N%

Ⅸ. Calculations

Particle size D is Calculated from

√1800𝜇𝐻𝑒
Dmm =
√(𝐺−1)𝑡

He = Effective depth measured from the surface of suspension upto centre of bulb in cms. For various
time intervals, R is found from R= Rh ± C and He from calibration chart

t = Elapsed time in seconds

μ = Viscosity of water at the test temperature in gm.sec/cm2

Percentage finer from Dmm is given by

𝐺𝑅∗100%
N = Where
𝑊𝑑(𝐺−1)

Wd = Total dry wt. of all particle put in 1000ml suspension

G = Average specific gravity of soil solids (Taken as 2.65)

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X. Results

Percentage of silt (0.075 – 0.002mm) =

Percentage of clay (less than 0.002mm) =

Classification :

XI. Inference

17
 4. FIELD DENSITY OF SOIL
Ref: IS: 2720 (Part 28 &29)-1974/1975)

I. Objective and Scope

In situ field density (or in-place density) of natural soil is widely used to control the field
compaction of earthworks and pavement layers. It is also needed for the determination of bearing
capacity, stability analysis of slopes and for determining the vertical stress at any depth below the
ground due to overlying soil strata. In compacted soils, the in-place density is needed to check the
degree of compaction obtained. The test covers the in-place determination of the bulk and dry density
of soil. Core cutter method is suitable for soft soils or clayey soils. Sand replacement method suitable
for both clayey and coarse grained soils.

A. SAND REPLACEMENT METHOD

The basis of procedure adopted is to collect and weigh a sample of soil and to determine the
volume which the sample had occupied by pouring in a measured quantity of loose sand.

II. Apparatus:

i. Sand pouring cylinder

ii. Cylindrical calibrating containers, 10 cm internal diameter
iii. Glass plate
iv. Metal tray with a central hole of diameter equal to diameter of pouring cone
v. Tools for excavating 10cm diameter hole
vi. Balance sensitive to 1 gm
vii. Clean, uniform graded natural sand passing 600 micron IS sieve and retained on 300
micron IS sieve
viii. Container for determination of water content
ix. Heat controlled oven maintained at 105°C

III. Procedure

a. Calibration of apparatus:
1. Fill san in the pouring cylinder up to 1cm below its top. Weigh the cylinder with
sand (W1). This weight is maintained constant throughout the test.
2. Place the cylinder on the glass plate and open the shutter of the pouring cylinder
3. Allow the sand to run out till no further movement of sand takes place in the

18
 cylinder and close shutter carefully.
4. Remove the cylinder and find the weight of cylinder and the remaining soil (W2)
5. Repeat these measurements at least three times and the mean weight of sand filling
the cone is found out (W3)
b. Bulk density of sand
1. Find the internal volume of the calibrating can from the measured internal
dimensions of the cylinders (V)
2. Place the pouring cylinder concentrically on top of the calibrating can after being
filled to the constant weight (W1)
3. Open shutter allowing the sand to run out and close when further movement of
sand does not take place in the cylinder.
4. Remove the cylinder and find the weight of cylinder and remaining
soil after filling the can + cone (W4)
5. Repeat these measurements at least three times to find the mean weight of sand
filling the calibrating can (W).
c. Measurement of in-situ density of soil
1. Expose a flat area approximately 45cm square at the site and level the surface
2. Place the metal tray with a central hole on the prepared surface.
3. Excavate a hole in the soil using the hole in tray as a pattern, up to about 15cm
depth and collect all the excavated soil in the tray
4. Remove the tray and weigh the material collected to nearest gm.(Ws). Take
specimens for moisture content determination(w)
5. Place the pouring cylinder filled to the constant weight (W1) over the hole
concentrically
6. Open shutter allowing sand to run into the hole.
7. Close the shutter when no further movement of sand takes place
8. Remove the pouring cylinder and weigh to the nearest gram (W5)

IV. Observations and Calculations

A-Calibration
1) Weight of the sand + cylinder before pouring (W1) g =
2) Weight of the sand + cylinder after filling cone(W2) =
3) Mean weight of sand in cone(W3) g = (W1-W2) =

19
 4) Volume of calibrating cylinder (V)cc
After refilling the cylinder to the constant weight, W1 =
5) Weight of sand + cylinder after filling the can and cone (W4) =
6) Weight of sand to fill the calibrating container(w=w1-w4-w3) g =
7) Bulk density of sand

B-Measurement of soil density

1) Weight of wet soil from hole (Ws)g =

2) Weight of sand + cylinder before pouring (W1) g =
3) Weight of sand + cylinder after pouring (W5) =
4) Weight of sand in hole W6 = (W1-W5-W3) g =
5) Volume of sand in the hole =

6) Bulk density =

7) Water content w =

8) Dry density =

B. CORE CUTTER METHOD

i. Obtain the volume of the core-cutter by its internal measurements and weigh the
cutter-W1,
ii. Trim the top of the soil, level and press the cutter into the soil so as to make it
penetrate into the soil to its full length
iii. Remove the core cutter carefully, so as not to disturb the soil at bottom
iv. Trim the soil at the top of the cutter and weigh the cutter + soil (W2)
So (W2-W1) gives the weight of soil alone

(𝑊2−𝑊1)
v. ( ) of the soil = 𝑉𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟
vi. Dry density =

20
V. Observation and Calculation

VI. Results

a. SAND REPLACEMENT METHOD

i. Field Density of soil =

ii. Dry density of soil =

b. CORE CUTTER METHOD

i. Field Density of soil =

ii. Dry density of soil =

VII. Inference

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 5. DETERMINATION OF ATTERBERG LIMITS
Ref: (IS: 2720 (Part 5 and Part 6) -1985)

Ⅰ. Objective and Scope

To find the Atterberg limits, namely the liquid, plastic and shrinkage limits of the sample of soil
as per IS:2720 (Part5 and Part6)-1985. These limits are required for classification of clayey soils.
Ⅱ. Definition of the term
When water is evaporated from a soil suspension, the soil passes through different states of
consistency. The water contents corresponding to the transition from one state to another are termed as
Atterberg limits.
The water content at which the soil changes from liquid to plastic state is called liquid limit.
The water content at which the soil changes from plastic to semi-solid state is called plastic limit, and
the water content at the transition between semi-solid and solid state is known as shrinkage limit. These
index properties are useful for identification and classification of soils.
A) DETERMINATION OF LIQUID LIMIT (W1)

It is the water content at which the soil stops behaving as a liquid. With reference to Casagrande's liquid
limit device, it is defined as the moisture content at which a soil mass cut by a grooving tool of standard
dimensions will flow together for a distance of 1/2 inch under the impact of 25 blows.
Ⅲ. Apparatus
(Casagrande’s apparatus)
(i) Mechanical liquid limit device:-It shall Conform to IS 9259-1987.

(ii) Grooving tool:- It shall conform to IS.9259-1987

(iⅰⅰ) Porcelain Evaporating dish: - About 12 to 15 cm in diameter

(iⅴ) Flat glass plate: -10mm thick and about 45 cm square or larger

(ⅴ) Spatula:- Flexible, with the blade about 8cm long and 2cm wide for mixing

soil and water in the Porcelain evaporating dish

(ⅴⅰ) Balance: -sensitive to 0.01g

(vii) Oven: - Thermostatically controlled with interior of non-corroding material to

22
 maintain the temperature between 105 and 110°C.

