SYNTHESIS OF GUIDING PRINCIPLES ON

AGRICULTURE PROGRAMMING FOR NUTRITION

DRAFT

September 2012

2
Agriculture programming for nutrition guiding principles – DRAFT – FAO 2012

Executive Summary

The food and agriculture sector is essential to human nutrition. It plays the lead role in year
round access to diverse, safe and affordable foods, and provides livelihoods to millions of
households. Improving nutrition also helps achieve goals of reducing poverty and increasing
productivity. But food and agriculture interventions do not always contribute to positive
nutritional outcomes; they can even have negative impacts. Specific attention is required to make
sure agriculture is “nutrition-sensitive”. But what does this mean in practice, and what should be
done differently?

These questions have taken on a particular importance as a growing number of countries and
development institutions are putting nutrition at the heart of their agenda, as they respond to the
UN Secretary General’s Zero Hunger Challenge and join the Scaling Up Nutrition (SUN)
movement. In recent years, there has been a proliferation of interest in linking agriculture and
nutrition, and many multilateral, bilateral, and civil society organizations have produced
guidance on improving nutrition impact through agriculture.

FAO has therefore carried out a review of these materials through an extensive consultation
process to assess the degree of consensus amongst development partners, and to identify major
guiding principles that can assist policy makers and program planners in the design of nutrition-
sensitive agriculture policies and programs.

The report synthesizes existing recommendations from guidance materials published by 12

international development institutions. It also identifies organizational statements or strategies,
and lists technical resources that can be useful for the application of these principles.

The review identifies a high degree of consensus among development institutions.

Recommendations are synthesized into a list of 20 main messages, which broadly fit into three
categories: planning a program or policy, main program activities (“doing”), and a supporting set
of factors based on governance, policy, and capacity:

Planning
1. Incorporate explicit nutrition objectives in agricultural policy and programme design.
2. Assess the context and causes of malnutrition at the local level, to maximize effectiveness
and reduce negative side effects.
3. Do no harm. Identify potential harms, develop a mitigation plan, and set in place a well-
functioning monitoring system.
4. Measure nutritional impact through programme monitoring and evaluation.
5. Maximize opportunities through multisectoral coordination.
6. Maximize impact of household income on nutrition, such as through increasing women’s
discretionary income.
7. Increase equitable access to productive resources (e.g. land, water, credit).
8. Target the most vulnerable groups, including smallholder farmers, women, and poor/food
insecure households.
 Main Activities (Doing)
All approaches should:
9. Empower women, the primary caretakers in households, through income; access to
extension services and information; avoiding harm to their ability to care for children; labor
and time-saving technologies; and support for rights to land, education, and employment.
10. Incorporate nutrition education to improve consumption and nutrition effects of
interventions. Employ agricultural extension agents to communicate nutrition messages as
feasible.
11. Manage natural resources for improved productivity, resilience to shocks, adaptation to
climate change, and increased equitable access to resources through soil, water, and
biodiversity conservation.
These can be combined with approaches to:
12. Diversify production and livelihoods for improved food access and dietary diversification,
natural resource management, risk reduction, and improved income.
13. Increase production of nutrient-dense foods, particularly locally-adapted varieties rich in
micronutrients and protein, chosen based on local nutrition issues and available solutions.
 Horticultural crops are highly recommended, to improve year-round micronutrient
intakes and healthy diet patterns, and to increase income (especially women’s).
 Produce animal-source foods on a small scale, including fish and livestock, to improve
intakes of micronutrients, protein, and fat; keep production small-scale to avoid harms to
the natural resource base.
 Harness the potential of nutritious underutilized foods (such as indigenous crops), which
often have high nutrient content and low input requirements, and potential for income
generation.
 Increase legume production for their nutritional value and their attribute of nitrogen
fixation, which can improve soil fertility and yields and reduce inputs.
 Invest in biofortification as a complement to other approaches.
 Staple crop production may be necessary but insufficient for addressing undernutrition.
 Cash crops are unlikely to improve nutrition on their own.
14. Reduce post-harvest losses and improve processing.
15. Increase market access and opportunities, especially for nutritious foods that smallholders
may have a comparative advantage in producing.
16. Reduce seasonality of food insecurity through diversification throughout the year,
improved storage and preservation, and other approaches.

Supporting
17. Improve policy coherence supportive to nutrition, including food price policies, subsidies,
trade policies, and pro-poor policies.
18. Improve good governance for nutrition, by drawing up a national nutrition strategy and
action plan, allocating adequate budgetary resources, and implementing nutrition
surveillance.
19. Build capacity in ministries at national, district, and local levels, and increase nutrition staff.
20. Communicate and continue to advocate for nutrition.
The overall rationale for the agriculture sector to increase attention to nutrition cited in the
guidance is based on two main reasons: (1) nutrition is inseparable from goals agricultural
programs and policies set out to achieve (food security and poverty reduction), and (2) actions to
improve nutrition would remove constraints to productivity and income generation.

If these principles can be incorporated into agriculture programs now, including appropriate
monitoring and evaluation, then the result will be a new generation of evidence that will improve
knowledge on operational “how-to” best practices, costs, and impact – and may result in a
revision of guiding principles. This new knowledge would further improve ability to plan for
and include nutrition outcomes in agriculture projects, propagating a virtuous cycle of
knowledge, commitment, and action.

A partner consultation highlighted areas that could be considered in guidance but are not
currently stated by many institutions. The report includes a discussion section which highlights
gaps in the current guidance that were identified through the review and the stakeholder
consultation process. It also includes an analysis of how the guidance provided compares with
existing evidence from the scientific literature as summarized by commissioned literature
reviews.

Proposed next steps, identified in collaboration with partners, include the following:

 Increase collaboration and engagement with agriculture professionals at country level and
institutional level.
 Communicate current recommendations about “what to do” to improve nutrition through
agriculture, and incorporate actions into agriculture programs.
 Improve information about “how to do” successful approaches, particularly around
improving market access and ensuring that women benefit; and approaches specific to
project types, value chains for specific crops, and agroecosystem types.
 Foster a new generation of evidence: Gather information on nutrition impact,
productivity, economic impact, and costs. Needed support for producing the next
generation of evidence includes accessible guidance on study design and methodology,
and adequate human and financial resources to carry it out.
 Support action through governments and institutional incentives, including food and
agriculture policies supportive of healthy diets and nutrition; support for capacity in
agricultural extension and nutrition training and staffing at all levels; and institutional
incentives for multisectoral collaboration, context assessment, and a planning process to
avoid nutritional harm.
Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the FAO Nutrition and Consumer Protection Division, and carried
out by Anna Herforth, FAO consultant. It could not be what it is without the input and
participation of the Agriculture-to-Nutrition Community of Practice (the Ag2Nut CoP), the
Association for International Agriculture and Rural Development (AIARD), and many
individuals. The following individuals are gratefully acknowledged for providing documents,
comments, or support that shaped the final version of this paper:
Pascasie Adedze (USAID BFS), Juliet Aphane (FAO), Sheri Arnott (World Vision Canada),
Sharon Arscott-Mills (ICF International), Terri Ballard (FAO), Gilles Bergeron (FANTA-3),
Scott Bleggi (Bread for the World), Lynn Brown (WFP), Barbara Burlingame (FAO), Muriel
Calo (ACF), Judy Canahuati (USAID FFP), Ruth Charrondiere (FAO), Cecile Cherrier (EC
Nutrition Advisory Service), Chuck Chopak (DAI), Greg Collins (USAID BFS), Violet
Dancheck (USAID FFP), Charlotte Dufour (FAO), Florence Egal (FAO), Leslie Elder (World
Bank), Jessica Fanzo (on behalf of Bioversity International; REACH), Kate Franko (US
Department of State), Suzanne Gervais (Cornell Univeristy), Kate Golden (Concern Worldwide),
Joanne Grace (Save the Children UK), Lawrence Haddad (IDS), Janneke Hartvig Blomberg
(World Bank), Phil Harvey (independent), Anne Henderson Siegle (ICF International), Yurie
Tanimichi Hoberg (World Bank), Allison Hodder (FAO), Aira Htenas (World Bank), Julien
Jacob (ACF), Andrew Jones (Cornell University), Remi Kahane (GlobalHort), Silvia Kauffman
(UNICEF), Gina Kennedy (FAO), Tarik Kubach (EC-Rwanda), Harriet Kuhnlein (McGill
University/CINE), K Ladd (ACDI/VOCA), Sascha Lamstein (JSI), Luc Laviolette (World
Bank), Geraldine Le Cuziat (independent), Jef Leroy (IFPRI), Jim Levinson (independent),
Emily Levitt (World Vision), Maura Mack (USAID BFS), Beverly McIntyre (HKI), Beth
Medvecky (Cornell Univeristy), Julien Morel (ACF), Ellen Muehlhoff (FAO), Claire Nicklin
(CCRP, McKnight Foundation), Rob Paarlberg (consultant to IFPRI), David Pelletier (Cornell
University), Per Pinstrup-Andersen (Cornell University), Maria Pizzini (Save the Children UK),
Victoria Quinn (HKI), Julie Ruel Bergeron (World Bank), Tom Schaetzel (on behalf of IYCN;
Manoff Group), Holly Sedutto (FAO), Jane Sherman (consultant to FAO), Mark Smulders
(FAO), Gudrun Stallkamp (Concern Worldwide), Shelly Sundberg (Bill and Melinda Gates
Foundation), Shakuntala Thilsted (WorldFish Center), Brian Thompson (FAO), Mark Varner
(Association of Public and Land-grant Universities), Jeff Waage (London International
Development Centre), Paul Wagstaff (Concern Worldwide), Carl Wahl (Concern Worldwide,
Zambia), Patrick Webb (Tufts University), and Jim Yazman (USAID BFS).
Acronyms

