Geoderma Regional 33 (2023) e00652

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Geoderma Regional
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/geodrs

Soil recovery in a chronosequence of revegetated coal mine spoils in

Colombian drylands: a view from the assessment of physical-chemical and
biological properties
Jeiner Castellanos-Barliza a, b, *, Juan Diego León-Peláez a
a
Grupo de Investigación en Restauración Ecológica de Tierras Degradadas en el Trópico, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Calle 59A 63-20, Medellín 050034,
Colombia
b
Grupo de investigación en Restauración Ecosistémica y Ecología Urbana, Facultad de Ciencias Básicas, Universidad del Magdalena, Carrera 32 #22-08, Santa Marta D.
T.C.H., Magdalena 470002, Colombia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Characterizing changes in soil properties is essential to understand the effect of land rehabilitation practices and
land rehabilitation the mechanisms that drive such changes. The objective of this study was to evaluate the recovery of physical-
Open-pit mining chemical and biological properties of Technosols with increasing rehabilitation age in a chronosequence of
Degraded soil
dry forests (7, 10, and 21 years) in the El Cerrejón open-pit coal mine (La Guajira, Colombia). Based on previous
Technosols
Dry forests
studies that demonstrated a greater effect of surface change on the physicochemical properties of soils, composite
samples taken at two depth levels (0–3 cm and 3–20 cm) were analyzed for each site. The studied properties
improved over time, increasing significantly with respect to non-rehabilitated sites, mainly near the surface (0–3
cm). Particularly, after seven years, the increases in soil N content and soil P solution were significant (32% and
71%, respectively). The increased structural and functional development of the vegetation over time led to
increased inputs of organic materials via fine litterfall. Overall, soil organic matter (SOM) ranged from 63 to 89%
in the rehabilitated sites compared with a reference mature dry forest. Increased SOM is a key indicator of re­
covery in degraded mine spoils, as it has an outsized ability to influence other soil properties. This represents a
positive result for the revegetation/restoration strategy applied at the El Cerrejón mine.

1. Introduction
Open-pit coal mining represents one of the most important activities
in some countries for regional or local economies, nevertheless it has
also been shown that its negative impacts can affect these communities,
and the environment in general (Martins et al., 2022). Among the most
significant impacts are drastic changes in topography and landscape, the
destruction of vegetation, loss of biodiversity, alteration of surface hy­
drological regimes, nutrient cycling, and soil properties (Castellanos-
Barliza et al., 2019; Zapico et al., 2021). Topsoil is particularly affected
because genetic soil horizons are removed and mixed during extraction
(Ngugi et al., 2018). Subsequently, these soils are stored and reused to
reconstruct landscapes in the next stages of the rehabilitation process,
negatively altering their physical, chemical, and biological properties
(Mushia et al., 2016).
The rehabilitation of these post-mining areas has been achieved to a
greater extent through the application of revegetation and soil substrate
management programs (Bucka et al., 2021; Sudarmadji and Hartati,
2021). In particular, revegetation can be employed by applying various
alternatives, initially using herbaceous cover crops or an association of
grasses and legumes, and subsequently, mixed plantations of native or
exotic fast-growing tree species, timber, and deciduous species, etc.
(Gualdrón, 2011; Mukhopadhyay and Masto, 2022; Thakur et al., 2022).
These revegetation methods have been shown to reverse degradation
processes of some soil properties and improve key soil quality properties
such as organic carbon content, microbial biomass, and nutrient avail­
ability, leading to an increase in primary productivity at the ecosystem
level (Bateman et al., 2021; Bucka et al., 2021; Chaturvedi and Singh,
2017; Hamidović et al., 2013; Parsapour et al., 2018; Zhang et al.,
2018b).
The benefit of vegetation on substrate chronosequences in mining
waste has been demonstrated by numerous studies worldwide (Buta