(viii) Wash bottle or Beaker: -containing distilled water

(ix) Containers-air tight and non-corrodible for determination of moisture content.

Ⅳ. Adjustment of the Mechanical device

The liquid limit device shall be inspected to determine that it is clean, dry and in good working
order, that the cup falls freely and it does not have too much side play at its hinge. The grooving tool
shall also be inspected to determine that it is clean and dry.

Using the gauge on the handle of the grooving tool or a separate gauge and by means of the adjustment
plate of the mechanical liquid limit device, the height through which the cup is lifted and dropped shall
be adjusted so that the point on the cup which comes in contact with base falls through exactly one
centimeter for one revolution of the handle. The adjustment plate shall then be secured by tightening
the screw.

Ⅴ. Test Procedure

About 120g of the soil sample passing 425-micron IS sieve shall be mixed thoroughly with
distilled water in the evaporating dish to form a uniform paste. The paste shall have a consistency that
will require 30 to 35 drops of the cup to cause the required closure of the standard groove. In the case
of clayey soils, the soil paste shall be left to stand for a sufficient time (24 hours) so as to ensure uniform
distribution of moisture throughout the soil mass. The soil should then the re-mixed thoroughly before
the test. A portion of the paste shall be placed in the cup above the spot where the cup rests on the base,
squeezed down and spread into position with as few strokes of the spatula as possible and at the same
time trimmed to a depth of one centimetre at the point of maximum thickness, returning the excess soil
to the dish. The soil in the cup shall be divided by firm strokes of the grooving tool along the diameter
through the centre line of the cam follower so that a clean, sharp groove of the proper dimension is
formed. The cup shall be lifted and dropped by turning the crank at the rate of 2 revolutions per second
until the two halves of the soil cake come in contact with bottom of the groove along a distance of about
12mm. This length shall be measured with end of the grooving tool or a ruler. The number of drops
required to cause the groove close for the length of 12mm shall be recorded. A representative slice of
soil approximately the width of the spatula, extending from about edge to edge of the soil cake at right
angle to the groove and including that portion of the groove in which the soil flowed together, shall be

23
taken for moisture content determination. Repeat the experiment with samples of soil with three more
additional moisture contents so as to get the number of blows ranging from 10 to 40

Draw a graph with log (No: of blows) along X-axis and moisture content in percentage along the Y-
axis. From the graph get the moisture content corresponding to 25 blows. According to Atterberg, this
gives the liquid limit of the soil

The slope of the graph gives the flow- index

ⅤⅠ. Data and Observation sheet

1.Trial No. 1 2 3 4 5

2.Container No.

3.Wt. of container gms

4. Wt. of container + wet. of soil

5.Wt. of container + dry soil gms

6.Wt. of water gms

7.Wt. of dry soil gms

𝑊𝑡.𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟∗100
8.water content % = 𝑤𝑡.𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙

9.No. of blows

B) DETERMINATION OF PLASTIC LIMIT (Wp)

Ⅰ. Objective and Scope

To determine the plastic limit and other consistency parameters of the given soil.
Ⅱ. Definition of the term
It is the water content at which the soil begins to crumble when rolled into threads of diameter
3mm

24
Ⅲ. Test Procedure

(i) Place about 25gm of the thoroughly mixed air-dry soil in an evaporating dish and mix it
with sufficient quantity of distilled water until the mass becomes plastic enough to be
easily rolled into a ball.
(ii) Take a portion of the ball and roll it on a glass plate with the hand to form the soil mass
into a thread of uniform dia. of 3mm through-out its length. The soil is now kneaded
together and again rolled out in the form of a ball.
(iii) Take some of the crumbled material for a water content determination. Repeat steps (ii) to
(iv) to obtain another determination which can be averaged to give the plastic limit
(iv) Take some of the crumbled material for a water content determination. Repeat steps (ii) to
(iv) to obtain another determination which can be averaged to give the plastic limit.

Ⅳ. Calculations

1. Liquid limit is read from the flow curve as the water content corresponding to twenty five blows.
2. Plastic limit is the water content of the soil which crumbled when 3mm threads were rolled.
3. PLASTICITY INDEX is the numerical difference between liquid limit and plastic limit.
4. FLOW INDEX is defined as the slope of the flow curve. It is computed using the relationship.

𝑊1−𝑤2
Flow Index = 𝑁2
𝐿𝑜𝑔( )
𝑁1

Where N1 and N2 are the blows corresponding to water content w1 and w2 respectively in the
flow curve

5. TOUGHNESS INDEX: Ratio of plasticity index to flow index

𝑁𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡−𝑊𝑝
6. LIQUIDITY INDEX or water plasticity ratio = 𝑊1−𝑊𝑝
L
𝐿𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡− 𝑁𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡
7. relative consistency-1-LIQUIDITY INDEX = 𝑊1−𝑊𝑝
L

25
Ⅴ. Observation Sheet

Determination No. 1 2 3

Cont. No.

Wt. of cont. in gm

Wt. of container +
wet soil in gm

Wt. of container +
dry soil gm

Wt. of water gm

Wt. of dry soil gm

water content in %

ⅤⅠ. Results

ⅰ) Liquid limit =

ⅱ) Flow Index =

ⅱⅰ) Plastic limit =

ⅰⅴ) Plasticity Index =

ⅴ) Relative Consistency =

ⅴⅰ) Liquidity Index =

ⅴⅱ) Toughness Index =

ⅴⅱⅰ) Classification as per plasticity chart =

26
C) DETERMINATION OF SHRINKAGE LIMIT (Ws)

I. Definition

Shrinkage limit is defined as the water content beyond which reduction of moisture cause no volume
change or it is the minimum water content at which soil remains saturated.

Ⅱ. Materials and Equipment

(i) Evaporating dish of porcelain

(ii) Shrinkage dish of non-corroding metal having flat bottom and 45mm in diameter and 15
mm in height internally.
(iii) Glass cup, the top rim of which is ground smooth and level
(iv) Glass plate with three metal prongs
(v) Spatula
(vi) Straight edge
(vii) 425 micron IS sieve
(viii) balances, sensitive to 0.1g and 0.01g
(ix) Oven, thermostatically controlled (105°C-110°C)
(x) Mercury
(xi) wash bottle containing distilled water

Ⅲ. Dry pat method

(a) Find the weight of the dry pat given

(b) Find the weight of the glass cup given and fill it fully with mercury
(c) Place the dry pat over it and press it with the special tool given so that a certain volume of
mercury equal to that of the pat flows out which is carefully collected in another dish
(d) Weigh the mercury overflown by means of which gives the volume of the dry soil pat
(e) Knowing the specific gravity of the soil, and the volume of the dry pat we can find out the
shrinkage limit

𝑉𝛾𝑤 1
Shrinkage limit Ws = 𝑊𝑑
− 𝐺

Where V = volume of dry pat, Wd = Wt. of dry pat and G = specific gravity of soil grains