Organizations
ACF (Action Against Hunger International)
AED (Academy for Educational Development)
AGRA (Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa)
BI (Bioversity International)
BMGF (Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation)
CCRP (McKnight Foundation Crop Collaborative Research Program)
CGIAR (Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research)
DFID (UK Department for International Development)
EC (European Commission)
FANTA (Food and Nutrition Technical Assistance - USAID)
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations)
GAIN (Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition)
HLTF High Level Task Force on Global Food Security of the United Nations
HKI (Helen Keller International)
ICRW (International Center for Research on Women)
IDS (Institute for Development Studies, University of Sussex, UK)
IFAD (International Fund for Agricultural Development of the UN)
IFPRI (International Food Policy Research Institute)
IYCN (Infant and Young Child Nutrition – USAID)
SC (Save the Children, UK)
UN SCN (Standing Committee on Nutrition of the United Nations)
USAID (United States Agency for International Development)
WB (World Bank)
WFP (World Food Programme of the UN)
WV (World Vision International)

Other
M&E Monitoring and Evaluation
SUN Scaling Up Nutrition
Contents
Executive Summary....................................................................................................................................... 2
Acknowledgements....................................................................................................................................... 6
Acronyms ...................................................................................................................................................... 7
Introduction and Purpose ............................................................................................................................. 1
Methods ........................................................................................................................................................ 2
Scope ............................................................................................................................................................. 4
Section 1: Summary guidance....................................................................................................................... 6
Conceptual framework of guidance............................................................................................................ 10
Section 2: Discussion................................................................................................................................... 11
Main conclusions .................................................................................................................................... 11
Are the principles backed by evidence? ................................................................................................. 13
What is missing from the current guidance ............................................................................................ 19
Next steps ............................................................................................................................................... 27
Section 3: Synthesis of guidance by theme ................................................................................................ 29
Nutrition Objectives ................................................................................................................................ 29
Context assessment ................................................................................................................................ 30
Do no harm ............................................................................................................................................. 31
Program Monitoring & Evaluation .......................................................................................................... 32
Multisectoral collaboration..................................................................................................................... 34
Maximize impact of household income .................................................................................................. 36
Equitable access to resources ................................................................................................................. 37
Targeting ................................................................................................................................................. 38
Diversify production and livelihoods ...................................................................................................... 40
What to produce ..................................................................................................................................... 41
Reduce post-harvest loss and improve post-processing ........................................................................ 44
Increase marketing opportunities .......................................................................................................... 45
Reduce seasonality ................................................................................................................................. 46
Women’s empowerment ........................................................................................................................ 47
 Nutrition Education................................................................................................................................. 49
Management of natural resources ......................................................................................................... 50
Policy coherence ..................................................................................................................................... 52
Good governance for nutrition ............................................................................................................... 53
Capacity-building .................................................................................................................................... 55
Advocacy and communication ................................................................................................................ 55
Table 1: Purpose, Audience, and Scope of each Guidance Note ................................................................ 57
ANNEX 1: ALL DOCUMENTS IDENTIFIED: .................................................................................................... 66
ANNEX 2: ADDITIONAL RESOURCES............................................................................................................ 73
ANNEX 3: quotes supporting each theme by organization ........................................................................ 85
Nutrition Objectives ................................................................................................................................ 85
Context assessment ................................................................................................................................ 87
Do No Harm ............................................................................................................................................ 93
M&E ...................................................................................................................................................... 100
Multisectoral collaboration/coordination ............................................................................................ 107
Household income ................................................................................................................................ 113
Equitable access to productive resources ............................................................................................ 117
Targeting ............................................................................................................................................... 122
Diversify production and livelihoods .................................................................................................... 125
What to produce (general) ................................................................................................................... 128
Reduce post-harvest losses and improve post-processing ................................................................... 146
Increase marketing opportunities ........................................................................................................ 151
Reduce seasonality ............................................................................................................................... 155
Women’s empowerment ...................................................................................................................... 157
Nutrition education............................................................................................................................... 164
Manage natural resources .................................................................................................................... 173
Policy coherence ................................................................................................................................... 178
Good governance for nutrition ............................................................................................................. 185
Capacity building ................................................................................................................................... 192
Advocacy and communication .............................................................................................................. 194
Introduction and Purpose

Since the food crisis in 2008, the L’Aquila commitments to agriculture, as well as increased
agriculture investments from multilateral development institutions and foundations, have greatly
increased the funding envelope and human resources for agricultural development, particularly
that focused on smallholder and women farmers. At the same time, the Scaling Up Nutrition
Framework for Action (2010) and Road Map (2011) have also placed an emphasis on the need
for urgent investment to reduce malnutrition, and the United Nations Committee on World Food
Security (CFS) is developing a Global Strategic Framework for Food Security and Nutrition
(2012). National governments and operational staff have also increased their requests for
assistance and guidance from the international development partners on what to do to improve
nutrition impact from agriculture. For example, since the inclusion of nutrition as Pillar 3 in the
CAADP, African nations are seeking improved knowledge and capacity in this area.

The main underlying determinants of adequate nutrition are access to adequate nutritious food,
healthy environments and access to health services, and adequate care practices for children and
mothers. In turn, these underlying causes are affected by an array of basic causes, such as
political environment, gender equity, and economic resources.1 As such, nutritional
improvement will come from approaches within many sectors that aim to have impact on the
underlying determinants of nutrition – or, “nutrition-sensitive” development – in addition to
“nutrition-specific” approaches that directly affect the immediate determinants of nutrition (food
intake and disease).2 Agriculture is of fundamental importance to human nutrition, both as a
direct determinant of household food consumption, and through its role in livelihoods and food
systems. There is a growing understanding that agricultural development provides an obvious
and needed entry point for efforts to improve nutrition, and at the same time, agricultural
investments targeted to smallholder farmers are more likely to succeed if they address the human
capital constraints due to malnutrition.