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: jcastellanos@unimagdalena.edu.co (J. Castellanos-Barliza).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geodrs.2023.e00652
Received 29 October 2022; Received in revised form 30 March 2023; Accepted 20 May 2023
Available online 24 May 2023
2352-0094/© 2023 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
J. Castellanos-Barliza and J.D. León-Peláez
et al., 2019; Parsapour et al., 2018; Ruiz et al., 2020; Thakur et al., 2022;
Wick et al., 2009; Zhang et al., 2019; Zhen et al., 2017). Evidence from
this research reveals that these effects have been promoted by feedback
among vegetation development, litter production, and the dynamics
between microorganisms and fine roots, which can lead for example to
pedogenic processes such as melanization and podzolization, as well as
the development of micro or macro-aggregates into soil (Ruiz et al.,
2020; Wick et al., 2009). Root exudates, for example, can form organic
acids that favor the disintegration of coarse to finer particles such as
clays, as well as the release of mucilage and organic polysaccharides that
promote the formation of aggregates and the accumulation of organic
carbon in the soil (Badri and Vivanco, 2009; Blanco-Canqui and Lal,
2004; Maharana, 2013; Osorio, 2014). Likewise, leaf litter decomposi­
tion favors the gradual incorporation of nutrients and organic materials
into the soil, reactivating the nutrient cycle, the growth of vegetation,
and the net primary productivity (Bandyopadhyay, 2022; Castellanos-
Barliza et al., 2022, 2018; David et al., 2021). On the other hand, in
open-cast mining areas, good soil quality can be ensured in habitats with
a more developed vegetation structure (Domínguez-Haydar et al., 2018;
Eldridge et al., 2022; Valdez-Hernández et al., 2019; Wick et al., 2007),
since there is a linear relationship between vegetation structure and
plant productivity and biomass, showing a greater positive response to
the age of restoration.
In general, the recovery of different soil properties does not occur at
the same pace across mining rehabilitation sites, mainly due to the
environmental conditions of each study site and the rehabilitation pro­
gram previously employed. For example, Buta et al. (2019) showed that
in temperate forests, 30% of soil organic matter can be recovered after
40 years, and this value can be reached more quickly (5 years) with
agricultural crop rotation and high doses of fertilization. In tropical dry
forests, Domínguez-Haydar et al. (2018) found that physical indicators
(bulk density, texture, biogenic aggregates) can reach their maximum
recovery at 8 years, while biological indicators may take between 8 to 16
years (macroinvertebrate diversity), and the chemical indicators (pH,
organic matter, nutrients) may take longer compared to the reference
native forest.
Most of the studies conducted on open-pit coal mining spoil recovery
have been carried out in temperate regions (e.g. USA, China, and
Polond; Bandyopadhyay and Maiti, 2022). Although there has been
greater interest in understanding the natural dynamics of Technosols
(soils dominated or strongly influenced by material of human origin,
Leguédois et al., 2016; Ruiz et al., 2020) in tropical regions in recent
years (Specifically in the India, Maharana, 2013; Chaturvedi and Singh,
2017; Thakur et al., 2022; Kumar et al., 2015). Studies in neotropical
areas are still lacking (South and Central America; Bandyopadhyay and
Maiti, 2022), particularly in seasonally tropical dry forest ecosystems
(TDFs). Therefore, it is necessary to increase efforts to fill these infor­
mation gaps, especially in the understanding of the functional aspects
related to the effect of revegetation on the physical, chemical, and
biological properties of soils. Such studies are critical to assess the
resilience and sustainability of these dry ecosystems over time (Cas­
tellanos-Barliza et al., 2018).
On a global scale, one of the largest open-pit coal mining operations
has been carried out for more than three decades at El Cerrejón mine (La
Guajira, northern Colombia), with an annual export of more than 30
million tons, which represents 38% of national production and more
than 50% of coal exports (Rojano et al., 2017). The revegetation model
used in post-mining areas (ca. 4400 ha, Cerrejón, 2022), consists of the
initial planting of grasses and native trees of the TDFs, on reconstructed
landscapes with stockpiled top soil (Castellanos-Barliza et al., 2018).
The evaluation of the changes over time in the properties of these mining
soils, characterized as Technosols, is essential to understand the effec­
tiveness of the rehabilitation techniques that are used and to optimize
the intervention of these areas (León and Osorio, 2014).
The objective of this study was to evaluate the recovery of the
physical-chemical and biological properties of Technosols from these
2
Geoderma Regional 33 (2023) e00652
vegetation-rehabilitated areas in a chronosequence of dry forests (7, 10,
and 21 years) in El Cerrejón mine. The properties of the soil in these
areas were compared with those of the mature dry forest considered as a
reference ecosystem, and with those of areas in which rehabilitation
activities had not yet been carried out (0 years). Consequently, the in­
formation obtained in this study was used to: (1) characterize the
physical, chemical, and biological properties of Technosols in the
chronosequence of rehabilitation areas; and (2) explore the effect of
rehabilitation age, which is considered in this study as the development
over time of structural (basal area) and functional (leaf litter and fine
litterfall) characteristics, on the changes of the studied soil properties
and their interactions.
We hypothesized that the successional advance of the ecosystems,
which in turn determines their greater structural and functional devel­
opment, will produce the integral improvement in the quality of the soils
on which the rehabilitation activities were carried out. Particularly, we
expect a more noticeable improvement of physical and biological
properties, as they are usually the most affected by soil removal and
temporary storage activities, and that such properties, especially near
the ground surface, will return to the pre-disturbance condition over
time in older rehabilitation sites.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Study area
The study was carried out in rehabilitation areas of the open-cast coal
mine El Cerrejón (Fig. 1, 11◦ 03′ N, –72◦ 43′ W) in La Guajira (Colombia).