27
Ⅳ. Wet pat method

Take about 30 gm of soil passing through I.S. 425 micron and mix it thoroughly with sufficient
quantity of distilled water to a consistency that the soil may flow. Apply the grease in a thin layer
inside the dish to prevent the adhesion of soil. Put the soil mixture in the dish in three equal
quantities to fill the dish. After putting one-third of the whole quantity, tap the dish on a firm surface
cushioned by several layers of blotting paper of similar material. Removing the excess soil with
straight edge and wipe off the soil adhering to outside of the dish. Weigh the shrinkage dish and
record the reading as the weight of the dish and wet soil. Allow the soil pat to dry up in air till the
colour of the pat changes from dark to light. Then put the dish in the oven at 110°C till its weight
becomes constant. Weigh the shrinkage dish with dry soil and then weigh the empty dish. Fill the
mercury in the empty shrinkage dish. Remove the excess of mercury by pressing a glass plate firmly
over the top of the dish. Measure the volume of mercury in the dish by means of which gives the
volume of the wet soil pat. Find out the volume of dry pat as in the dry pat method.

Ⅴ. Precaution

1. The water content of the soil taken in shrinkage dish should be above liquid limit but should be
within 10% of moisture content from liquid limit
2. No air should be entrapped under the dry soil pat when pressing the glass plate with prongs is
being carried out

ⅤⅠ. Observations and Calculations

ⅰ) Wt. of shrinkage dish W1 =

ⅰⅰ) Wt. of shrinkage dish + wet soil W2 =

ⅱⅰ) Wt. of wet soil in dish (W2- W1) = W =

ⅰⅴ) Wt. of shrinkage dish + Dry soil W3 =

ⅴ) Wt. of dry soil pat W3- W1 = Ws =

ⅴⅰ) Volume of shrinkage dish = volume of wet soil = V1 =

28
 𝑊𝑡.𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝐻𝑔
ⅴⅱ) Volume of dry soil pat = 13.6

(𝑊−𝑊𝑠)−𝛾(𝑉1−𝑉2)
ⅴⅱⅰ) Shrinkage limit = W
𝑊𝑠

ⅤⅠⅠ. Results

Shrinkage limit of the given soil

a) By dry pat method =

b) By wet pat method =

VIII. Inference

29
 6. PERMEABILITY TEST
Ref: IS 2720 (Part 36-1987)

I. Aim
To determine the coefficient of permeability of a given soil sample by Variable head permeability
test and constant head permeability test.

II. Theory

Permeability is defined as the property of porous material which permits the passage or seepage of
water through its interconnected voids. The coefficient of permeability is finding out following method.
a) Laboratory method:
i. Variable head test.
ii. Constant head test.
b) Field method:
i. Pumping out test.
ii. Pumping in test.
c) Indirect test:
i. Computation from grain size or specific surface.
ii. Horizontal capillarity test.
iii. Consolidation test data.
The derivation of the coefficient of permeability is based on the assumption of the validity of the
Darcy’s law to the flow of water in soil. The term coefficient of permeability implies the velocity of
flow of water through the soil under unit hydraulic gradient, and consequently has the same units as
that of velocity.

III. Apparatus
(i) Permeameter mould-1000ml Capacity with a detachable base plate
(ii) Removable extension collar
(iii) Drainage base
(iv) Metal ring for connecting drainage cap with mould and base plate
(v) Compaction rammer
(vi) Rubber seals, stand pipes, constant head tank, meter scale, measuring cylinder
Stop watch, deaired water, filter paper

A. Variable head test:

The variable head test is used for fine grained soils like silts and silty clays.

30
 Fig.1 Test Apparatus

B. Constant head test:

The Constant head test is suitable for coarse grained soils like sands, sandy silts.

31
Fig.2 Test Apparatus

32
IV. Procedure
A. Variable Head Method

1. Measure the inside diameter and height of the permeameter

2. Prepare the remoulded specimen
3. Attach the stand pipe to the drainage cap and allow water to flow out from drainage base for
sometime so that the specimen will be saturated before the test is begun
4. De-air the top by opening the air-vent
5. Find out the inside diameter of the stand pipe
6. Measure the time required for the water level to fall from initial head (h1) to a known final level
(h2)
7. Re-fill the stand pipe and repeat the test till three successive readings give the same time interval
for a fall of head from h1 to h2

B. Constant Head Method

1. Measure the inside diameter and height of permeameter

2. Prepare remoulded sample
3. Attach the constant head reservoir to the drainage base for some- time such that a steady state is
established
4. De-air the top by opening the air vent
5. Allow water to flow under constant head
6. Collect the water discharged in a graduated jar and note the time interval for specified discharge or
the discharge for a specified time.
7. Note head causing flow
8. Repeat the experiment under the same head for three times
9. Note the temperature of water used for the test.

33
 V. Observations & calculations

A. Variable Head Method

1 Length of Sample (L)

2 Diameter Cylindrical soil sample
(D)
3 Area of sample (A)
4 Area of c/s of Stand pipe (a)

Si. No. h1 h2 Time K (cm/sec) Average k

interval ‘t’
sec

B. Constant Head Method

1. Head causing flow( h)

2. Length of Sample (L)
3 Diameter Cylindrical soil sample
(D)
4 Quantity of flow (Q)
5 Time interval (t)
6 Area of sample (A)
7 Test Temperature
8 Permeability (k)

VI. Result

Coefficient of Permeability
(A) By Variable Head Method =
(B) By Constant Head Method =

VII. Inference

34
 7. COMPACTION TEST
Ref: IS 2720 Part (7)-1980 (Reaffirmed 2011)

1. Objective and Scope

To determine the moisture dry density relation for a given soil using constant compactive effort
and subsequently find the maximum dry density and the optimum water content.

II. Definition and Theory

Soil compaction refers to the process of obtaining increased density in a fill by reduction of its
pore space by the expulsion of air, using either a static or a dynamic effort. For the soils used for the
construction of embankments, earth dams, highway subgrades, and subbases, the soil is mixed with
water and rolled or tamped several times by means of rollers or tampers to increase its density by
reduction of air voids. The relation between the density of soil and water content at a given compaction
effort was first explained by R.R. Proctor.