In the last several years, there has been a proliferation of interest in leveraging agriculture to
maximize nutrition impact. Many development institutions have published guidance notes about
linking agriculture and nutrition, mainly intended to assist program planners to understand and
implement the linkages. Several other institutions have released public statements of their own
approach to maximize nutrition impact through agricultural programs. Development institutions
have also sponsored literature reviews, community conversations, and research programs to
investigate the best strategies based on evidence and experience.

This synthesis aims to provide an updated and complete list of current guidance, institutional
strategies, and other publications released by international development institutions and inter-
agency UN bodies on maximizing nutrition impact through agriculture, and provides a summary
of the key messages currently available. The purpose of this paper is to provide accessible
information on what the international development community is saying on this topic, to
underscore key points of emerging consensus and to expose differences that may be potentially

1
UNICEF Framework on the causes of malnutrition, 1990.
2
These twin approaches are identified in the Scaling Up Nutrition Framework for Action (2010).

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confusing to implementers or which offer opportunities for further refinement of guidance and
strategies. The main audience is country-level policy-makers and program-planners; a secondary
audience is the international development community, which has an opportunity to amplify key
messages that have been voiced independently by separate institutions. In alignment with the
Rome Principles (2009), this synthesis helps to foster strategic coordination between institutions
and to strive for comprehensive, sustainable agricultural, food security, nutrition and rural
development programs.

Methods

Selection Criteria of Resources Reviewed:

1. Bilateral, multilateral, or NGO publication (no scientific journal articles, abstracts, or results
of individual studies)
2. Official institutional publications intended for public use (no internal deliberative documents
or unofficial working papers)
3. Materials destined for professionals working on agriculture program design and
implementation
4. Specific focus on agriculture-nutrition linkages (i.e. not nutrition programming in general)
5. Published since 2008 (although a few exceptions were made where older documents were
generally still consistent with the institution’s current approach, or more recent material was
not available)

Search methods:
1. Listed all organizations with a potential interest in links between agriculture and nutrition,
and searched for guidance, with the assistance of the Agriculture-Nutrition Community of
Practice (http://knowledge-gateway.org/ag2nut) and FAO staff.
2. Gathered statements from bilateral, multilateral, or NGO leaders given at the IFPRI
conference “Leveraging Agriculture for Improved Nutrition and Health,” Delhi, Feb 2011.
3. Where organizations with a known agriculture-nutrition work program did not appear to have
published statements, contacted key informants to ask for links to published statements.
4. Contacted the Agriculture-Nutrition Community of Practice (Ag2Nut CoP) and FAO staff to
review the list, and incorporated publications that were missing.

The complete list of documents identified is found in Annex 1. A total of 53 publications

were identified to date; 31 development institutions have published guidance, a statement, or
explorations of the evidence linking agriculture and nutrition.3 The documents identified were
then categorized into like groups. Five categories emerged:

3
The institutions include: A2Z (USAID-funded project now closed), ACDI/VOCA, ACF, AED (now closed),
AGRA, AVRDC (The World Vegetable Center), Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Bioversity International,
CGIAR, Concern Worldwide, EC, DFID, FANTA (USAID-funded project), FAO, Fintrac, GAIN, HKI, ICRW,
IDS, IFAD, IFPRI, IYCN (USAID-funded project now closed), The McKnight Foundation Crop Collaborative
Research Program, Save the Children UK, USAID, World Bank, WFP, WorldFish Center, World Vision
International, UN HLTF and UN SCN.

Page 2
  Guidance notes. The characteristic feature of a document categorized as a “guidance
note” was emphasis on general principles for maximizing nutrition impact of agriculture,
supported in many cases by specific examples of actions.
 UN inter-agency guidance. These were categorized separately because they reflect co-
signed consensus across many multilateral organizations. These included the UN
Standing Committee on Nutrition (SCN) and UN High-Level Task Force on Food
Security (HLTF).
 Manuals. These focused on specific operational steps within recommended actions. Two
documents were cross-filed in both the “guidance note” and “manual” category; they
were both entitled “manuals,” but placed significant attention on stating and describing
overarching principles as well.
 Statements and strategies. These were documents that publicly outlined the approach
of an individual institution to incorporate nutrition into agriculture, but that were not
aiming to give general comprehensive guidance on linking agriculture and nutrition.
 Other. Highly relevant published institutional documents that did not fall in any of the
above categories were placed in the “other” category. These included four commissioned
literature reviews, a community conversation, and a research program.

This synthesis paper includes only the 20 documents categorized as “guidance notes” and “UN
inter-agency guidance,” published by 12 institutions. It also briefly compares the summary
institutional guidance to four agency-commissioned literature reviews to provide information on
how the recommendations align with available evidence.

All identified guidance documents were read thoroughly and coded for themes. The minimum
inclusion criterion for a theme was that it was mentioned by at least three organizations.
Decisions on “lumping and splitting” themes was an iterative process. A list of potential themes
was generated and populated with quotes, which then were analyzed and sometimes combined or
separated, based on how much material was available for each potential theme, and how much
the material overlapped with other potential themes. The final list of 20 themes is based on an
inductive process that resulted in messages that were conceptually distinct, although often
somewhat overlapping (e.g. ensuring equitable access to resources and empowering women).
There were several other potential themes which were not included, because of too little mention,
or excessive overlap with other themes:

 Resilience and mitigating risk, which was a general, multifaceted principle threaded
throughout all topics (statements about resilience were included in many other categories,
including “targeting,” diversify production,” “reduce seasonality,” and “manage natural
resources,” among others)
 Investing in infrastructure (included in “policy coherence” and “marketing
opportunities”)
 Food price policy (included in “policy coherence”)
 Population and Environmental policies/issues (both included in “policy coherence”
and/or “natural resource management,” depending on the nature of the quotes)
 Social protection components to programs (included in “multisectoral collaboration” and
“policy coherence,” depending on the nature of the quotes)

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  Food safety (mentioned only in passing by 5 institutions; recommendations fell under the
principles of “post-processing,” “nutrition education,” and “governance”)
 Financial incentives for including nutrition objectives (discussed explicitly only by
IFPRI; included in “multisectoral collaboration”)
 Budgeting (discussed by only ACF).

Review process:

There were three stages of review. The first, described above, consisted of initial inputs from the
Agriculture-Nutrition Community of Practice and FAO staff on documents to include. The
second stage involved contacting authors of the guidance notes for them to check the validity of
statements about their publications in an initial draft. The third stage was an open consultation
on a final draft for consultation (April 2012), which was shared widely through professional
networks, and actively through presentations of the draft (at FAO, USAID, the Association for
International Agricultural and Rural Development 2012 conference, and the Ag2Nut CoP) and
solicitations for input from various individuals knowledgeable about the topic. Over 70
individuals representing 30 institutions provided documents or comments during the review
process.

Scope

As noted above, the synthesis is of guidance published by institutions; it is not a review or

synthesis of the peer-reviewed journal literature. The review is focused on guidance on
development approaches, rather than emergency response.4 Most existing guidance documents
emphasized programming more than policy, but also included policy recommendations (mostly
captured in the “Supporting” principles) due to the reality that a given policy environment
strongly influences the impact and sustainability of agriculture programming for nutrition.5 The
primary audience of most existing guidance is actors involved in programming (many were
written primarily for their own staff or to guide their own projects/investments), although most
documents identify governments and global donors as part of their broader audience (see Table
1). The primary focus of the guidance is on reducing undernutrition, but several guidance
notes include overnutrition as a possible nutrition problem discoverable through context
assessment, and frame the goal of nutritious and sustainable diets as important for both sides of
the dual burden. Similarly, the predominant focus is on improving producers’ nutrition rather

4
Some of the guidance notes provided advice for reforming food aid, or supporting nutrition during crises: see
identified guidance notes by ACF and HLTF, as well as other materials including FAO (“Protecting and Promoting
Nutrition in Crisis and Recovery”, Annex 1), and USAID (“Delivering Improved Nutrition”, Annex 2) Of particular
note, the UN HLTF documents included had a “twin track” dual focus on meeting immediate needs of vulnerable
populations (dealing with emergency food assistance and safety nets), and building longer-term resilience and food
and nutrition security (dealing with development approaches). For consistency, this review included material mostly
the latter (the development “track”).
5
The HLTF documents were also unique among all documents reviewed in that their primary focus was policy,
rather than programming. However, they also contained significant mention of programming principles which are
captured in this synthesis; again because it is difficult for either policy or programming to have an effect without the
other. The abundance of policy recommendations from HLTF is briefly summarized in the synthesis sections on
“Supporting” principles, and is copied more extensively in Annex 3.