Mean annual temperature is 27.5 ◦ C, and mean annual precipitation is
907 mm, which is distributed mainly from August to November (Cas­
tellanos-Barliza et al., 2018). Mean annual potential evapotranspiration
is above 2000 mm (Moscote and Castellanos, 2018). The mining activity
takes place in the bio-climatic conditions of the TDFs, with annual water
deficit between 1000 and 1500 mm, and an aridity index between 0.50
and 0.59 (IDEAM, 2022).
Soils of the Aridisol order predominate in Cerrejón and its area of
influence, with large groups of calcareous and sodic soils (Jaramillo,
2014). Most of the soils in the area are classified in the Aridic Haplustalfs
subgroup, which comprise moderately deep soils that are well drained
with moderately fine textures, high to medium cation exchange capac­
ity, and moderate fertility, (Gualdrón, 2011). The parent material con­
sists of highly altered tertiary sediments, which are low in organic
carbon and high in exchangeable ions, with an ochric and argillic
diagnostic horizon. These soils originate from sedimentary rock mate­
rials, such as claystones, sandstones, and limestones. They also present
expandable clays such as montmorillonite and other integrated clayey
materials (Gualdrón, 2011). The vegetation is adapted to a semi-arid
condition, dominated by deciduous trees typical of TDFs. The most
dominant family is Fabaceae, but there are also abundant species of the
families Euphorbiaceae, Flacourtiaceae, Myrtaceae, Rubiaceae, and
Rutaceae (Dominguez-Haydar and Armbrecht, 2011). A characteristic of
the Technosols present in Cerrejón during their first stages of estab­
lishment, is to present problems of surface sealing and dispersion of fine
particles due to the action of rainfall (Gualdrón, 2011), which are
intense for four months of the year (60% of annual precipitation, Cas­
tellanos-Barliza et al., 2018).
On reconstructed landscapes with stockpiled topsoil (removed from
the original site before starting the mining activity), revegetation ac­
tivities were carried out during the post-mining phase. Buffel grass seeds
(Cenchrus ciliaris L., Poaceae) were first planted (2 kg of seed per hect­
are). Two years later, native tree species of TDFs were planted using
three-month-old nursery-grown seedlings (240 seedlings per hectare,
mainly leguminous species: Acacia tortuosa L., Acacia macracantha Willd,
Caesalpinia mollis Kunth, Caesalpinia coriaria Jacq, Prosopis juliflora Sw.,
Mimosa arenosa Willd, and Senna atomaria L. Castellanos-Barliza et al.,
2019).
J. Castellanos-Barliza and J.D. León-Peláez
Fig. 1. Structural and functional characteristics of vegetation present at sites of different ages after coal mining rehabilitation (RS-7, RS-10, RS-21) and on a native
forest in La Guajira, Colombia. D: stand density of trees with DBH: tree diameter at breast height > 2.5 cm, G: basal area, H: height; LL: leaf litterfall rate, LT: total
fine litterfall rate. Mean ± SE (n = 4 plots).
Four forest stands containing three sites each were classified ac­
cording to years since initiation of revegetation activities (RS-7: 7-year
old forest, RS-10: 10-year old forest, RS-21: 21-year old forest), and
four stands of native mature forest (reference ecosystem) were selected
(Fig. 1). Additionally, four sites were selected in which revegetation
activities had not been initiated (0 years old). In general, the rehabili­
tation sites showed an increase in structural and functional parameters
over time (See Fig. 1). Particularly, basal area (G) and fine litter pro­
duction rates (LT, organic material falling from the canopy including
woody material up to 2 cm in diameter) at the 21-year-old site were
higher than those observed in native forest. A detailed description of
these sites and post-mining rehabilitation activities can be found in
Castellanos-Barliza et al. (2019, 2018).
2.2. Experimental design and soil sampling
Four rectangular plots (60 m x 20 m, 1200 m2) were established in
each of the three rehabilitation sites (RS-7, RS-10, RS-21), in the native
forest, and in the non-rehabilitated site. In each plot, 10 random points
3
Geoderma Regional 33 (2023) e00652
were selected, where surface soil samples were collected at two depths
(0–3 cm and 3–20 cm). These shallower layers were selected because
previous studies have demonstrated an initial effect of greater change on
the physicochemical properties of soils (Gualdrón, 2011; Moscote and
Castellanos, 2018)
The ten soil sub-samples for each depth level were mixed and ho­
mogenized to obtain a composite sample per depth and per plot. In total,
eight composite soil samples were collected (four for each depth level)
according to rehabilitation age, in addition to those corresponding to the
native forest and the non-rehabilitated site. Subsequently, they were
packed, labeled, and transported to the Biogeochemistry Laboratory of
the Universidad Nacional de Colombia for processing and analysis.
2.3. Monitoring of fine litterfall
In this study, inputs of organic materials via fine leaf litter were
evaluated to explore their effects on the soil. In each of the plots
established in the rehabilitation sites, and in the reference mature dry
forest, litter traps were set up to monitor fine litterfall, as described by
J. Castellanos-Barliza and J.D. León-Peláez
Castellanos-Barliza et al. (2019). In each of these plots 10, fine litter
traps were installed (40 traps per site), which consisted of circular
containers of 0.5 m2 made of fine mesh cloth. The litter was collected
monthly for 12 months and separated by fractions (leaf litter, woody
material, reproductive material, other remains), and after drying at
65 ◦ C, the mass of each litter fraction was recorded. In order to incor­
porate the contributions of organic matter via litter, as a functional
variable that can play an important role in the analysis of the evolution
of soil properties with rehabilitation time, we used the annual rates of
leaf litterfall (LL) and total fine litterfall (FL) for the analysis, reported
by Castellanos-Barliza et al. (2019). These were expressed as kg ha-1.
2.4. Determination of physical properties
Bulk density (BD) was determined by the cylinder method (Han
et al., 2016) (4.5 x 5 cm), at eight random points in each plot of each
rehabilitation age. The samples were dried at 105 ◦ C for 48 h, and the
dry mass of the soil (Dms) was determined. BD was obtained by dividing
Dms (g) by the volume of the cylinder (cm3) (Jaramillo, 2014). Particle
density (PD) was determined by measuring by the volumetric balloon