III. Apparatus
1. Cylindrical metal mould of capacity 1000 cc
2. Metal rammer weighing 2.6 kg with a controlled height of fall of 310 mm
3. Balance
4. Thermostatically controlled oven to maintain the temperature between 105°C and 110°C
5. Mixing tools, straight edge for trimming, scarifier, sample containers, tray, mallet

IV. Test Procedure

1. Clean the mould and fix it to the base. Take the empty weight of the mould with the base and measure
the internal dimensions.
2. Take about 3kg of soil sample which has been previously passed through a 4.75 mm IS sieve.
3. Add enough water to this soil to bring its moisture content to about 75% (sandy soils) or 10% (Clayey
soils) less than the estimated optimum water content.
4. Fill the mould with mixed soil in 3 equal layers, with each layer compacted by 25 blows of a hammer
weighing 2.6 kg falling through 310mm. The blows should be uniformly distributed over the surface
of each layer. After compaction, the top of the third layer should not be projecting more than 5mm into
the collar.
5. Remove the extension collar and level the top with a straight edge. Clean the mould from outside
and weigh. Eject out the soil from the mould, cut it in the middle and keep a representative soil specimen
for water content determination.
6. Repeat
Repeatthetheexperiment
experiment with moisture
with higher contents
moisture of 10%,
contents 16%,
until 19%,
the dry 22% etc.
density decreases

35
V. Graphs
1. Draw a graph with dry density along the y-axis and moisture content along the x-axis and obtain
O.M.C and γd max

2. 100%, 90%,80% saturation lines can also be sketched, in the above plot using the relationship
𝐺𝛾𝑤
𝛾𝑑 =
𝑤𝐺
1+ 𝑠
𝑟

Where S=degree of saturation

G = Specific gravity

VI. Observations and calculations

Weight of mould (W1) =
Volume of mould (V) =

Sl.no Water Dry density Weight of Weight of Wet Density

content “W” 𝛾𝜔 mould + mould + 𝛾
𝛾𝑑 =
1+𝑤 compacted compacted
soil (W2) soil (W2 -
W1)

36
Lines of constant degree of saturation

W percent Ɣd Ɣd Ɣd
Sr =100% Sr =90% Sr=80%

Calculate the void ratio and porosity corresponding to maximum dry density from the following
relationship
𝐺𝛾𝑤
𝛾𝑑 =
1+ⅇ
ⅇ
𝑛=
1+ⅇ

VII. Results
Optimum Moisture content =
Maximum dry density =
Void ratio at maximum dry density =
Porosity at maximum dry density =

VIII. Inference

37
 8. CONSOLIDATION TEST
Ref: (IS: 2720 (Part 15) -1986)

Ⅰ. Objective and scope

The object of the experiment is to determine the consolidation properties of remoulded

soil by conducting one dimensional consolidation test using either fixed ring or floating ring
type consolidometer. The test covers the determination of coefficient of consolidation Cv, and
primary compression ratio of the given soil sample under a given load increment.

Ⅱ. Definition and Theory

When a saturated soil mass is subjected to a load increment, the load is initially carried
by water in the pores of the soil as excess pore water pressure, because water is less compressible
in comparison with the soil structure. As the water drains from the soil pores under the pressure
gradient so developed, the load increment is transferred to soil structure and there is a reduction
in the volume of the soil equal to the volume of water drained. This process is known as
consolidation.

Ⅲ. Apparatus

(i) Consolidometer consisting of base, ring, two porous stones, loading pad. Ring:
diameter 60mm: height 20mm

(ii) Loading device consisting of frame, lever system, loading yoke, dial gauge fixing
device, water reservoir connected to base, loads etc.

(iii) Dial gauge with least count of 0.002mm

(iv) Stop watch to read seconds (v) Soil trimming tools such as wire saw, knife, spatula
etc.

(v) Oven, balance, containers for water content determination

Ⅳ. Test Procedure

(1) Measure the diameter and height of the ring.

(2) Place the consolidation ring on the bottom porous stone with a wet filter paper and fill
the ring with sample without any air voids. Then place wet filter paper and the top porous
and the cover on the specimen. Mount the mould assembly on the loading frame and
centre it such that load applied is axial

38
 (3) Position the dial gauge to measure the vertical compression specimen. Connect the
mould assembly to the water reservoir and the sample is allowed to saturate. The level
of water in the reservoir should be at about the same level as the soil specimen.
(4) Note the initial dial gauge reading (Ro). After applying the load, take the dial gauge
readings corresponding to various time interval. The final reading after 24 hours is also
noted (Rf)

Ⅴ. Precautions

1. The soil sample should be fully saturated and free of air voids.
2. The porous stone should be boiled and saturated before use.

ⅤⅠ . Graphs

Draw the following graphs

1. Dial reading vs √t where “t' is in minutes

2. Dial reading vs log t
3. Cv can be calculated in two ways

A) Log fitting method

Make a plot of compression dial reading versus the log of time. The two straight portions of
the curve are extended to intersect at 100% primary compression. It is not possible to plot log
time at t=0 so the corrected value (de) is found out as follows.

1. Select a time 't1’ in the parabolic portion

2. Select a second time t2 = 4tı, in the parabolic part
3. Obtain the offset (z) between t1, and t2
4. Plot this offset (z) distance above t1, to obtain Rc

The 50% corresponding point is halfway between the corrected zero point and
100% compression point.

𝑇𝑣𝐻2 , (Tv)50 = 0.197

Cv =
𝑡50

39
 𝐻𝑖+𝐻𝐹
H= Average drainage path for the pressure increment where Hi -initial height of
4
specimen and Hf-final height of specimen.t50-

from the graph

𝑅𝑐0 −𝑅100
Primary compression ratio 𝑟 = 𝑅0 −𝑅𝑓
i

B) Root time fitting method

Make a plot of compression dial reading versus the Vt of elapsed time with a straight
line extended to the abscissa to intersect zero time and obtain the corrected zero point
dc. Through dc draw a straight line having an inverse slope of 1.15 times the tangent.
This straight line cuts the compression time curve at 90% primary compression.

𝑇𝑣 𝐻 2
𝐶𝑣 =
𝑡90

40
 10 ( 𝑅𝑐0 − 𝑅90 )
𝑟=
9 (𝑅0i − 𝑅𝑓 )

41
ⅤⅠⅠ. Data and Observation sheet
Stress applied – 0.5 kg/cm2
Least count of dial guage =
Elapsed time t minutes √t Compression dial reading
0 0
0.25 0.5
1.00 1.0
2.25 1.5
4.0 2.0
6.25 2.5
9.00 3.0
12.25 3.5
16.00 4.0
20.25 4.5
30.25 5.0
36.00 5.5
42.25 6.0
49.00 6.5
56.25
64 7.0
8
64.00
81 9
7.5
56.25
100 10
8.0
75.25
1440 37.94
8.5
81.00 9.0

ⅤⅠⅠⅠ. Results

Coefficient of consolidation
a) By square root of time fitting method =
b) By log time fitting method =
Primary compression ratio
a) By square root of time fitting method =
b) By log time fitting method =

IX. Inference

42
 (b)SWELLING TEST
Ref: IS 2720 Part-(XL):1977 (Reaffirmed 2002)

I. Objective and scope of test

The object of the test is to determine the free swell index of soil, which helps to identify
the potential of soil to swell. This experiment requires further detailed investigation regarding
swelling and swelling pressures under different field conditions.

II. Definition

Free Swell is the increase in the volume of a soil, without any external constraints, on
submergence in water. The possibility of damage to structures due to swelling of expansive
soils needs to be identified at the onset by an investigation of those soils which are likely to
possess undesirable expansion characteristics. The actual magnitude of swelling pressures
developed depends upon the dry density, initial water content, surcharge loading, and several
other environmental factors. The following table gives the range of the Free Swell Index (FSI)
for soils with different degrees of expansiveness.

Table. Degree of Expansiveness for soils based on FSI.

Free Swell Index (FSI) Degree of Expansiveness
<20 Low
20-35 Moderate
35-50 High
>50 Very high

III. Apparatus

(i) 425 micron IS sieve.