Page 4
than general consumer nutrition, but many organizations explicitly recognize dual benefits for
both producers and consumers from the principles (as well as the dubitable dichotomy, since
producers are also consumers). The main areas where principles may have different affects if
applied mainly for the benefit of producers or consumers are: market or home consumption
orientation, choice of crops/livestock for production, and targeting.

This review has sought to be comprehensive, but it does not necessarily include all institutional
publications relevant to the issue of linking agriculture and nutrition. The review did not
encompass publications focused on sustainable agriculture or food security with less explicit
focus on strategies to link to nutrition, although some of the recommended principles (such as
targeting smallholder farmers) may overlap. (Examples include the UK Government Future of
Food and Farming report, the World Economic Forum’s New Vision for Agriculture, and reports
of the Global Donor Platform for Rural Development, found in Annex 2.) Likewise, reports
focusing on nutrition without explicit linkage to agriculture were excluded, although several also
may have contained relevant practical approaches for rural contexts (such as the SCN Guiding
Principles for nutrition policies, programmes and projects in the context of the global crisis,
which overlap to a large extent with the main themes found here).

Page 5
Section 1: Summary guidance

The recommendations in the guidance documents were synthesized into a list of 20 main
messages, which broadly fit into three categories: planning a program or policy, main activities
(“doing”), and a supporting set of factors based on governance, policy, and capacity. These
messages were compiled from the 20 guidance documents on linking agriculture and
nutrition produced by 12 development institutions: multilateral organizations (FAO, IFPRI,
Bioversity International, World Bank), bilateral and bilateral-supported organizations (EC,
FANTA, IYCN), and NGOs (ACF, Save the Children UK, World Vision); and inter-agency UN
bodies (UN HLTF and UN SCN). A table containing the title, date, purpose, audience, and
scope of each guidance document is found in Table 1. A list of all documents identified is found
in Annex 1.

The aim is to present an objective summary and synthesis of existing published guidance.
The identified principles (including their descriptions in the summary) do not necessarily
reflect the views or priorities of FAO, the author, or commenters.

The following summary is a distilled synthesis of the guidance, followed by a conceptual

framework to aid in visualizing the main principles. All information contained in the summary,
including sub-points as well as main points, was stated by at least three institutions. While three
institutions was the initial cut-off for inclusion, in fact, all principles were discussed by a
majority of the institutions that have published guidance. Of all 20 principles, eight were
discussed by all 12 institutions, and another eight by 10-11 institutions; the remaining four
principles were discussed by at least seven institutions each.

Further information around each principle can be found in two sections: Annex 3 contains
original quotes from the reviewed publications around each theme. These quotes are
summarized and analyzed in approximately one page per theme under Section 3, “Synthesis of
guidance by theme” – a section that provides a concise summary of information and
recommendations around each theme, capturing points raised by individual institutions.

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 Main themes of guidance documents:
The identified principles, including their descriptions, represent existing published guidance and
do not necessarily reflect the views or priorities of FAO, the author, or commenters.

Overall rationale for the agriculture sector to increase attention to nutrition is based on two
main reasons cited in the documents: (1) nutrition is inseparable from goals most agricultural
programs and policies set out to achieve (food security and poverty reduction), and (2) actions to
improve nutrition would remove constraints to productivity and income generation.

Planning

Best practice principles:

1. Incorporate explicit nutrition objectives into agricultural projects, programs, and

policies. Traditional agriculture sector goals may have potential to yield nutrition
improvements, but evidence and experience shows that explicit nutrition objectives are
necessary to guide specific activities and M&E plans to maximize positive nutrition impact
and minimize harm.
2. Assess the context to identify nutritional problems and groups most at risk, to understand the
causes of malnutrition and constraints to good nutrition, to identify opportunities to address
those constraints taking into account local resources and culture, and to build on existing
efforts, knowledge, and resources. This will maximize effectiveness and efficiency of
interventions and reduce negative side effects.
3. Do no harm. Avoid unintended negative consequences through a process of identifying
potential harms, developing a mitigation plan, and setting in place a well-functioning
monitoring system for timely detection of negative effects. Potential harms could arise from
increasing women’s workloads, crop choice, agrochemicals, increased agricultural water use,
and zoonotic disease.
4. Measure impact through programme monitoring and evaluation. Measure intermediate
outcome indicators as well as nutritional status impact, to be able to track positive effects and
attribute them to the intervention, and to identify and mitigate poor implementation or
unintended negative effects. The most commonly-mentioned indicators are dietary diversity
scores and stunting.
5. Maximize opportunities through multisectoral coordination. Nutrition improvements
depend on many sectors, and translating food security and consumption impact into
nutritional status often requires improvements in health, sanitation, and care and feeding
practices. Coordination at least in the planning and review phases, and in the implementation
phase where possible, will maximize the likelihood of nutrition impact from agriculture.
6. Maximize impact of household income on nutrition through concerted design efforts, such
as through increasing women’s access to income-generating opportunities and discretionary
control of income.
7. Increase equitable access to productive resources through policies and programs. At the
policy level, pay particular attention to increasing access to land rights and water. Programs
can facilitate access to credit, productive assets, extension services, and markets (for women
in particular).

Page 7
8. Target the most vulnerable groups, including smallholder farmers, women, and poor/food
insecure households.

Doing: Main Activities

All approaches should:

9. Empower women, the primary caretakers in households, through (i) increased discretionary
income, especially via increased attention to crops/livestock grown by women; (ii) improving
women’s access to extension services, financial services, technology, inputs, markets, and
information; (iii) avoiding harm to their ability to care for children; (iv) investing in labor
and time-saving technologies targeted to women; (v) adding program components to enable
high-quality child care; and (vi) advocating for policies to support women’s rights to land,
education, and employment.
10. Incorporate nutrition education to improve consumption and nutrition effects of
interventions. Develop a concise set of clear, actionable messages and strategies based on an
understanding of local perceptions, and barriers and opportunities to behavior change.
Messages often involve improving food safety, promoting consumption of healthy diets and
locally-available and nutrient-dense food, understanding nutritional requirements of different
family members and care/feeding practices. Employ agricultural extension agents to
communicate nutrition messages as feasible.
11. Manage natural resources for improved productivity, resilience to shocks, adaptation to
climate change, and increased equitable access to resources through soil, water, and
biodiversity conservation. These provide ecosystem services essential to smallholder
livelihoods, water quality, and food security.

These can be combined with approaches to:

12. Diversify production and livelihoods for improved food access and dietary diversification,
natural resource management, risk reduction, improved income, and other purposes.
13. Increase production of nutrient-dense foods, particularly locally-adapted varieties rich in
micronutrients and protein, chosen based on local nutrition issues and available solutions.
a. Horticultural crops are highly recommended, particularly when combined with nutrition
education, to improve year-round micronutrient intakes and healthy diet patterns, and to
increase income and women’s income control. Homestead and market-oriented
production are both likely to be positive, in view of nutrition for both producers and
consumers.
b. Produce animal-source foods on a small scale, including fish and livestock, to improve
intakes of micronutrients, protein, and fat; keep production small-scale to avoid harms to
the natural resource base.
c. Harness the potential of nutritious underutilized foods (such as indigenous or traditional
crops) which often have high nutrient content and resource use efficiency, and potential
for income generation.
d. Increase legume production for their nutritional value (rich in energy, protein, and iron)
and for their attribute of nitrogen fixation, which can improve soil fertility and yield and
reduce inputs.