method in water (Forsythe, 1985). Porosity (PO, %) was calculated
using the equation: PO = (1-BD/PD)*100 (Jaramillo, 2014). Maximum
water holding capacity (WHC, %) was estimated by the method of Piper
(1966), but instead using perforated Gooch crucibles as the type of
container (30 mm diameter, 36 mm height and 0.75 mm diameter holes
in the bottom). A disc of filter paper was placed at the bottom to retain
the soil mass, and 3 g of sieved dry soil were placed in each crucible (2
mm). The crucibles with soil were kept for 24 h in a tray with water to
saturate the soil. The WHC was calculated from the weight difference
between the saturated soil and the dry soil. Weighted mean diameter
(WD) and soil aggregate stability (AS) were determined from undis­
turbed samples (Yoder, 1936) taken in each plot at the two depth levels
(8 samples in total: 1/plot, 2/depth level, 4/rehabilitation age).
2.5. Determination of chemical properties
Soil samples were air dried and sieved (2 mm). Soil pH was deter­
mined using a glass electrode (soil:water, 1:2). Organic matter (OM) was
determined by wet oxidation (Walkley-Black, volumetry). Soil C and N
contents were determined by combustion in an elemental analyzer
FLASH 2000-CNHS. Phosphorus in soil solution (Ps) was determined by
applying CaCl2.2H2O 0.01 M, agitation, centrifugation, and filtration
(Fox and Kamprath, 1970), followed by reading the absorbance of the
solution at a wavelength of 890 nm (Murphy and Riley, 1962).
Exchangeable bases were determined by extraction with 1N neutral
ammonium acetate (CH3COONH4) followed by atomic absorption
spectrophotometry.
2.6. Determination of biological properties
The activity of the soil microorganisms (AM), and the presence of
various functional groups for each age of rehabilitation were deter­
mined. Colony forming units (CFU) were isolated and counted for total
bacteria (TB), total fungi (TF), phosphate solubilizing microorganisms
(PSM) (Osorio and Habte, 2001), proteolytics (PM) (Wood, 1980), N2
fixing (NF) (Döbereiner and Day, 1976), and cellulolytics (CM) (Wood,
1980). For this, a sample of 1 g of soil (0–3 cm) was taken on a dry basis,
and it was dissolved in 9 mL of a sterile solution of CaCl2 (0.01 M). This
solution was stirred for 30 min, serials dilution up to 10-4 were made in
distilled water, and 100 μL were transferred to Petri dishes with selective
media. The inoculated dishes were incubated (28 ◦ C, 48 h) under natural
light conditions. Subsequently, the CFU of the microorganisms that
presented halos were counted. AM was determined using the respiro­
metric technique (Anderson and Domsch, 2010), consisting of quanti­
fying the release of CO2 due to the metabolic activity of the organisms.
For this, 50 g of soil were placed in a wide-mouth glass jar, adding water
4
Geoderma Regional 33 (2023) e00652
to maintain the soil at field capacity. Subsequently, 2.5 mL of glucose
(2%) were added, and a beaker with NaOH (10 mL, 1 M) was placed
inside the flask. The containers were hermetically sealed and incubated
for ten days at room temperature. CO2 capture was measured by
applying BaCl2 (4 mL, 20%) and titrated with HCl (1M) and phenol­
phthalein (0.2%).
2.7. Analysis of data
One-way analysis of variance and mean comparison tests (Duncan, p
= 0.05) were performed to determine differences in physical-chemical
and biological properties among the different rehabilitation ages,
including the non-rehabilitated site and the reference mature forest.
Logarithmic transformations were performed to meet the assumptions of
normality and equality of variances. When these assumptions were not
met, the nonparametric Kruskal-Wallis test was used. A principal
component analysis (PCA) was carried out to evaluate the association
among the studied properties and ecosystems at different rehabilitation
ages; litterfall rates (LL, LT) and structural characteristics of forest
stands (basal area, G: m2 ha-1) were included as possible predictors.
Since the greatest changes in physical-chemical and biological proper­
ties were expected near the surface (Zhang et al., 2019), the results of
this analysis focused mainly on the first depth level (0–3 cm). All ana­
lyzes were conducted using the R language package (R Core Team,
2021) and Statgraphics Centurion XVII (StatPoint Technologies, Inc).
3. Results
3.1. Soil properties
A generalized pattern of improvement of the physical, chemical, and
biological properties was found at both depths of the soil as age of
rehabilitation increased (Table 1). After seven years (RS-7), various
physical properties improved significantly (p < 0.05) near the surface
(0–3 cm: PO, WHC, WD) compared with the non-rehabilitated sites. PD,
WHC, and AS of the oldest-age (RS-21) samples were similar to those of
the mature forest (83–100%) samples; no significant differences were
observed.
The chemical properties also improved over time (Table 2), with a
more marked pattern at the first depth level (0–3 cm). The pH pro­
gressively decreased, with significant differences observed among the
non-rehabilitated site and samples from the 10-year-old forests (RS-10:
7.7). After seven years, OM and N increased 35% and 47%, respectively,
compared with the non-rehabilitated site, and significant differences in
N, Ps, K, and Na were observed among the sites. The increases in Ps were
notable, representing almost four orders of magnitude (0.20–0.22 mg L-
1
), compared with the non-rehabilitated site (0.06 mg L-1). On the other
hand, MO and N contents in the forest with the oldest rehabilitation age
(RS-21) were close to those observed in the reference forest (MF, rep­
resenting about 89% and 71%, respectively). At the second depth level
(3–20 cm), and considering the three rehabilitation ages, only the Ca
content and the CEC showed significant differences after 10 years (RS-
10).
For biological properties, AM increased with the age of rehabilita­
tion; this pattern was more notable in samples from the first depth level
(Table 3). Significant differences in AM were found between the non-
rehabilitated site and the other sites. A similar trend was observed in
the presence of functional groups of soil microorganisms over time, with
significant differences being found for TB and PSM between the oldest
sites (BR-21) and those not rehabilitated. A clear effect of the passage of
time was observed in the abundance of PSM, with significant and very
noticeable differences seven years after the rehabilitation activities were
carried out.
J. Castellanos-Barliza and J.D. León-Peláez Geoderma Regional 33 (2023) e00652