(ii) Two numbers of graduated glass cylinders of 100 ml capacity.
(iii) Balance of capacity 500 grams of sensitivity 0.01 grams.
(iv)Stirrer.

IV. Test Procedure

1. Take two 10-gram soil specimens of oven-dry soil passing 425 micron IS sieve.
2. Pour each specimen into the glass cylinders of 100 ml capacity.
3. Fill one cylinder with kerosene and the other with distilled water up to the 100 ml mark.
4. Remove the entrapped air in both cylinders by gentle shaking and stirring with a glass rod.
5. Allow the samples to settle in both cylinders, not less than 24 hours, to attain the equilibrium
state of volume without any further change in the volume of the soils.

43
6. Record the final volume of the soils in each cylinder. The level of the soil in the distilled
water shall be read as the free swell level (Vd). The level of the soil in the kerosene shall be
read as the original volume of soil sample (Vk).

V. Observations and Calculations

Weight of soil sample (gram) =

Trial No. Cylinder Reading after 24 hours Free Swell

Index (%)

Kerosene Distilled Kerosene Distilled

water water

𝑉𝑑 −𝑉𝑘
𝐹𝑟ⅇⅇ 𝑆𝑤ⅇ𝑙𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑑ⅇ𝑥 (𝐹𝑆𝐼 𝑖𝑛 %) = ×100
𝑉𝑘

Where,
Vd =Volume of soil specimen read from the graduated cylinder containing distilled water.
Vk =Volume of soil specimen read from the graduated cylinder containing kerosene.

VI. Results
Free Swell Index (%) =

VII. Inference

44
 9. SHEAR STRENGTH DETERMINATION
Ref: IS 2720 (Part 13)-1986
Background: The measurement of shear strength is fundamental to engineering practice. By shear
strength of the soil we mean the maximum resistance offered by the soil against shearing forces.
By Coulomb’s law, we have

S=C+ σ tan ɸ
Where, S=shear resistance or shear strength of soil
σ = Normal stress applied
C= cohesion of the soil
ɸ = Angle of internal friction of the soil
A shear test causes distortion of the specimen while measuring the resulting force and deformation
to determine the response of the material. In addition to the resistance to the imposed shear
distortion, soils generally have a tendency to change in volume during shearing. For this reason,
shear tests can be either drained or undrained, depending on the imposed boundary conditions. A
drained test must be performed slowly (slow test) enough to allow water to flow from the pore
space and maintain constant pore pressure. The amount of volume change is measured in a drained
test. An undrained test is performed in a manner that prevents volume change (or prevents flow of
water). Undrained tests can be performed more quickly (quick test) than drained tests unless pore
pressures require time to equilibrate. The drained and the undrained tests provide the two limits
that bound the scale of partially drained conditions that may occur in the field. The methods of
investigating shear strength are

● Direct shear test (Lab test)

● Triaxial test (Lab test)
● Unconfined Compressive strength test (Lab test)
● Vane shear strength (Lab and field)
● Standard penetration test (Field)
● Penetrometer test (Field)

A. DIRECT SHEAR TEST

I. Objective and Scope of the Test

To determine the shear parameters (cohesion and angle of internal friction) of a soil sample and
to determine the stress-strain characteristics.

45
 II. Introduction and theory
The direct shear test is one of the oldest strength tests most suited for cohesionless soils.
A direct shear test is one in which failure of a soil specimen in shear is caused along a pre-
determined plane, i.e. horizontal plane. The shear force and the normal load are applied
directly to the specimen. In this laboratory experiment, the direct shear test will be
performed as an undrained test.

Fig 1. Set up for direct shear test

III. Apparatus
1. Shear box, container for shear box, grid plates, porous stones, base
plate, loading pad
2. Loading frame for applying shear force at a constant rate of shearing displacement
(with different speeds)
3. Loading yoke for applying normal loads
4. Weights.
5. Proving ring-to measure shear load
6. Dial gauges-2 nos with least count of 0.01 mm
7. Balance, spatula, straight edge etc.

46
IV. Test Procedure
1. Weigh the required quantity of sand to make the volume of the test specimen in shear
box as per the density specified.
2. The two halves of the shear box are held together by locking pins. insert the bottom
plate and on the top of this place the plane grid with segregation at right angles to
the direction of shear.
3. Prepare the sample over this
4. Insert the plane grid on the top of the specimen and insert the top loading plate
5. Keep the shear box in the container for shear and set up the loading
frame.
6. Keep the loading arm of the shear box in contact with the proving ring. The normal
load is applied on the soil sample.
7. The locking pins are removed
8. The sample is sheared at a constant rate of deformation (l .25mm/min) The maximum
reading of the proving ring is noted which gives the shear load
9. The test is repeated on fresh samples of sand with different normal loads and the
shear load at failure is noted in each case.
10. For the last normal load, dial gauges are attached so that the normal and shear
displacements are measured until the soil fails

V. Precautions
1. The specimen should be set up without causing any initial disturbance to the sample.
2. Remove the locking pins before starting the test.
3. Verify the capacity of the proving ring and ensure that it is not exceeded
4. Select the rate of application of shear load based on the type of test

VI. Graphs
1. Draw graph with normal stress vs peak values of shear stress
2. Draw the mohr circle and determine the principal stresses at failure for
particular normal stress
3. For the last normal load draw the following graphs also
• Shear stress by normal stress vs shear displacement
• Shear displacement vs. normal displacement

47
VII. Data and observation sheet
Constant of proving ring I div= 0.455kg
Wt. of loading hanger= 5.25 kg
Size of shear box=
Rate of strain=
L.C. of horizontal displacement dial=

L.C. of vertical displacement dial=

Trail Normal load Normal Proving ring Shear load Shear stress
kg stress reading N N x .455 Kg/ cm2
Kg/cm2

Normal stress = kg/cm2

48
 Shear displacement Normal displacement Shear load Shear Shear
stress stress/normal
stress
Dial reading Disp in Dial reading Disp in Prov Load in
mm mm reading kg

VIII. Result
1. Cohesion(C)=
2. Angle of internal friction=
3. For a normal stress of
i) Minor principle stress=
ii) Major principle stress=
4. Directions of plane of rupture with the major principle plane=

IX. Inference

49
 B. TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION TEST
Ref: IS:2720 (Part11
II)-1993
Ⅰ. Objective and Scope of the Test

To determine shear parameters of undisturbed soil specimen in the triaxial compression

apparatus by unconsolidated undrained test without the measurement of pore pressure.

II. Introduction and Theory

The triaxial compression test is used for the determination of shear characteristics of all types
of soils under different drainage conditions. In this test, a cylindrical specimen is stressed under
conditions of axial symmetry as shown in fig.

(σc + σd)

σC
σC
`

Elevation Plan

In this test, the application of the all-round pressure and of the deviator stress form two separate
stages of the test. The first stage is known as the consolidation stage and the specimen is
subjected to an all-round confining pressure (σc). In the second stage of the test, called the
shearing stage, an additional axial stress, known as the deviator stress (σd) is applied on the top
of the specimen through a ram. Thus the total stress in the axial direction at the time of shearing
is equal to (σc + σd).