Page 8
 e. Invest in biofortification as a complement to other approaches.
f. Staple crop production may be necessary but insufficient for addressing undernutrition
because of its limited ability to improve dietary diversity.
g. Cash crops are viewed as unlikely to improve nutrition on their own, based on risk of
unintended consequences for smallholders, such as potential reduction in dietary quality
for a variety of reasons. Complementary strategies (e.g. diversification) are
recommended to go along with cash crop production.
14. Reduce post-harvest losses and improve processing to increase and prolong access to and
consumption of diverse foods among both producers and consumers, to preserve or increase
nutrient content of food, to increase income and profit margins, and to improve food safety.
Solar drying and fortification are highly-recommended processing techniques.
15. Increase market access and opportunities to improve smallholder incomes (especially for
women) and consumer diets. Tools include farmer associations, improved infrastructure, and
social marketing and demand creation for nutritious foods that smallholders may have a
comparative advantage in producing.
16. Reduce seasonality of food insecurity through diversification throughout the year,
improved storage and preservation, and other approaches.

Supporting
Principles that enable programmes to achieve nutrition impact:

17. Improve policy coherence supportive to nutrition, so that one policy does not work against
another policy or program. Food price policies, subsidies, and trade policies sometimes have
counterproductive effects on nutrition and may need reform. Pro-poor policies including
social protection schemes, land reform, and infrastructure-building create an enabling
environment for nutrition improvement.
18. Improve good governance for nutrition, including leadership and commitment at the
highest levels of governments and donors, demonstrated by drawing up a national nutrition
strategy and action plan, allocating adequate budgetary resources, implementing nutrition
surveillance, and being accountable based on transparency and nutrition indicators.
19. Build capacity in ministries at national, district, and local levels, and increase nutrition staff.
20. Communicate and continue to advocate for nutrition. In addition to basic awareness-
raising around extent and consequences of malnutrition, disseminate impact results across
sectoral, national, and institutional boundaries and translate them into policy-relevant
messages for effective program and policy changes.

Page 9
Conceptual framework of guidance D O I N G

● ● ●

Diversify Production and Livelihoods

P L A N N I N G
Produce more nutrient-dense foods
including vegetables, fruits, animal
source foods, underutilized foods,
Do no harm legumes, and biofortified crops;
specifics depend on context
M&E
Context Reduce post-harvest losses and
improve post-processing
Assessment Nutrition Objectives
Increase market opportunities
Targeting
Reduce seasonality

● with ●
Maximize Opportunities:
Multisectoral coordination Women’s Empowerment

Impact of income Nutrition Education

Equitable access to resources
Management of Natural Resources
● ● ●

S U P P O R T I N G

Policy coherence, Governance and Capacity-building, Communication and Advocacy

Agriculture programming for nutrition guiding principles – DRAFT – FAO 2012

Section 2: Discussion

Main conclusions

Current guidance shows a high degree of alignment between institutions. It is striking how
much overall agreement there was on main principles for reaching nutrition. This was true even
though many institutions published guidance primarily for the use of their staff in their own
programs and investments (see Table 1). Disagreement by omission was not considered, because
of the wide range of length/scopes of the guidance notes (1 to 100 pages), omission could simply
have been due to limited page space. The 20 main messages were each supported by a majority
of the institutions, not just the minimum of three for inclusion, which demonstrates a strong
convergence around a discrete set of principles. Some stakeholders have voiced concern over
the empirical evidence base underlying actions to increase nutrition impact from agriculture
programs, but the fact that a majority of international development institutions independently
stand behind very similar approaches is itself a strong justification to increase action around
these principles. Policy decisions often must be made without the benefit of airtight scientific
evidence; or else the status quo continues, which has been clearly shown to be inadequate for
addressing nutrition. There is no good argument for inaction when the international development
community is so well aligned on many actionable principles to maximize nutrition impact of
agricultural investments. In addition, there is a low risk of doing harm by acting on these
principles, many of which are based in ethical concerns and good practices for programming, and
the best evidence available. As new evidence is generated from projects implementing the
current guiding principles, the guidance may be refined or revised in the future.

Outright disagreement was not observed for any principle, but there were some differences in
emphasis between guidance notes. Specific points where recommendations may differ due to
institutional priorities or experience in different contexts:
 How much to prioritize homestead food production for household consumption or for market
purposes, either of which could theoretically result in improved diets for producers.
 Whether the primary aim of nutrition-sensitive agriculture is observable impact on
individuals within producer households, or contributions to larger scale food systems to
improve nutrition sustainably for the population (or both).
 How to target agricultural interventions to the needs of different livelihoods groups; those
that most benefit one group may be slightly less beneficial to the other (though double wins
may also exist e.g. production by smallholders and processing or retail by landless laborers).
 How much emphasis to place on three kinds of production in particular (within the
recommendations on what to produce): staple crops (because of their utility for energy
intakes but potential competition with more nutrient-dense food production), biofortified
crops (notes were quite positive but several emphasized that biofortification needed to be
accompanied with other strategies, with ACF supporting use of only classical breeding
methods for biofortified crops), and animal-source foods (which have characteristics that
may be highly beneficial in some circumstances, and harmful to health and the environment
in others).

Page 11
 How much to depend on agricultural extension agents or program agents to deliver nutrition-
relevant information, and how much to collaborate with or depend on health staff to deliver
coordinated messages.
 Whether multisectoral collaboration should involve joint implementation of projects, or
simply joint planning and review (e.g. for coordinated messages and referrals).

Comments from partners during the consultation phase echoed these main conclusions.
There was unanimous support for the usefulness of a clear set of principles, and no commenters
raised oppositions to the 20 main messages. Comments also revealed the same differences in
emphasis apparent in the guidance notes, referred to just above.

 Some commenters (those working on market-led approaches) wanted to see more emphasis
on marketing and income generation, and less on small-scale own-production approaches.
 Some partners highlighted the importance of keeping in mind an end goal not just of
improved nutrition measureable in the short term, but that the goal should be sustainable
diets.6 Comments indicated that the principle of “manage natural resources” (discussed by
10 of the 12 institutions) should go beyond short-term farm-level natural resource
management, encompassing regional and global food systems – especially in light of climate
change. If not, efforts will be short-sighted and weaker than what is necessary to ensure food
and nutrition security for all globally, for the long term.
 Some noted that the guidance is geared toward rural contexts (smallholders in particular), and
suggested that additional guidance may be needed for agricultural approaches to improving
the nutrition of landless laborers and the urban poor.
 Some commenters preferred a stronger emphasis on diversification; one viewed investment
in biofortification as competing with stronger planning and action around diversification,
writing, “Diversification in agriculture, retail and distribution, food and consumption systems
needs to be maintained, since it seems to be the best way for empowerment of all actors,
resilience of the environmental ecosystems, and sovereignty of the developing countries.”
 Some commented that the amount of nutrition information agricultural extension agents can
be expected to communicate should be limited, and were skeptical of the approach; others
emphasized agricultural extension was an important part of strategies for nutrition education.
 One group communicated a strong preference for multisectoral implementation (not just
planning).

6
“Sustainable diets” are: “those diets with low environmental impacts which contribute to food and nutrition
security and to healthy life for present and future generations. Sustainable diets are protective and respectful of
biodiversity and ecosystems, culturally acceptable, accessible, economically fair and affordable; nutritionally
adequate, safe and healthy; while optimizing natural and human resources.” (FAO 2010)

Page 12
Are the principles backed by evidence?

Each institution that produced guidance notes strove to include the best practices based on
evidence and experience. Many of them referenced individual studies and recent literature
reviews. This section briefly compares the synthesis of guidance (as summarized above) directly
to main conclusions of literature reviews.