Table 1
Physical properties of Technosols evaluated in rehabilitated and non-rehabilitated sites, and in a mature tropical dry forest at El Cerrejón coal mine, La Guajira,
Colombia. Mean ± SE (n = 4). BD: bulk density, PD: particle density, PO: porosity, WHC: maximum water holding capacity, AS: aggregate stability, WD: weighted
mean diameter. Different letters indicate statistically significant differences (p < 0.05).
Properties Depth (cm) Non-rehabilitated Rehabilitation ages Mature Forest

7-years-old 10-years-old 21-years-old

BD (g cm-3) 0–5 1.39a ± 0.05 1.33a ± 0.03 1.31a ± 0.04 1.28ab ± 0.02 1.19b ± 0.06
PD (g cm-3) 0–3 2.12a ± 0.02 2.09a ± 0.02 2.06a ± 0.04 2.03a ± 0.07 2.02a ± 0.09
3–20 1.88b ± 0.02 2.09a ± 0.03 2.16a ± 0.07 2.16a ± 0.04 2.11a ± 0.02
PO (%) 0–3 34.65e ± 0.54 36.19d ± 0.54 38.00c ± 0.28 39.42b ± 0.56 44.34a ± 0.32
3–20 24.69c ± 1.07 27.82bc ± 1.08 28.52b ± 1.73 30.48ab ± 1.29 33.57a ± 0.69
WHC (%) 0–3 62.13c ± 0.95 74.85b ± 0.69 77.15b ± 1.41 85.40a ± 2.65 103.31a ± 6.95
3–20 65.70ab ± 1.53 69.43a ± 1.17 62.90b ± 2.08 65.75ab ± 1.18 65.23ab ± 3.23
AS (%) 0–3 66.42b ± 0.20 68.58b ± 0.39 78.89a ± 2.21 84.87a ± 4.20 88.61a ± 1.20
3–20 62.49c ± 2.53 84.93ab ± 6.44 77.65b ± 2.70 91.85a ± 3.99 90.50a ± 2.65
WD (mm) 0–3 1.17d ± 0.02 1.78c ± 0.03 2.15c ± 0.08 2.46b ± 0.29 3.61a ± 0.23
3–20 1.53d ± 0.17 2.18cd ± 0.10 2.49bc ± 0.34 3.13ab ± 0.43 3.60a ± 0.22
Sand (%) 0–3 52b ± 0.00 50b ± 4.11 58ab ± 0.94 63a ± 3.06 67a ± 6.62
3–20 48b ± 2.83 49b ± 1.73 58a ± 4.81 55ab ± 2.40 55ab ± 2.56
Silt (%) 0–3 22a ± 1.41 27a ± 3.33 24a ± 3.65 20a ± 2.49 18a ± 6.95
3–20 27a ± 0.71 27a ± 1.11 26a ± 2.49 23a ± 2.00 29a ± 3.32
Clay (%) 0–3 26a ± 1.41 23a ± 1.49 18b ± 2.98 17b ± 1.15 16b ± 4.32
3–20 25a ± 2.12 25a ± 2.75 16a ± 5.89 22a ± 0.94 17a ± 2.21

Table 2
Chemical properties of Technosols evaluated in rehabilitated and non-rehabilitated sites, and in a mature tropical dry forest at El Cerrejón coal mine, Colombia. Mean
± SE (n = 4). OM-C: oxidizable organic carbon, Ps: P in soil solution, CEC: cation exchange capacity. Different letters indicate statistically significant differences (p
<0.05).
Properties Depth (cm) Non-rehabilitated Rehabilitation ages Mature forest