III. Apparatus

(i) Triaxial cell, with all accessories.

(ii) Apparatus for applying and maintaining the desired fluid pressure in the cell

50
(iii) Compression machine, capable of applying axial compression to the specimen, at
convenient speeds

(iv) Dial gauge to measure axial compression

(v) Seamless rubber membranes

(vi) Membrane stretcher

(vii) Rubber rings

(viii) Split mould, trimming knife, sample extruder, thin walled tubes

(ix) Water content determination containers

(x) Balance

(xi) Stop watch

IV. Test Procedure

a. Preparation of specimen
Take air dried soil. Mix up with required amount of water to give a required density for a given
volume. Compact the soil in constant volume. Press hollow cylindrical cutters into the
compacted soil and obtain the requisite size specimen.

(i) Cover the pedestal in the triaxial cell with solid end cap or keep the drainage valve
closed. Place the specimen assembly centrally on the pedestal. Assemble the cell, with
the loading ram initially clear of the top of the specimen, and place it in the loading
machine.
(ii) Admit the operating fluid in the cell, and raise its pressure to the desired value. Adjust
the loading machine to bring the loading rama short distance away from the seat on the
top cap of the specimen. Read the initial reading of the load measuring gauge. Adjust
the loading machine so that the loading ram comes just in contact with the seat of the
top of the specimen. Note the initial reading of the dial measuring axial compression.
(iii) Apply the compressive force at constant rate of axial compression. Take the
simultaneous readings of load and deformation dials, define the stress strain curve.
Continue the test until failure or 20% axial strain.

51
(iv) Upon completion of the test, the loading is shut off. Unload the specimen and drain off
cell fluid. Dismantle the cell and take out the specimen. Keep samples for water content
determination.
(v) Repeat the test on three or more identical specimens under different cell pressures

V. Data and Observation sheet

Height of specimen ‘l’ – Area ‘A0’

Diameter – Volume-

Initial weight: Initial water content

Final weight: Final water content

Cell Pressure (σ3)

Load gauge constant:

Comp. Load Comp of Strain, Corrected Load Vertical Deviator

dial gauge sample ‘e’
𝛿𝑙 Area, Stress, Stress σ1
𝑙
reading Reading ‘δl’ A=
𝐴0 σ1 – σ3
1−𝑒

52
Test No. Cell pressure (σ3) Deviator stress at failure s1 at failure
(σ1 – σ3)

VI. Graphs

1. A graph with deviator stress on the Y axis and % strain on the X axis is plotted to obtain
deviator stress at failure. The deviator stress at failure (σ1 – σ3), is known as the
compressive strength of the soil.
2. Mohr 's circles are plotted with minor principal stress (σ3) is equal to the cell pressure
(σ χ). The major principal stress (σ1) is equal to the sum of the cell pressure and the
deviator stress. For different cell pressures, Mohr circles are drawn and thus obtaining
the failure envelopes.

Conventional failure envelope (by drawing Mohr’s circles) and obtain the shear
strength parameters.

53
 Modified failure envelope and calculate shear strength parameters
VII. Results

Cohesion (c) =

Angle of internal friction (ϕ) =

VIII. Inference

54
 (c) VANE SHEAR TEST
Ref: IS: 2720 (Part 30)-1980

I. Objective and Scope of the test

The laboratory vane shear test for the measurement of shear strength of cohesive soils
is useful for soils of low shear strength of less than about 0.5 kgf/cm². This test gives the
undrained strength of the soil. The undisturbed and remoulded strengths can also be obtained,
that are used for evaluating the sensitivity of the soil.

Figure 1 Set-up for vane shear test

55
II. Apparatus
i. Vane- The vane shall consists of four blades each fixed at 90° to the adjacent blades.
The vane blades shall be welded together suitably to a central rod, the maximum
diameter of which should preferably not exceed 2.5 mm in the portion of the rod which
goes into the specimen during the test
ii. The apparatus may be either of the hand operated type or motorized. Provisions should
be made in the apparatus for the following.
a. Fixing of vane and shaft to the apparatus in such a way that the vane can be lowered
gradually and vertically into the soil specimen.
b. Fixing the tube containing the soil specimen to the base of the equipment for which it
should have suitable hole.
c. Arrangement for lowering the vane into the soil specimen gradually and vertically, and
for holding the vane properly and securely in the lowered position
d. Arrangement for rotating the vane steadily and for measuring the rotation of the vane.
e. A torque applicator to rotate the vane in the soil and a device for
measuring the torque applied.
f. A set of springs capable of measuring shear strength of 0.5 kgf/cm².

III. Test Procedure

The specimen in the tube should be at least 30 mm in diameter and 75 mm long.

Mount the specimen container with specimen on the base of the vane shear apparatus and fix
it securely to the base.
Lower the shear vanes into the specimen to their full length gradually with
minimum disturbance of the soil specimen so that the top of the vane is at least 10mm below
the top of the specimen. Note the strain and torque indicators. Rotate the vane at a uniform rate
approximately 0.1% sec by suitably operating the torque applicator handle until the specimen
fails. Note the final reading of the torque indicator. Torque readings and the corresponding
strain readings may also be noted at desired intervals of time as the test proceeds.

IV. Observation and calculation

Torque 'T' =
Height of the vane 'h' =

56
 Diameter of the vane 'd' =
Shear strength =
2𝑇
CU= 𝑑 =
𝜋 𝑑 2 (ℎ+ )
3

V. Result
Shear strength =

VI. Inference

57
 (D) UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST
Ref: IS:2720 Part (10)-1991 (Reaffirmed 2006)

I. Objective and Scope of the test

To determine the unconfined compression of clayey soils using controlled strain.

II. Definition and Theory

Unconfined compressive (UCC) strength is the maximum compressive stress that a

cylindrical soil sample is able to carry when its sides are not confined. It can also be defined as
the load per unit area at which an unconfined cylindrical specimen of soil will fail in the axial
compression test. The UCC test is sometimes referred to as an undrained test because condition
ϕ=0 is the same as that developed in an unconsolidated undrained test of saturated soils. In a
plot of normal stress Vs shear stress, all the Mohr circles will pass through the origin. Mohr-
envelop is horizontal. Shear strength due to cohesion is given by half the compressive strength.
Because of the lack of lateral support, the compressive strength given by the UCC test is lower
than those given by other tests. Therefore, this test specimen is not suitable for samples
containing an appreciable quantity of silt and sand.

Some amount of confining effect is provided by the surface tension due to moisture in
the soil and will be more if the soil is saturated. But in this test, the internal soil condition like
pore water pressure and degree of saturation can't be controlled. The friction at the ends of the
test specimen provides a lateral restraint that alters the internal stress. This friction can be
minimized by using special conical, lubricated end plates. In this test, more uniform stresses
and strains are developed, and failure surface will tend to form in the weakest portion and not
along a predetermined surface

III. Apparatus

(i) Load frame to apply compressive load at a constant rate of strain

(ii) Proving ring
(iii) Dial gauge
(iv) Vernier calipers
(v) Split moulds and compaction device for making remoulded specimens

IV. Test Procedure

1. Sieve the required amount of soil sample using150-micron sieve.

2.The cylindrical soil sample at the required density and water content is prepared.
3. Measure the length and cross-sectional area (A) of the sample (The height to diameter ratio
shall be within 2 to 2.5).