Four recent reviews of existing literature on agriculture-nutrition linkages, sponsored by

development institutions to understand the links better, are considered here:7 the World Bank’s
report “Pathways from Agriculture to Nutrition” (2007), USAID (through A2Z, hosted at AED)
& IFPRI “The Micronutrient Impact of Multisectoral Programs Focusing on Nutrition” (2008),
IYCN’s “A review of experience” (2010), and the widely-cited review by Masset et al. (2011)
commissioned by DFID. A full review of peer-reviewed articles on agriculture and nutrition was
beyond the scope of this synthesis document, and would also be redundant given the extensive
ground these four sponsored reviews have covered.

These literature reviews reached the following conclusions (found by all four reviews except
where otherwise noted):

 Impact on nutritional status has been observed in only a very few studies of agriculture
programs, but the lack of observed impact is most likely due to methodological problems
and cannot be interpreted as evidence for no impact; in other words, none of the
principles have been disputed.

 Most programs promoting specific nutrient-dense crops/livestock resulted in increased

consumption of those foods by producer households. Few evaluated total diet.

 The few well-designed strategies to increase production and consumption of nutrient-rich

food have generally shown evidence of improving micronutrient status, particularly
vitamin A.

 Most studies that have shown nutrition impact to date have attributed it mainly to changes
in home consumption of foods produced.

 Nutrition education enhanced consumption of own-produced nutritious foods.

 Observed nutrition impact was generally not due to household income, and many studies
have documented increased income in the absence of nutrition impact. However, the
most relevant income measurements (e.g. measuring total income instead of just income
resulting from the intervention, and disaggregating by gender) are methodologically
difficult and have not often been done well, hampering ability to draw stronger

7
The WorldFish Center also sponsored a review of fish projects and human nutrition; because of its limited scope, it
is not discussed here.

Page 13
 conclusions about the effect of income. The World Bank review covered nutrition impact
of cash crop (including staple grain) production and found little impact, positive or
negative, despite observed increases in income. The USAID(A2Z)&IFPRI report
concluded that the programs aiming to address gender equity issues have shown positive
results for increased women’s income control. Several past studies were cited that have
linked women’s income and overall empowerment positively to child nutritional status.

 Three of the reviews concluded that women’s empowerment and nutrition education were
central to interventions that had nutrition impact. (Masset et al. did not attempt to
identify intervention characteristics leading to nutrition impact.)

 Studies showing improved diets were not all able to document improvement in nutritional
status. Dietary intake is necessary but not sufficient for child growth and nutrition.
Health, sanitation, or education efforts may need to be combined with agriculture
programs to address the underlying causes of malnutrition in order to see observable
impact on nutritional status.

 All reviews suggest that programs should incorporate explicit nutrition considerations or
goals which would guide the design and implementation to enhance nutrition impact.

 The World Bank and IYCN reviews documented cases of unintended harm arising from
agricultural projects, including disease risk due to standing or contaminated water use,
zoonotic disease, aggravating exclusion of the most vulnerable groups, and negative
impacts on women (greater workload and/or reduced equity of income control), which
could affect child care and feeding.

 The World Bank, DFID and USAID(A2Z)&IFPRI reviews discussed the importance of
effective evaluation for understanding nutrition impact and attributing it to project
approaches; the World Bank review also noted effective monitoring as a feature of
successful projects, which allowed them to adapt to changing conditions.

 The World Bank and IYCN reviews highlighted cases where more formative research or
context assessment resulted (or would have resulted) in better nutrition outcomes.

 The World Bank and IYCN reviews provided evidence from several regions and
countries around the effect of food policy, with heterogeneous effects depending on
country context and the specific combination of policies. Examples from IYCN: policies
inflating food prices counteracted agricultural subsidies in their effect on consumption;
the effect of producer price supports on smallholders depended on whether the
commodity supported was primarily produced by small or larger farms.

 The World Bank review provided analytical evidence of constrained capacity for
nutrition analysis at country level, and that support of government nutrition strategies and
multisectoral nutrition planning agencies is necessary to provide incentives and
accountability for activities that target nutrition outcome.

Page 14
A limitation of these literature reviews is their exclusive focus on studies measuring
nutrition impact in the producer household. They did not evaluate nutrition more broadly in
the population, related to affordability of healthy diets, addressing the double burden of
undernutrition and overweight, and concerns for environmental sustainability of diets. This
evidence base is probably a major reason for producers’ nutrition as the primary focus within the
guidance documents reviewed in this synthesis.

The principles within the “doing” category are those most amenable to experimental research,
and these reviews primarily lend empirical strength to the principles to produce nutrient-dense
foods, empower women, and include nutrition education. In particular, there is strong
evidence about increasing women’s access to financial resources and packaging nutrition
education together with increasing physical access to nutrient-dense foods (usually through
diversification of some sort). Evidence on the effects of diversification per se was not covered in
these reviews, but interventions on home gardens and livestock in effect were diversification
interventions; i.e. most of the projects successful in increasing consumption of nutrient-dense
foods supported the production of diverse crops, as opposed to specialization in a single nutrient-
rich crop. However, one case study of an approach to increase production of a single vitamin A-
rich crop, orange-fleshed sweet potato, showed strong evidence of nutrition impact – partly due
to the characteristics of the crop: an ideal complementary food for young children (soft targeting
principle), primarily controlled by women; and also supported by substantial nutrition
promotion.

Reducing seasonal food insecurity and improving post-harvest processing generally have not
been evaluated in the studies reviewed.8 These principles are based in broader evidence that
hungry seasons can have long-term impacts on child growth and development, and that farmers
have more food and income from their harvests if some is not lost. Nutrition impacts of
successful approaches to reducing seasonality and post-harvest losses merit evaluation.

The reviews included only interventions that aimed to have nutrition impact, and most of those
did not focus on marketing. The evidence around nutrition impact of marketing approaches,
particularly those dealing with nutrient-dense foods that smallholders or women produce, is
therefore limited. The studies of agricultural commercialization discussed in the World Bank and
IYCN reviews dealt with cash crops, and did not find significant impact on nutrition.9

8
One relevant project was discussed in the A2Z(USAID) & IFPRI review: a solar drier project (for vegetables) in
Tanzania, which did not generate income but did appear to save women time, and resulted in increased intake of
animal-source foods primarily in association with a nutrition education component.
9
The WB review states: “In sum, the case studies documented fairly consistent positive impacts on focus crop
production, household income, and food expenditures, but no substantial impacts on young child nutritional status
(the main indicator assessed across studies). In one case in which subsistence food production was not maintained,
outcomes were worse. DeWalt (1993) concluded that a focus on commercialization per se was misplaced and that
impacts on food consumption and child nutrition were determined by control of production and income, allocation
of household labor, maintenance of subsistence production, land tenure, and pricing policies for both food and
nonfood crops. Kennedy et al. (1992) also attributed the lack of impact on child nutritional status to the generally
high levels of morbidity observed in project areas”… “The studies therefore suggest that although agricultural
interventions that promote commercialization may effectively increase income and food expenditures, they are not
sufficient to improve childhood nutrition if they are not complemented by interventions that specifically address

Page 15
The reviews did not explicitly cover management of natural resources; the effects of an
intervention on natural resources, and its relationship to nutrition, has not been measured in most
agriculture projects aiming to achieve nutrition impact. The World Bank review, however,
presents evidence from Malawi that a project integrating legumes, primarily for the purpose of
restoring soil fertility, also resulted in improved consumption of legumes (and later results
provided evidence of improved child growth).10 The participants’ primary motivation for the
legume systems, however, was for food and child nutrition. This provides evidence that
interventions to improve ecosystem services can be closely intertwined with goals to improve
nutrition. Direct impact of natural resources on nutrition is most evident around water. There is
evidence from irrigation projects that interventions that reduce water quality for consumption can
cause increased disease (discussed in World Bank review). Other effects of natural resources on
nutrition may take longer to document, well beyond program cycles (e.g. the impact of crop
genetic diversity on resilience to shocks). In terms of hard evidence, projects may well be able
to achieve nutrition, income, and other gains in the short term at the expense of some natural
resources. The international development community apparently does not embrace an approach
that discounts natural resources, based not on programmatic evidence, but on ethical concerns for
equity across populations and generations.