7-years-old 10-years-old 21-years-old

pH (1:2) 0–3 8.28a ± 0.07 8.01ab ± 0.10 7.71c ± 0.12 7.76bc ± 0.15 7.31d ± 0.08
3–20 8.04a ± 0.06 7.88a ± 0.13 7.88a ± 0.07 7.83a ± 0.05 7.55b ± 0.09
OM-C (%) 0–3 0.82b ± 0.04 1.54ab ± 0.14 1.72ab ± 0.25 2.20a ± 0.26 2.47a ± 0.53
3–20 0.96b ± 0.01 1.00b ± 0.13 1.03ab ± 0.02 1.12ab ± 0.20 1.55a ± 0.36
C/N 0–3 5.64a ± 0.15 7.43a ± 1.60 7.36a ± 1.15 8.18a ± 0.83 6.60a ± 0.67
3–20 7.29a ± 0.20 7.81a ± 1.27 8.00a ± 0.47 8.42a ± 1.35 6.73a ± 1.10
N (%) 0–3 0.15c ± 0.01 0.22b ± 0.03 0.23b ± 0.00 0.27ab ± 0.01 0.38a ± 0.09
3–20 0.13b ± 0.00 0.13b ± 0.01 0.13b ± 0.01 0.13b ± 0.00 0.23a ± 0.02
Ps (mg L-1) 0–3 0.06b ± 0.01 0.21a ± 0.07 0.22a ± 0.01 0.20a ± 0.07 0.12a ± 0.03
3–20 0.04a ± 0.03 0.05a ± 0.01 0.06a ± 0.04 0.05a ± 0.01 0.05a ± 0.00
Ca (cmolc (+) kg-1) 0–3 48.00b ± 1.46 52.09b ± 3.95 50.33b ± 4.00 71.52a ± 3.78 51.55b ± 6.48
3–20 7.69b ± 2.22 48.35b ± 1.07 63.01a ± 1.50 67.79a ± 3.24 65.49a ± 5.00
Mg (cmolc (+) kg-1) 0–3 4.25ab ± 0.35 4.10ab ± 0.21 3.75b ± 0.03 4.40a ± 0.12 4.57a ± 0.09
3–20 4.11ab ± 0.05 4.68a ± 0.14 3.73b ± 0.35 4.20ab ± 0.33 3.58b ± 0.07
K (cmolc (+) kg-1) 0–3 0.50c ± 0.00 1.07b ± 0.18 1.21b ± 0.05 1.30b ± 0.08 1.78a ± 0.09
3–20 4.11ab ± 0.05 4.68a ± 0.14 3.73b ± 0.35 4.20ab ± 0.33 3.58b ± 0.07
Na (cmolc (+) kg-1) 0–3 0.74a ± 0.01 0.33c ± 0.01 0.36c ± 0.01 0.37c ± 0.06 0.63b ± 0.05
3–20 0.94a ± 0.01 0.39c ± 0.01 0.31c ± 0.04 0.30c ± 0.03 0.60b ± 0.05
CEC (cmolc (+) kg-1) 0–3 53.49b ± 1.11 57.59b ± 4.06 55.64b ± 3.96 77.59a ± 3.74 58.52b ± 6.54
3–20 53.24b ± 2.21 54.06b ± 1.07 67.76a ± 1.27 73.07a ± 3.07 70.19a ± 5.00

3.2. Soil property–vegetation relationships over time 4. Discussion

The first two components of the PCA (Fig. 2) explained 63% of the
total variability, and the formation of groups between the rehabilitation
ages, with respect to the physical-chemical and biological properties
evaluated was observed. Consequently, high values of pH and BD
showed an association with the plots of the non-rehabilitated sites and
the youngest site (RS-7). In general, for the remaining properties,
improvement was observed as rehabilitation age increased, with high
values positively associated with older ecosystems (RS-21 and MF).
Particularly, the physical variables (PO and WHC) formed a subgroup
that separated the MF from the other sites. A direct relationship was
observed among rehabilitation age, litter production rates (LT and LL)
and the basal area (G), which were associated with high values of
physical (PO, WHC), chemical (CEC, C), and biological (NF, TF, AM)
properties around it.
4.1. Changes in the properties of Technosols over time
Evaluation of changes in soil properties is essential to understand the
effect of rehabilitation practices and the mechanisms driving these
patterns in soil recovery (Orozco-Aceves et al., 2017). The results of this
study showed that the revegetation implemented in the rehabilitation
program mitigated the alteration of some physicochemical and biolog­
ical properties in the mining substrates, with increasing plantation age
reaching values similar to those of the reference mature forest. These
results are probably due to the inclusion of native herbaceous and tree
species during the rehabilitation program of these edaphic substrates, as
well as to the arrival of other non-planted species via natural succession,
allowing the structural development of these rehabilitation forests, in
which the biogeochemical cycle was progressively reactivated over time
(Castellanos-Barliza et al., 2019; León and Osorio, 2014; Peláez-Silva
et al., 2019). Among the processes involved are the production of fine

5
J. Castellanos-Barliza and J.D. León-Peláez Geoderma Regional 33 (2023) e00652

Table 3 Singh, 2017; Melo et al., 2018; Thakur et al., 2022).

