PanAm Unsaturated Soils 2017 GSP 302 417

Unsaturated Hydraulic Properties of Biochar and Biochar-Amended Soils for

Landfill Covers
Girish Kumar, S.M.ASCE1; Jairo E. Yepes, Ph.D.2; Laureano R. Hoyos, Ph.D., P.E., M.ASCE3;
and Krishna R. Reddy, Ph.D., P.E., F.ASCE4
1
Graduate Research Assistant, Dept. of Civil and Materials Engineering, Univ. of Illinois at
Chicago, Chicago, IL 60607. E-mail: gkumar6@uic.edu
2
Formerly, Graduate Research Assistant, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Univ. of Texas at
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Arlington, Arlington, TX 76019. E-mail: jairoyepes@gmail.com

3
Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Univ. of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX 76019. E-
mail: lhoyos@uta.edu
4
Professor, Dept. of Civil and Materials Engineering, Univ. of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL
60607. E-mail: kreddy@uic.edu

Abstract
The high concentrations of methane emissions from landfill covers pose significant risks to the
environment and global climate. Recent investigations have shown that landfill-cover soils
amended with biochar have the potential to considerably reduce the unmitigated methane
emissions by means of adsorption and oxidation. Biochar is a solid byproduct from gasification
or pyrolysis of biomass such as waste wood, corn stove, and other organic wastes. Biochar, with
its relatively large internal porosity and surface area, facilitates microbial activity, thereby
enhancing the methane oxidation rates. Although biochar amended soils serve beneficially to
alleviate fugitive emissions of methane from landfill covers, the hydraulic behavior of such soils
is still unclear. The hydraulic properties of landfill-cover soils are significantly important as they
determine the percolation and movement of water into the MSW. This in turn quantifies the
amount of leachate generated within the landfills. Furthermore, it is crucial to understand the
unsaturated hydraulic properties of landfill-cover soils as these soils experience varied climatic
conditions throughout any given year. In this study, the saturated and unsaturated hydraulic
properties of biochar, unamended cover soil, and biochar-amended cover soil are presented. The
saturated hydraulic conductivity was measured by performing flexi-wall (triaxial) permeability
tests and the unsaturated properties were calculated from soil-water retention tests performed
using Tempe cells. The soil used classifies as low plasticity silty clay (CL) according to the
USCS. The amount of waste-wood derived biochar varied from 2 to 10% for the biochar-
amended soil samples tested. The soil-water characteristic curve (SWCC) obtained for each of
the samples was best fitted to the van Genuchten (vG) model to obtain the vG model parameters.
It was found that the saturated hydraulic conductivity of the soil increased due to biochar
amendment, but it was still low enough to serve as landfill cover soil. It was also observed that
the air-entry value of the biochar-amended soil increased with increasing amount of biochar, and
it was found to be highest for biochar itself. The results strongly imply that an increase in biochar
content in the soil increases the water holding capacity of the amended soil.

INTRODUCTION

The hydrology or the hydraulic flow in a landfill is commonly determined by water balance
models that simulate the percolation of water through final covers (Meerdink et al., 1996).