58
4. Place the cylindrical soil sample in the machine.
5. Set up the dial gauge and the proving to measure deflection and axial load.
6. Use a strain rate of 0.5 to 1.0 percent per minute
7. Record the proving ring reading corresponding to specific deformation dial readings
8. Compress the sample until failure planes have definitely developed or the stress-strain curve
is well past its peak, or until an axial strain of 20 percent is reached.
9. Sketch the failure pattern.
10. Moisture content of the specimen is determined from a representative portion of the sample
after the test. It shall be determined in accordance with IS 2720 Part (2): 1973 using samples
taken from the failure zone of the specimen.

V. Precautions
As the unconfined compressive strength of soil may be small, use sensitive proving
rings of lower capacity to measure loads.

VI. Graph
Draw the stress Vs % strain graph with stress in kg/cm² along Y-axis and % of strain along X-
axis.

VII. Data and observation sheet

Sample diameter =
The cross-sectional area of the sample (A) Height of the sample=
Strain rate Proving ring constant=
The least count of deformation dial gauge=

59
Sl.no Proving Load in Deformation Compression, Strain Increased Actual
ring kg dial gauge δl δl
=e c/s area stress
𝑙
reading (PRR reading (DRR*Least of Load
(PRR) *Least (DDR) count) sample A1
count) A
A1= 1−𝑒

VIII. Calculations

i. The unconfined compressive strength (qu) is obtained from the stress Vs strain graph.
ii. The Mohr's circle is drawn for the soil sample from which C can be determined.

60
IX. Results

1) Unconfined compressive strength of the soil (qu) -

2) The angle of internal friction of soil (Φ)=
3) The shear strength of soil at failure =
4) The normal stress at failure =
5) Cohesion of soil (C)=

X. Inference

61
 10. DETERMINATION OF CALIFORNIA BEARING
RATIO
IS: 2720 (Part 16)- 1987

I. Concept and significance

California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test originally developed by California Division of
highways (USA) is one of the commonly used methods to evaluate the strength of subgrade
soil for design of pavement thickness. CBR value as defined by IS: 2720 (Part XVI) 1987 is
the ratio of the force per unit area required to penetrate a soil mass with a circular plunger of
50 mm diameter at the rate of 1.25mm per minute to that required for corresponding penetration
of a standard material. Standard load is that load which has been obtained from tests on a
crushed stone whose CBR value is taken to be 100 percent. The ratio is usually determined for
penetration of 2.5 mm and 5.0 mm. The results of this test cannot be related accurately with
fundamental properties of the material but are useful in design of flexible pavements.

II. Objective
To determine the California Bearing Ratio of the subgrade soil

III. Apparatus
The apparatus, as per IS: 2720 (Part XVI) 1987 comprises of the following
(i) Mould: A metallic cylinder of 150mm internal diameter and 175mm height, provided with
a detachable metal extension collar 50 mm in height. It also has as detachable perforated base
plate of 10mm thickness. The perforations in the base plate do not exceed 1.5mm in diameter.
(ii) Steel cutting collar which can fit flush with the mould.
(iii) Spacer disc: A metal disc of 148mm diameter and 47.7mm in height
(vi) Surcharge weights: One annular metal weight and slotted weights each of 2.5 kg and
147mm in diameter with a central hole 53 mm in diameter.
(v) Dial gauges: Two dial gauges reading to 0.01 mm.
(vi) IS sieves of sizes 4.75 mm and 20 mm.
(vii) Penetration plunger: A metallic plunger having a diameter of 50mm and at least 100mm
long.
(viii) Loading machine with a capacity of at least 5000kg and equipped with a platform that
can move vertically at a rate of 1.25mm per minute.
(ix) Miscellaneous apparatus like mixing bowl, straight edge, scales, soaking tank, drying oven,
filter paper, dishes and calibrated measuring jar.

62
IV. Procedure
Preparation of test specimen

4.1 Preparation of Undisturbed Specimen

Fit to the mould, the steel cutting edge of 150mm internal diameter, oh the mould into the
ground as gently as possible till the mould is full of soil. Remove the soil from sides and bottom.
Trim the excessive soil from top and bottom.
4.2 Preparation of Remoulded Specimen
Remoulded samples are prepared such that the maximum dry density obtained from proctor
compaction test., the water content of remoulded samples is either the optimum water content
of the field moisture as the case may be, the remoulded sample are compacted either statically
or dynamically.
4. 2.1. Statically compacted specimen
(i) Calculate me amount of soil required such that it fills the mould (excluding collar) at the
desired density after compaction.
(ii) Calculate the amount of water to be added to give desired water content.
(iii) Mix the soil thoroughly with water
(iv) Fix the extension collar to the mould and clamp it to the base plate.
(v) Fix the mould with soil, gently pressing it with hands so that it does not spill out of the
mould.
(vi) Place coarse filter paper over the levelled soil surface and then insert the spacer disc.
(vii) Place the assembly on the pedestal of compression machine and compact the soil until the
top of the spacer disc is flush with the top of the collar.
4.2.2 Dynamically compacted specimen
(i) Sieve the material through 20mm IS sieve
(ii) Take about 4.5kg or more of representative sample for fine grained soils and about 5.5 kg
or more for granular soils in a mixing pan.
(iii) Add water to the soil in the quantity such that the moisture content of the specimen is either
equal to field moisture content or OMC as desired.
(iv) Mix together the soil and water uniformly.
(v) Clamp the mould along with the extension collar to the base plate.
(vi) Place the coarse filter paper on the top of the spacer disc.
(vii) Pour soil-water mix in the mould in such a quantity that after compaction about 1 /5 of the
mould is filled.

63
(viii) Give 56 blows with the rammer weighing 2.6kg dropping through 310mm in 3 layers
(light compaction) or 4.89 kg dropping through 450mm in 5 layers (heavy compaction.) evenly
spread on the surface.
(ix) Scratch the top layer of compacted surface. Add more soil and compact in similar fashion.
Fill the mould completely in 5 layers.
(x) Remove the extension collar and trim off the excess soil by a straight edge.
(xi) Remove the base plate, spacer disc and the filter paper and note down the weight of mould
and compacted specimen,
(xii) Place a coarse filter paper on the perforated base plate.
(xiii) Invert the mould containing compacted soil and clamp it to the base plate.
4.3. Testing the Specimen
(i) Place the mould containing the specimen, with base plate in position, on the testing machine.
(ii) Place the annular weight of 2.5kg on the top surface of soil.
(iii) Bring the penetration plunger in contact with soil surface and apply a load of 4kg so that
full contact between soil and plunger is established. This should be taken as zero load.
(iv) Place the reminder surcharge weight so that total surcharge weight equals to 5kg.
(v) Set the reading of dial gauges to zero.
(vi) Apply load so that penetration rate is 1.25mm per minute. Record the load at penetration
of 0, 0.5, 1.0,1.5,2.0,2.5,4.0,5.0,7.5,10.0 and 12.5mm. The maximum load has to be recorded
if it occurs at less than 12.5mm.
(vi) Collect about 20 to 50 g of soil to determine the water content
4.4. CBR Test-Soaked Specimen
To perform CBR test on soaked specimen, the sample excluding base plate and spacer disc is
weighed. A filter paper is placed on the sample with a perforated plate on it. Over it a surcharge
weight 2.5 or 5kg is placed and the sample is soaked in water tank for 4 days. The sample is
then allowed to drain off water in vertical position for about 15 minutes. The sample is weighed
again to calculate the percentage of water absorbed. It is then tested following the normal
procedure.
4.5. Computation of Test Results
(i) Plot the load penetration curve with load as ordinate and penetration as abscissa. Sometimes
the initial portion of the curve is concave upwards due to surface irregularities. In such a case
apply a correction. Draw tangent at the point of greatest slope. The point where this tangent
meets the abscissa is the zero reading of penetration.
(ii) From the curve, determine the load value corresponding to the penetration value at which
the CBR is desired.
(iii) Compute CBR values as follows