Biological properties of Technosols evaluated in rehabilitated and non- It is important to note that the Technosols studied represent recently
rehabilitated sites, and in a mature tropical dry forest at El Cerrejón coal formed systems, and their greatest changes can be observed in the first
mine, Colombia. Mean ± SE (n = 4). TB: total bacteria, TF: total fungi, PM: few centimeters (Wang et al., 2018), as found here (Tables 1–3).
proteolytic microorganisms, CM: cellulolytics microorganisms, PSM: phosphate Therefore, continuous inputs of organic materials from the canopy (lit­
solubilizing microorganisms, NF: N-fixing microorganisms, AM: activity of mi­
terfall), as well as inputs from fine roots, favor greater biological activity
croorganisms. Different letters indicate statistically significant differences (p <
in these first levels of superficial soil depth, as opposed to what occurs at
0.05).
greater depths (Tripathi et al., 2014; Zhang et al., 2019).
Properties Depth Non- Rehabilitation ages Mature
The effects on the properties studied were appreciable after 7 years
(cm) rehabilitated Forest
7- 10- 21- (RS-7). Thus, the improvement of PO, WHC, and WD is attributed in part
years- years- years- to the penetration and subsequent death of fine roots and the progressive
old old old
incorporation of surface organic matter (Castellanos-Barliza et al., 2018;
TB (UFC/ 1.1 × 107b
7.5 × 1.3 × 2.6 × 1.4 × Zhang et al., 2018a), which by its light and porous nature also favors the
0–3 106b 107b 107a ± 106b ±
g soil) ± 0.05 formation of aggregates and soil structure, and decreases bulk density
± 0.24 ± 0.14 0.11 0.12
4.8 × 4.0 × 6.8 × 7.0 × (de Carvalho et al., 2018; Flores et al., 2019; Moret-Fernández and
TF (UFC/g 1.4 × 106a Lopez, 2016; Pandey et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2018). Similarly, the in­
0–3 106a 106a 106a ± 106a ±
soil) ± 0.01
± 0.76 ± 0.14 0.25 0.14 crease in organic matter and nutrients (C: 47%–77%, N: 35%–44% and
1.9 × 2.4 × 1.3 × 1.6 × Ps: 70%–73%) observed in the soil with increasing rehabilitation ages
PM (UFC/ 3.8 × 107a
0–3 106b 107ab 107ab 107ab
g soil) ± 0.82 (from non-rehabilitated substrates to 21-year-old forests), is mainly
± 0.00 ± 0.59 ± 0.67 ± 0.55
8.8 × 7.7 × 5.4 × 6.1 × attributed to the contribution of leaf litterfall, whose values were re­
CM (UFC/ 2.1 × 105ab
0–3 105a 104b 105ab 105a ± ported by Castellanos-Barliza et al. (2018) as high for this same
g soil) ± 0.02
± 0.29 ± 0.07 ± 0.37 0.13 ecosystem (Leaf litterfall: 54 g m-2 yr-1; and potential return of N: 1.2 m-
PSM 4.5 × 8.4 × 5.5 × 5.5 × 2
2.0 × 104b yr-1 and P: 0.04 m-2 yr-1). Similar patterns have been mentioned by
(UFC/g 0–3 105a 105a 105a ± 105a ±
soil)
± 0.03
± 0.21 ± 0.59 0.45 0.19 Chaturvedi and Singh (2017) in India’s dry forests undergoing mining
5.9 × 6.3 × 3.6 × 7.8 × rehabilitation, where soil organic carbon increased by 72% (0.2%–
NF (UFC/ 1.9 × 106ab
g soil)
0–3
± 0.01
106ab 105b 106ab 106a ± 0.7%) in forests 3–12 years old, respectively, showing a positive rela­
± 0.42 ± 0.05 ± 0.56 0.25 tionship between soil organic C as a function of the amount of dry matter
AM (μg C-
0.05a 0.03b 0.05a 0.05a deposited as litter.
CO2 g-1 0–3 0.01c ± 0.00
± 0.00 ± 0.01 ± 0.00 ± 0.00 Among the chemical properties, pH stands out as an informative
h-1)
AM (μg C- indicator of soil rehabilitation, because it regulates microbial activity
0.02b 0.02b 0.03ab 0.04a
CO2 g-1 3–20 0.03b ± 0.00 and nutrient availability for plants (Moghimian et al., 2017). The
± 0.01 ± 0.00 ± 0.00 ± 0.00
h-1)
decrease in pH after 7 years of rehabilitation, is also strongly linked to
the progressive incorporation of organic matter provided by the vege­
tation (leaf litter and fine roots) and to microbial activity (Srivastava
et al., 2014), as reported by other studies carried out on degraded sites
(Sroka et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2018a).
An important consideration in the analysis of the changes in the
chemical parameters along the studied chronosequence, is that these
presented better characteristics than those usually found in abandoned
mining areas, with low contents of organic matter and nutrients for the
growth and development of vegetation (Adeli et al., 2013; Quadros
et al., 2016; Yuan et al., 2016). Thus, the materials on which the
revegetation activities were carried out showed, in general, high con­
tents of OM (1.4%) and N (0.2%), and high values of CEC and exchange
bases. However, despite the abundance of the latter, the participation of
Ca in the exchange complex (ca. 91%) was excessive compared to that
suggested as balanced (70–75%: Patricia Flórez-Flórez et al., 2013),
while the participation of Mg (ca. 8%) was located at the lower end of
the recommended interval (8–15%). In fact, the Ca/Mg ratio (ca. 11)
Fig. 2. Principal component analysis of the physical-chemical and biological indicated a nutritional imbalance between both cations. Of even greater
properties (0–3 cm of depth), analyzed in Technosols in rehabilitated sites (RS: relevance, the low availability of K could limit plant performance in
7–21 years), a non-rehabilitated site (NR: 0 years), and a mature tropical dry these arid conditions, given its role in multiple mechanisms related to
forest (MF) in the El Cerrejón coal mine, La Guajira, Colombia. BD: bulk den­ water use efficiency (Li et al., 2021; Sardans and Peñuelas, 2015). In
sity, PO: porosity, WHC: Maximum water holding capacity, OM-C: organic addition to its low participation in the exchange complex (ca. 1%),
carbon, CEC: cation exchange capacity, C/N: soil carbon/nitrogen ratio, Ps: availability of K could be limited by the antagonistic K–Mg relationship,
phosphorus in solution, AM: activity of microorganisms, NF: N-fixing micro­ with the mean value Mg/K = 8 being much higher than that suggested as
organisms, TF: total fungi, PM: proteolytic microorganisms, PSM: phosphate balanced (3.3: Stover and Simmonds, 1987). In analyzing the effec­
solubilizing microorganisms, LL: leaf litterfall rate, LT: total fine litterfall rate,
tiveness of the rehabilitation activities, our results suggest that the
G: stand basal area.
passage of time determined a favorable evolution in the Mg/K ratio,
with a noticeable reduction at the oldest rehabilitated site (RS-21, Mg/K
litter, nutrient recycling through this pathway, exudation of acids and = 3.4).
organic materials by fine roots, and the constant death and renewal of The microbiological properties also developed with increasing
these roots (Tripathi et al., 2016; Zhang et al., 2018a). These results plantation age (Table 2). In fact, after 21 years, the total bacteria counts
coincide with those of other studies that report the improvement of the (UGC g-1 soil) showed significant differences compared with the non-
physical-chemical and biological properties of the soil, after planting rehabilitated sites, corresponding to those reported for tropical ecosys­
tree species for land rehabilitation (Adeli et al., 2013; Chaturvedi and tems (106–107: Osorio, 2014). Similar results in the increase of specific