Many of the “planning” and “supporting” principles are discussed as “lessons learned” in the
reviews, based on analysis of experimental evidence.11 Of note, however, is that the evidence
base for these principles is broader than the universe of studies specifically on agriculture and
nutrition interventions.

The principles in the “planning” category are largely best practice principles in programmatic
work in general: context assessment to design an appropriate program, having an objective,
appropriate monitoring and evaluation to measure the specific objective(s), safeguarding
against unintended negative consequences (which have been documented from agriculture; see
World Bank 2007, and references within the World Bank guidance note, 2012), and targeting
vulnerable groups are clear programmatic best practices. Their end effectiveness will depend on
how well these principles are implemented by any individual program.

The principle of multisectoral collaboration is soundly based on the proven multiple causes
that influence nutrition: multiple sectors affect the causes of malnutrition (notably health, social
protection, education, and water and sanitation), so nutritional outcomes will be maximized if
agriculture does not act alone but in tandem with other sectors. The effectiveness of multisectoral
collaboration in any given project or context depends primarily on the extent to which it happens
in reality, rather than in principle. Several individual studies on agriculture-nutrition programs
have highlighted the role of some sort of multisectoral collaboration, such as paired extension
agents delivering nutrition messages, or geographic co-location (World Bank 2007); other
studies have attributed the lack of impact from agriculture programs to issues related to other
sectors (e.g. Kadila et al., 2000, as referenced by Masset et al.: declines in nutritional status

other determinants of child nutrition such as improved health, diet quality, child feeding, and other caregiving
practices.”
10
Bezner Kerr R, Berti P and Shumba L (2011). Effects of a participatory agriculture and nutrition education project
on child growth in northern Malawi. Public Health Nutrition 14 (8), 1466-1472.
11
See for example p31-32 and 69-72 in World Bank 2007.

Page 16
among agriculture program participants were attributable to parasitic infestation). Efforts to
collect case studies of effective multisectoral collaboration are ongoing12, which will help to
provide insight into how governments and programs can leverage this principle for nutrition.

The recommendation to increase income in specific ways that are more likely to affect nutrition
(i.e. the effects of household income differ by who controls it, and other factors such as what
form it is in, and how often it is received) has been supported empirically, as discussed in World
Bank 2007 (sections on commercialization and women’s income control). This principle
continues to be validated with a large body of research around the differential effects of women’s
vs. men’s discretionary income on young child nutrition and health (see references in World
Bank 2007, IYCN 2010).

Increasing equitable access to resources is a principle based in ethics as much as evidence.

Issues on land rights and other productive resource constraints appear in the World Bank and
IYCN reviews (e.g. vulnerable groups could not benefit if they could not access the inputs, as
shown from evidence presented in the IYCN review), and the Masset et al. study draws attention
to this issue by calling for more research that documents participation rates by socioeconomic
status, gender, etc., based on (1) concerns for targeting efficiency (which is taken as a given
principle) and (2) knowledge that the poorest households may lack even the most basic capital
needed, making it difficult or impossible to participate in agricultural projects aimed at improving
nutrition. If they do not participate, nutritional benefits from the project are likely limited.

The World Bank and IYCN reviews provide evidence for the important effect of policy on
nutrition and on programming13; due to contextual differences, specific policies were not
identified in the reviews that could be universally applied for better nutrition. Analysis of
constraints due to capacity and governance was presented in the World Bank review14, which
included recommendations around capacity development (such as including nutrition in
agricultural training), nutrition objectives for agriculture activities, and multisectoral planning
and coordination.

The usefulness of advocacy and communication to generate awareness and political priority for
an issue is a commonly-accepted principle. According to the experiences of the guidance
document authors and commenters on this paper, there is plenty of evidence of low awareness
among many agriculture program and policymakers about the causes and consequences of
malnutrition, and the need for communication about some of the basic ways agriculture can
address nutrition.

Which principles must be implemented to guarantee success?

There is no one combination of approaches that would be universally applicable or successful.

 The principles in the “planning” category are good practice principles that ensure a well-
designed intervention.

12
See Garrett and Natalicchio, 2011 (IFPRI), and Levinson, forthcoming (UNICEF)
13
See p3-6 of the IYCN review and p43-57 of the World Bank Review.
14
See “Institutional Frameworks for Action in the Agriculture Sector to Address Undernutrition” (p58-68)

Page 17
  The three principles first underscored in the “doing” category – women’s empowerment,
nutrition education, and natural resource management – are those which are likely to be
critical to success in any context. This conclusion is based on the small body of research
showing positive impact on diet or nutritional status from agriculture interventions, which
consistently include women’s empowerment and nutrition education. (Natural resource
management is immediately critical in projects involving water, but also contributes to
food and nutrition security in a longer timescale in all projects.) Other main
programmatic activities recommended (such as crop diversification, or post-harvest loss
reduction) are likely to have effects that differ by context and the limiting factors to food
security and nutrition.
 The “supporting” activities may be critical for implementation or sustainability - but are
often difficult to change from a program perspective. Their importance would be highly
context dependent, based on limiting factors to nutrition within a given context.

The need for each principle depends on the context, including what actions would eliminate
barriers to good nutrition, and what actions are possible given local and institutional resources.
In most cases, it is unlikely (or exceedingly difficult) that all 20 principles could be achieved
within a single program. It stands to reason however, based on their relation to well-accepted
best practices, known limiting factors, and existing experimental evidence, that as many as
possible can be applied, the better the chance of positive nutrition outcomes.

Which type of agriculture programs should integrate nutrition considerations?

The guidance is most easily applied to community-level projects, focused on impact for
vulnerable households employed in agriculture. It is also clear from the guidance, however, that
all agriculture programs or projects should at least assure that harm to nutrition is minimized (for
all stakeholders, including farm-owners, laborers, and consumers), suggesting that nutrition-
sensitive agriculture would at a minimum follow the principles of “do no harm” and “M&E.”
The greater call is that “nutrition-sensitive” thinking should not be applied only to miniscule
proportions of overall investment, but should be mainstreamed into all agriculture programs and
planning. This is pertinent particularly if “food security” is a goal.

Guidance is needed on methodology and evaluation tools for generating new evidence

Among the partner consultation to this report there was resounding support for the monitoring
and evaluation principle, and for generating more and better quality evidence about agriculture
programming for nutrition. Evaluation of impact needs to be rigorous and well-designed in order
to reach credible and useful conclusions. Communication and tools for current best evaluation
practices need to be made available to researchers, in order to avoid the methodological
problems of some of the previous research (as thoroughly described in Masset et al.). Further,
while the need for “evidence” in agriculture-nutrition linkages is a common statement, both the
approach for generating evidence and the type of evidence needs need to be clarified. What is
acceptable and relevant to agriculture professionals is often quite different than what is
acceptable to the health sector. For example, health professionals may call for randomized
controlled trials to verify impact on nutritional status, while agricultural professionals may prefer
less costly observational approaches, and to seek evidence around the trade-offs or co-benefits

Page 18
with economic outcomes. Whether key indicators should be limited to nutritional status, and/or
more direct outcomes such as food consumption and women’s discretionary income, is not clear
in the discourse (see guidance on indicators in the M&E section). A clearer vision is needed
around key research questions and key indicators, along with methodological support and
evaluation tools. Commenters particularly noted the need for documenting and testing program
impact pathways relevant to programmatic contexts (highlighted in the ACF guidance
document). Commenters also suggested that assessing different programmatic aspects separately
(e.g. education intervention) may be useful to identify the most cost-effective package of
interventions.