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Generally, the soils in the final covers are unsaturated and therefore, the unsaturated properties of
the final cover materials are essential for accurate estimates. Recent investigations on the use of
biochar amended soil in final cover have shown potential to mitigate the fugitive methane
emissions from landfills by enhancing methane oxidation in landfill covers (Reddy et al., 2014;
Sadasivam and Reddy, 2015; Xie et al., 2016; Yargicoglu et al., 2015; Yargicoglu et al., 2017a,
b). While the impact of the use of biochar is positive in terms of environmental pollution
mitigation, its impact is not known in terms of hydrological changes. The amendment of organic
matter with cover soil, especially biochar, essentially influences the biological properties due to
the high intra porosity of the biochar resulting in larger surface area and more water holding
capacity, consequently leading to enhanced microbial activity. On the outset, inclusion of
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biochar also induces increased porosity of the resulting amended soil. Hence, understanding the
hydraulic properties of biochar-amended soil is important in order to examine the hydraulic
performance of the final cover, while estimating the water percolation and consequently the
leachate generation in the landfill (Reddy et al., 2015; Breitmeyer and Benson, 2011). Until now
there is no published data on the unsaturated hydraulic properties of biochar and biochar-
amended soil, particularly in terms of its application in landfill covers.
In this study, an experimental investigation for determining the saturated and unsaturated
hydraulic properties of biochar and biochar-amended soils was carried out. In particular, the soil
water characteristic curve (SWCC) for each of the sample was obtained using Tempe cells. The
SWCC for each sample tested was fitted with the vG model (van Genuchten, 1980) to obtain the
model parameters. The soil samples tested varied in terms of the proportion of biochar amended
with the soil (dry weight), referred here as biochar content (0%, 2%, 5%, 10% and 100%). In
addition, the saturated hydraulic conductivity for all the samples was determined through flexi-
wall (triaxial) permeability tests, performed as per ASTM standards. The results as obtained
from the experiments performed are presented and the key implications of the observed results
are highlighted.

MATERIALS

The laboratory tests were conducted on soil, biochar, and their mixtures. The soil used in this
study was collected from a stockpile of landfill cover soil at an active landfill facility in DeKalb,
Illinois. The cover soil was sieved through a No. 10 sieve (<2 mm) and was homogenized prior
to mixing with biochar. The grain size distribution of the soil, biochar and biochar-amended soils
is shown in Fig. 1. The cover soil and biochar amended soils had a similar grain size distribution
while the biochar alone had a relatively uniform size of particle.
The organic matter and water contents were determined gravimetrically after drying
samples at 440°C and 105°C as per ASTM D2974 and ASTM D2216, respectively. In addition,
the specific gravity of the soil and biochar-amended soils was determined according to ASTM
D854 (Table 1). The grain size distribution of the cover soil was performed according to ASTM
D422. The soil was classified as low-plasticity silty clay (CL-ML) type soil as per the USCS soil
classification system; the USDA textural classification for this soil is clay loam. The Atterberg
limits were determined only for unamended cover soil due to the non-plastic behavior of biochar
and biochar-amended soils. The plastic limit and liquid limit of the cover soil were at moisture
contents of 11.5% and 17.7%, respectively. The Plasticity Index (PI) for this soil was found to be
~6.2, which is relatively low for clayey soils. A commercially available pinewood-derived
biochar was used in all the tests. The biochar had a high fixed carbon content (~35%) and surface

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porosity (41.4%), with relatively low toxin content (Yargicoglu et al., 2017a, b). The physical
properties of the soil and the biochar used in this study are listed in Table 1. The water holding
capacity of all the materials tested in this study was determined using the procedure followed by
Kinney et al., (2012).

100

90 DeKalb Soil, Unsieved

DeKalb Soil, Sieved
80 98% DeKalb, 2% Biochar
90% DeKalb, 10% Biochar
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Percentage Finer (% )

70 100% Biochar

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
100 10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001

Grain Size (mm)

Fig. 1: Grain Size Distribution of Cover Soil, Biochar and Biochar-amended Soils

Table 1: Physical Properties of Cover Soil, Biochar and Biochar-amended Soil

Sieved 2% 10%
Property Biochar
DeKalb Soil Biochar Biochar
Specific Gravity 2.56 2.44 2.45 0.59
Grain Size distribution
% Gravel (>4.75 mm) 0.0 0.7 3.5 13.9
% Sand (>0.075 mm) 41.4 41.6 41.0 85.2
% Silt 27.8 27.4 26.3 0.9
% Clay 30.8 30.3 29.1 0.0
-8 -7 -6 -3
Sat. Hydraulic Conductivity (cm/s) 4.99 × 10 3.19 × 10 1.21 × 10 3.9 × 10
Bulk Density (g/cm3) 2.01 2.18 2.01 -
Water Holding Capacity (% dry wt.) 20.9 21.0 22.1 50.6
Air-entry Suction (kPa) 150 165 200 250
Optimum Water Content (%) 9 9 12.9
ND
Max. Dry Density (g/cm3) 2.083 2.035 1.819