6
J. Castellanos-Barliza and J.D. León-Peláez
groups of microorganisms, as well as their activity, have been obtained
in revegetated sites after the abandonment of mining activities (Quadros
et al., 2016; Srivastava et al., 2014).
Although P was the nutrient that represented the greatest limitation
at the ecosystem level due to its low availability (Table 2), a high
abundance of P-solubilizing microorganisms was determined (Table 3).
In fact, the mean values reported for the N/P ratio of leaf litter in these
same sites (BR-7: 38.3, BR-10: 38.3, BR-21: 20.9; Castellanos-Barliza
et al., 2018), indicated some degree of shortage of P for decomposing
microorganisms, with values higher than those indicated as critical (N/
P = 16.5, Aerts and Chapin, 1999). The high abundance of these mi­
croorganisms suggests their potential as a functional group for rehabil­
itation activities in these environments (Osorio et al., 2017).
4.2. Interactions between soil properties and functional-structural
characteristics of the vegetation in rehabilitated sites
In forest ecosystems, primary soil organic carbon resources are
usually directly related to factors inherent to their structure and func­
tioning, including plant biomass and litter production (Adeli et al.,
2013). Thus, plants, soil organic matter, and microorganisms form an
interconnected system, so that if one of these factors is degraded, the
other two factors can also be negatively affected (Quadros et al., 2016).
Consequently, in this study it was found that soil gradually recovered its
OM content and its physical and biological stability as the rehabilitation
age increased, simultaneously producing increases in their fine litterfall
rates and in the structure of the rehabilitated ecosystems (G).
Specifically, higher LT and LL rates corresponded to ecosystems with
higher successional advance, because of a greater structural develop­
ment over time (RS-7, G: 4.3 m2 ha-1; RS-10, G: 6.1 m2 ha-1; RS-21, 15.1
m2 ha-1; MF, G: 18.1 m2 ha-1), determining increases of the organic
matter content in these Technosols (Fig. 2). This direct relationship
between rehabilitation age, G, and LT and LL, favored the improvement
not only of physical and chemical properties, but also biological ones,
with increasing abundance and microbial diversity, as reported by other
studies (Anderson and Domsch, 2010; de Carvalho et al., 2018; Pandey
et al., 2017; Quadros et al., 2016; Srivastava et al., 2014).
The highest OM values recorded in the most mature ecosystems (BR-
21 and BM) were positively associated with physical properties such as
PO and WHC (Fig. 2), as found in other works (Bennett et al., 2021;
Flores et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2018). Here it should be noted that WHC
is an essential property to mitigate the low water availability charac­
teristic of the study sites, which represents one of the greatest limitations
for the success of revegetation. On the other hand, OM was inversely
associated with BD and pH, indicating decompaction, as well as favoring
soil nutrient availability as already indicated.
Another aspect that deserves to be highlighted is the high positive
relationship between P-solubilizing microorganisms and P in the soil
solution (Fig. 2). Thus, despite the limited availability of P, this func­
tional group increased the mobilization of P, and could directly affect
the ecosystem function in the growth and development of vegetation.
This becomes relevant to the extent that the low availability of P has
been pointed out as one of the most critical aspects for land rehabilita­
tion in the tropics (Walter Osorio-Vega et al., 2015; 2017).
5. Conclusions
For the proper management of ecosystems in rehabilitated areas of
open pit mining, it is necessary to obtain knowledge of the temporal
changes of the properties of the Technosols in which revegetation ac­
tivities are carried out. Our results showed a remarkable effect of the
structural development of the ecosystem on the recovery of the physical-
chemical and biological properties in the evaluated chronosequence.
Increasing rehabilitation age resulted in greater structural and func­
tional development, which was evidenced by an increase in G and in the
input of organic materials and nutrients through fine litter.
7
Geoderma Regional 33 (2023) e00652
Consequently, and as a result of the reactivation of the biogeochemical
cycle, the gradual improvement of the quality of these Technosols was
confirmed in relatively short periods of time. Thus, in the rehabilitated
sites, organic matter contents between 63-89 % of those found in the
reference forest were recorded. This represents a key aspect in terms of
rehabilitation, since organic matter can lead to the integral improve­
ment of the soil, given its ability to influence other properties. Indeed,
the changes in OM content with rehabilitation age were associated with
the improvement of other properties, such as pH, porosity, nutrient
content, and size and activity of the microbial population. Although
these results indicated that the successional advance contributed to the
gradual improvement of the properties considered, it should be noted
that the timely intervention on restrictive variables for the development
of the vegetation at the beginning of the rehabilitation activities, as
represented here by the availability of P and ratios between elements,
will surely result in an increase in the effectiveness of the latter.
Declaration of Competing Interest
None.
Data availability
The data that has been used is confidential.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Ministerio de Ciencia Tecnología e
Innovación (MINCIENCIAS), Programa Nacional de Ciencia, Tecnología
e Innovación, Medio Ambiente, Biodiversidad y Hábitat (Code 1116-
569-34827). We thank the technical and scientific support to the
personnel of the mining company El Cerrejón.
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