64
 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑃𝑇 𝑥 100
CBR =
𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑃𝑆

Usually the CBR value is calculated for 2.5mm and 5mm penetration, Generally the CBR value
at 2.5mm penetration will be greater than that at 5 mm and in such a case the former is taken
for design purposes. If the 5mm value is greater the test is repeated, if the same results, follow
the CBR value corresponding to 5mm penetration is adopted for design purposes.

Table 1. Standard Load for Different Penetration Values

Penetration (mm) Unit Standard Load (kgf/cm2 ) Total standard (kgf)

2.5 70 1350
1370
5.0 105 2055

7.5 134 2630

10.0 162 3180

12.5 183 3600

V. Precautions
(i) | The holes of the base plate of the mould should note be blocked.
(ii) The surcharge weight should be aligned with the plunger so that the plunger penetrates
freely into the soil

VI. Record of Observations

Type of sample = Undisturbed / Remoulded

Condition of specimen = Static/Dynamic
Period of soaking = Static/Dynamic
Surcharge weight Dry = Soaked/Unsoaked
Unit weight =
Weight of material coarser than 20mm replaced

65
 Penetration (mm) No. of divisions on Corresponding load Corrected load (kgf)
proving ring (kgf)

0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
4
5
10
12.5

CBR at 2.5mm penetration =

CBR at 5 mm penetration =
CBR ratio of sample =
(to be adopted for design)

VII. Interpretation of results

California bearing ratio is an empirical value and is useful in design of flexible
pavements. Design curves evolved by Road Research Laboratory; U.K. have been adopted by
Indian Roads Congress. Depending up on the expected traffic volume, the thickness of base
course and sub- base course can be determined from their respective CBR values, the suitability
of the soil tested for use as subgrade material (or for other materials to be used as sub-base and
base) in road construction may be interpreted from the curves given which give the relationship
between bearing value and penetration.

66
 Figure 1: Typical load penetration curve

VIII. Results

IX. Inference

67
QUESTIONS
1. Why oven drying is done at 105 to 110°C?
2. During your laboratory course, you may have to find water content samples in a number
of experiments. Suggest means of saving time in this capacity.
3. What do you expect if liquid limit and plastic limit tests are conducted on pure sand?
4. Instead of cutting the groove as described in the experiment, if it is cut out in a
perpendicular direction, what results do you expect?
5. What will happen if Casagrande’s grooving tool is used for sandy soils?
6. Soil A has a liquid limit of 70%, soil B has a liquid limit of 30%. What do you infer
from this?
7. Does sand have plasticity?
8. What do you mean by grain size?
9. Why do you choose a semi-logarithmic paper for plotting grain size distribution curve?
10. Suppose sand is powdered to clay size. Do you classify it as clay?
11. Why square holes are provided in sieves and not round holes?
12. What results do you get if sieve analysis test is conducted on a pulverized cohesive
sample straightway without washing?
13. If the sample used for compaction test is not sieved through 4.75mm IS Sieve, how
does it affect the results?
14. What do you expect if compaction test is conducted on sand using the IS light
compaction apparatus?
15. If a soil is being compacted in the field, how is it possible to say that the water content
of the soil is approximately equal to OMC?
16. Mention various methods for determination of water content in a laboratory?
17. What do you understand about Index Properties?
18. What are the main index properties of a coarse grained soil and a fine grained soil?
19. State Stoke’s law.
20. Mention the various corrections required for a hydrometer reading.
21. What are the uses of consistency limits?
22. Differentiate between flow index and toughness index.
23. Why standard sand is used in field density test?
24. If the soil is layered, how do you determine the field density?
25. Up to what depth can you use the small sand pouring cylinder? If depth in the fields is
greater than this, what will you do?
26. What is the direction of flow of water in the soil sample in the laboratory permeability
test? Do you expect any change in this field?
27. Suppose you conduct permeability tests on two soil samples having void ratios of 0.8
and 1.6. Which will have more ‘k’?
28. What do you expect if every high hydraulic gradients are applied in the permeability
test?
29. What is Darcy’s law? What are its limitations?
30. Two soil samples have ‘k’ values of 10cm/s and 100cm/s. Which is more pervious?
31. Why soil sample is kept saturated in a consolidation test?
32. Instead of applying loads increments after every 24hours, if they are applied after every
4 hours, what results do you expect?
33. What results do you expect if a consolidation test is conducted on sand?
34. How is compression index Cc found?
35. Can permeability be determined from consolidation test indirectly?
36. What is the coefficient of consolidation? What is its use in settlement analysis?

68
37. Differentiate between primary consolidation and secondary consolidation?
38. Differentiate between normally consolidated and the over consolidated soils.
39. Define slow, quick and consolidated quick drained shear test, illustrating their use by
at least one field example.
40. If you test the gravel in direct shear box of size 6cm x 6cm x 2.5cm, do you get correct
results.
41. What is meant by sensitivity of a clay sample?
42. If you conduct undrained, consolidated drained and undrained tests on remoulded
clayey specimen, what difference do you find in the strength characteristics? What
conditions govern the choice of the type of test?
43. Is it possible to conduct unconfined compression test on a sand sample?
44. Indicate in a stress strain diagram, peak strength and residual strength.
45. What are the limitations of direct shear test?
46. Can direct shear test be done on clay samples, how will you find the shear parameters.
47. Differentiate between consolidation and compaction. Give examples.
48. What are the different method of compaction adopted in the field?
49. What are the factors that affect compaction?
50. Differentiate between standard proctor test and the modified proctor test.
51. If higher the compactive effort, what is its effect on OMC and maximum dry density?
52. What is swelling of soil? Name soil types.
53. What are the factors that cause soil to swell?
54. How is the correction of initial concavity in the load penetration curve of CBR tests
done?
55. What is the significance of surcharge load while soaking and testing the soil in CBR
test?
56. CBR value of soil A is 15 and of soil B is 4. Which one is the better soil? Why?
57. What is the application of the CBR test results?
58. Discuss the limitations of CBR test.

69