METHODS

Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity: The saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks) was measured in
the laboratory on repacked soil specimens of unamended cover soil and biochar-amended soil
samples using a flexible wall triaxial test setup as per the procedure described in ASTM D5084.
The specimens were permeated with tap water until the flow reached a steady state. An effective

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confining pressure of 34.5 kPa and a hydraulic gradient of 26 were applied to the specimens. The
saturation of the samples was ensured by applying back pressure (B>0.95).
Sample Preparation and SWCC Testing via Tempe Cell: The SWCCs for the initially
saturated samples of soil, biochar and biochar-amended soil were all determined using a Tempe
cell. The step-by-step sample preparation and SWCC testing procedures are illustrated in Fig. 2,
which can be summarized as follows:

1 2 3
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5 6 7

Fig. 2: Step-by-step Sample Preparation and SWCC Testing Procedures using Tempe Cell

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1. Weighing and mixing of the test soil and the biochar to the corresponding desired
dosages (by dry weight) and moisture content.
2. Static compaction of soil-biochar mixture into a custom-made split mold to attain a pre-
established value of dry unit weight.
3. Weighing and trimming of compacted soil-biochar sample into a confining ring as part of
a custom-made saturation chamber. (Compacted dry unit weight is verified.)
4. Full assembling and water soaking of the custom-made saturation chamber, including
filter papers and placement of porous stones at the top and bottom of the soil-biochar
sample. (Water soaking is allowed for 24-36 hours, after which the degree of saturation is
verified.)
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5. Partial assembling of Tempe cell, including a bottom plate housing a total of six
ceramics, each with a 5-bar air-entry value.
6. Setting up of the saturated soil-biochar sample, which seats right on top of the full set of
5-bar HAE ceramics.
7. Full assembling of Tempe cell, including outer chamber and top plate. Pore-air pressure
is then raised inside the cell to attain incremental values of suction in the soil-biochar
sample via axis-translation technique.

MODEL PARAMETRIZATION

van Genuchten (1980) Model: The van Genuchten equation (Eq. 1) is an analytical solution
developed by van Genuchten (1980) that relates, the dimensionless quantity, effective saturation
(Θ), to the matric suction (ψ). The van Genuchten parameters ( , , and ) were determined by
fitting equation 1 to the experimental data.
[ ]

where, ; is the saturated volumetric moisture content; is the residual volumetric

moisture content; is the volumetric moisture content; is the parameter inversely related to the
air-entry suction; n is the pore-size distribution fitting parameter inversely related to the slope of
the SWCC; ( ) is another fitting parameter.

Fredlund et al. (1994) Model: Fredlund et al. (1994) developed an analytical equation to
determine the SWCC and is given by equation 2. The parameters ( , , and ) were determined
by fitting equation 2 to the experimental data.

[ ( ( ) )]

where, a, p, and q are fitting parameters and is a function of matric suction given by
equation (3) as follows,
( )

( )
where, is a constant related to the matric suction at residual volumetric moisture content.
The air-entry suction value for each sample tested was determined by fitting the van
Genuchten model to the experimental SWCC data. Furthermore, the unsaturated hydraulic

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conductivity of the soil and the biochar-amended soil can be calculated as a relative permeability
function of volumetric moisture content by substituting the fitting parameters in equation (4) as
follows,

[ ( ) ]
where, is the volumetric moisture content dependent hydraulic conductivity and is the
saturated hydraulic conductivity.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

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Effect of Biochar amendment on Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity: Owing to the large

internal porosity it is reasonable to expect an increase in the saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks)
of biochar-amended soils following the addition of biochar to the soil. Moreover, it was observed
that the Ks increased with increasing biochar addition, from ~5.0 × 10-8 cm s-1 in sieved soil (0%
biochar) to approximately 3.2 × 10-7 and 1.2 × 10-6 cm s-1 in the 2% and 10% biochar-amended
soils, respectively (Fig. 3). Measurements of hydraulic conductivity of the biochar alone using a
rigid-walled permeameter cell were several orders of magnitude higher than the soil alone,
ranging between 1.1 to 3.9 × 10-3 cm s-1 for the biochar with and without fine ash retained. These
findings are consistent with those of other researchers who have found that the permeability of
biochar-amended clay soils is increased with the addition of biochar (e.g. Wong et al., 2017).
The saturated hydraulic conductivity was also found to increase in silty loam and silty clay soils
as a result of biochar amendment (Herath et al., 2013; Jien and Wang, 2013) due to the high
internal porosity of biochar in general (Downie et al., 2009).

1e-5
Sat. Hydraulic Conductivity (cm/s)

1e-6

1e-7

1e-8
DeKalb Cover Soil 2% biochar 10% biochar

Fig. 3: Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity of Cover Soil and Biochar-amended Soil

Effect of Biochar amendment on Water Retention: The water holding capacity (WHC) of the
cover soil increased by 1% to 3% following the biochar amendment, that is, from 21% for
unamended soil to 22% and 24% for 2% and 10% biochar-amended soils, respectively (Table 1).
The values reported in Table 1 correspond to those determined following the sieving of the
biochar to remove fine particles (<0.084 mm). If the fine fraction of the biochar had not been
removed, the WHC of biochar-amended soils was measured to be 30-36% dry weight for 2% and

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10% biochar-amended soils, respectively, due to stronger capillary forces among the fine ash
particles (Yargicoglu et al., 2015). Despite removing the fine ash from the biochar prior to
mixing with soil, the increased WHC of biochar-amended soil could significantly impact the
distribution of moisture within the cover soil resulting in overall higher moisture contents for
higher amounts of biochar in the soil. As a consequence of the higher water holding capacity of
biochar-amended soil relative to unamended soil, the cover soil would prevent cracks due to
desiccation of soil as the evaporative losses in the unamended soils are significantly greater than
from the biochar-amended soils.
Effect of Biochar amendment on Unsaturated Hydraulic Properties: The SWCC for biochar,
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cover soil, and biochar-amended soils using van Genuchten (1980) model and Fredlund et al.
(1994) model are shown in Fig. 4(a) and Fig. 4(b), respectively. It should be noted that in
determining the SWCC for all the samples tested, the volumetric moisture content was used as
dependent variable, instead of degree of saturation, in order to keep better track of the actual
changes in the overall volume of the sample during drying via axis-translation.

70

60
Volumetric Moisture Content (% )

50

40

van Genuchten DeKalb Soil Only

van Genuchten 2% Biochar
30
van Genuchten 5% Biochar
van Genuchten 10% Biochar
van Genuchten Biochar Only
20 Experimental DeKalb Soil Only
Experimental 2% Biochar
Experimental 5% Biochar
Experimental 10% Biochar
10 Experimental Biochar Only

0
1 10 100 1000 10000

Matric Suction (kPa)

Fig. 4(a): Curve Fitting of Experimental SWCC Data for Cover Soil, Biochar and Biochar-
amended Soil Samples by van Genuchten (1980) Model

As it can be seen from Fig. 4(a) and 4(b), the van Genuchten and the Fredlund et al. 1994 models
both fit the limited experimental dataset very closely. However, for the large part of the suctions
above 200 kPa, the curve is extrapolated to predict the residual moisture contents which was not
practically possible through the experiments conducted. Hence, the residual moisture contents as
obtained from the curve fitting may not accurate. But, the SWCC curves do give a general trend
that is followed by the SWCC parameters such as the air-entry pressure for increasing amounts
of biochar in the soil.

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70

60
Volumetric Moisture Content (% )
50

40 Fredlund et al., DeKalb Soil Only

Fredlund et al., 2% Biochar
Fredlund et al., 5% Biochar
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30 Fredlund et al., 10% Biochar

Fredlund et al., Biochar Only
Experimental, DeKalb Soil Only
20 Experimental, 2% Biochar
Experimental, 5% Biochar
Experimental, 10% Biochar
10 Experimental, Biochar Only

0
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000

Matric Suction (kPa)

Fig. 4(b): Curve Fitting of Experimental SWCC Data for Cover Soil, Biochar and Biochar-
amended Soil Samples by Fredlund et al. (1994) Model

300

250
(kPa)

200
a
Air Entry Suction,

150

100

50

0
Soil Only 2% Biochar 5% Biochar 10% Biochar Biochar Only

Fig. 5: Variation of Air-entry Suction Value with Biochar-amendment to Soil

Fig. 5 shows the variation of air-entry suction value with the addition of biochar to soil. The air-
entry suction values are greater in biochar than in soil, indicating that stronger capillary forces
are present within the fine-grained biochar material. Accordingly, increasing the amount of
biochar in the soil led to increasingly greater air-entry suction values as the biochar created a

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finer-grained material with stronger capillary forces holding water in void spaces after mixing
with the silty-clay soil. Soil alone had an air-entry suction value of 150 kPa, which increased to
165 and 200 kPa for 2% and 10% biochar-amended soil, respectively. Additional testing with 5%
biochar amendment was also conducted only for soil water characteristics to verify the
experimental observations (general trend) for 2% and 10% amendment. For the biochar alone,
the air-entry value was calculated to be 250 kPa, approximately 100 kPa greater than the sieved
cover soil. This indicates that water is held more tightly within biochar-amended soils, and is
consistent with observations of lower evaporative losses and greater soil moisture holding
capacity in biochar-amended soils. The van Genuchten model parameters and the Fredlund et al.
(1994) model parameters as obtained from curve fitting with the experimental data is shown in
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Table 2.

Table 2: Fitting Parameters for van Genuchten (1980) and Fredlund et al. (1994) Model
van Genuchten (1980) Fredlund et al. (1994)
Matrix
 (1/kPa) n m s (%) r (%) a p q s (%) r (%)
Biochar Only 0.002 1.5 0.33 50.3 3.6 600 1.45 1.05 50.3 5.3
2% Biochar 0.0025 1.4 0.286 57 6.3 720 1.2 1.1 57 6.9
5% Biochar 0.0029 1.45 0.31 56 4.4 470 1.5 1.01 56 5.9
10% Biochar 0.0025 1.4 0.286 55.3 6.1 550 1.3 0.97 55.3 7.4
Soil Only 0.0017 1.42 0.29 58.7 6.8 675 1.1 0.99 58.7 9.3

CONCLUSIONS

A series of experiments were conducted on biochar, landfill cover soil and biochar amended soil
samples (with different amounts of biochar) to determine their saturated and unsaturated
hydraulic properties. In addition, the experimental data were fitted with the model proposed by
van Genuchten (1980) and Fredlund et al. (1994) for SWCC curves to obtain the model
parameters. The following conclusions could be made from the observations and analysis made
from these experiments.
 Owing to the highly porous nature of biochar, the saturated hydraulic conductivity was
found to increase with increasing amount of biochar in the biochar-amended soil
samples. However, the resulting hydraulic conductivity was lower than the typical value
(10-5 cm/s) required for landfill covers.
 The experimental results show that addition of biochar into the soil increases the water
holding capacity of the soil. This is also observed with increasing trend in air-entry
suction values for increase in the biochar content in soil. This property of biochar aids in
lower evaporative loss in covers and thus resulting in less desiccation cracks in soil
covers. Higher water holding capacity in presence of biochar provides desirable
environment for enhanced microbial activity, which is being investigated in our ongoing
studies.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research project was funded by U.S. National Science Foundation (Grant CMMI#
1200799), which is gratefully acknowledged.

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