What is missing from the current guidance15

Increased collaboration with agriculture professionals

While the recommended principles are well-founded from a nutritional point of view, greater
collaboration with agronomists, ago-economists and other professionals from the agriculture
sector would be helpful in refining them and making them more actionable. So far most of the
authorship of these guidance notes is based in nutrition. Increasing the substantive contributions
from the agriculture side may result in guidance that speaks the agriculture “language” and that
is more aligned with the main priorities and incentives of professionals working in the
agriculture sector. For example, only three notes mentioned market viability as a criterion for
production choice – which, next to yield, is a fundamental principle for the agriculture sector.
Nutritionists may wish to increase guidance on how to increase market viability of certain
nutritious foods, e.g. indigenous crops or biofortified crops, so that agriculture professionals are
better able to act on advice to promote them. Greater inclusion of agriculture staff may prompt a
larger discussion of production/income/nutrition trade-offs and co-benefits, and may expose
some misalignment in preferred approaches to reach nutrition. For example, in the Interagency
Report to the G20 on Food Price Volatility (June 2011), agricultural economists from FAO,
IFAD, IMF, OECD, UNCTAD, WFP, the World Bank, WTO, IFPRI, and the UN HLTF offered
annexed advice on increasing resilience of agriculture through nutrition, and discussed only
biofortification as a strategy, specifically dismissing dietary diversification strategies as being
too long-term. That is the opposite emphasis as compared to the guidance notes, which offer
multiple strategies to achieve dietary diversity, and which consider biofortification a
complementary approach. Nutritionists need to work together with agriculturalists in a sincere
and open dialogue about how to mesh priorities and approaches, and to raise awareness about the
determinants of malnutrition and best practices to achieve nutrition results; advice that is
omnipresent throughout the guidance notes. This process, of course, requires partnership from
the agriculture side as well, which may be gained through continued communication and
advocacy about nutrition.

Comments from various partners indicate that engagement with agriculture professionals needs
to happen at both country level and institutional level. It seems there is somewhat of a chicken
and egg problem regarding country-led and donor-supported action. The World Bank guidance
note stated that country client demand for improving nutrition is one of the most important

15
This section incorporates views expressed by commenters who responded during the open consultation process.

Page 19
factors that would increase financing for nutrition-sensitive development; lack of country
demand has a resonating impact on the priorities of agencies’ country-level managers as well as
senior management. On the other hand, HLTF wrote that official development assistance “has
an important role to play in supporting the case for catalyzing and then accelerating necessary
increases in national spending.” In other words, raised commitment, and capacity at country level
will be important for donors to invest in nutrition-sensitive agriculture; and at the same time,
global agencies also have an indisputable role in discourse and capacity development.

Further guidance on improving market access for smallholders

One area that would particularly benefit from agriculture sector input is the recommendation to
increase marketing opportunities. Most guidance notes discussed the importance of livelihoods
and increasing market access for vulnerable farmers. The call for market access is based in
concerns about equity as well as income generation. Some partners, however, saw too little
emphasis on marketing in the guidance, and too much on small-scale solutions. The comparison
of guiding principles with evidence is one explanation for this apparent leaning: Many guidance
notes explicitly sought to be evidence based, and the best evidence has come from small-scale
production such as homestead gardens, especially if they include nutrition education or
promotion. Where the nutrition effects of commercialization have been examined,
commercialization was based on cash crops or staples, and generally resulted in no nutrition
impact (positive or negative). Almost all guidance notes strongly endorsed the need for increased
market opportunities – but focused on an approach qualitatively different from a traditional cash
cropping approach.

Recommendations for marketing approaches with nutrition as an explicit outcome focused on (1)
nutrient-dense foods and (2) commodities for which vulnerable groups (especially smallholders
and women) have a comparative advantage in producing and marketing. Market opportunities
were viewed as a way for producers to increase income, as an incentive for them to grow
nutritious and underutilized foods, and as a way to increase consumers’ access to nutritious
foods. The advice was also centered on improving equity or leveling the playing field; whereas
traditional commodity “cash cropping” often gives a comparative advantage to larger farms and
to men, the focus of increased market opportunities should be specific to women and
smallholders in particular (e.g. indigenous crops). The guidance talked about the usefulness of
social marketing and demand creation to help create market opportunities. In the area of
marketing nutrient-dense foods that give a comparative advantage to women and smallholders,
there are relatively few documented experiences to date; an area where the literature could be
vastly enhanced.

Therefore the lack of more comprehensive marketing recommendations should not be interpreted
as a lack of support for the principle, but rather as a lack of expertise and experience in
successful approaches with nutrition as an explicit outcome. Apart from often focusing on cash
crops for marketing, the agriculture sector, for reasons of efficiency in its use of resources, has in
the past tended to assist vulnerable households in subsistence/home production activities,
because investing in market access programs is too risky or too involved. Smallholders in many
cases need intensive training in business principles such as budgeting, production calendars, and
consumer demand. They may also need lengthy assistance from projects to broker deals with
lucrative markets for them, in part because large buyers may not be willing to consider contracts

Page 20
with smallholders without an insurer, and smallholders may not be able to survive financially
due to infrequent payments. There are a host of marketing problems which marketing specialists
and agricultural economists are best equipped to handle. Investing in market access assistance for
smallholders, especially for nutrient-dense foods they have a comparative advantage producing,
is an important topic that needs further discussion and partnership with the agriculture sector.
One commenter wrote of looking forward to efforts “to engage those of us in the agricultural
community through a market-related focus.”

Evidence around approaches to reduce both poverty and malnutrition efficiently

Relatedly, some commenters were concerned that the approaches emphasized in the guidance are
not most efficient for poverty reduction (and that poverty exacerbates malnutrition). Much of the
guidance arose from the mirror image concern: that poverty reduction approaches in agriculture
are not most efficient for malnutrition reduction (and that malnutrition exacerbates poverty).
There are larger research gaps in understanding whether there are poverty/malnutrition tradeoffs
from nutrition-sensitive agriculture, keeping in mind long-term effects well beyond a program
cycle (since better nutritional status of young children has large lifelong income effects), as well
as whose poverty (household, women’s, or children’s potential?), and whose nutrition is
measured (young children’s, women’s, or someone else?) The most relevant research should
seek to identify approaches that reduce both poverty and malnutrition. Along with this are
related concerns about potential trade-offs between specialization and diversification, but it
seems win-wins should be possible and documentable: diversification is commonly
recommended on grounds of both nutrition improvement and economic gain/risk reduction.16

Further considerations in the theme of reducing post-harvest losses

Commenters suggested more attention may be due aflatoxins, in relation to cultivation and food
storage practices, marketing, and potentially regulations, based on emerging knowledge about its
prevalence and apparent negative effects on child growth. (Some existing guidance notes discuss
aflatoxins briefly.) Also, improving infrastructure for refrigeration may be a critical need for
ensuring farmers can successfully market nutrient-dense foods.

Stronger and clearer guidance on food price policies, with attention to the nutrition
transition
Another area that would benefit from more concrete and specific guidance, based on interaction
with agricultural economists, is on food price policies and other food and agriculture policies in
the “policy coherence” theme. Most smallholder farmers, a commonly recommended target
population, are net buyers of food; and urbanization is accelerating. The relative prices of foods
affect likelihood of consuming a diverse diet; more work is needed on elasticities of demand for
nutritious foods, supply constraints, and effective food policies and regulations to improve
dietary quality. Given that the reality of many low- and middle-income countries is that
substantial proportions of their populations are both underweight and overweight (with
overweight increasing), guidance will need to move toward addressing both nutritional problems
in order to avoid harm. There is a growing body of policy-oriented literature aimed at reducing

16
Note from a contributor: A specific challenge is that food and market demands (and social mores) often induce
people to focus on staple crops. Consequently, inordinate amounts of time and labor are dedicated to those. Unless
these pressures are reduced that pressure (e.g. via policy change, other market opportunities, labour-reducing
technologies, nutrition promotion, etc.), increasing focus on other crops is difficult.

Page 21
overnutrition through food policy (see for example the Foresight Project, Chicago Council, and
PROFAV documents referenced in Annex 2), but so far, this literature has not been substantially
taken up by institutions focusing on development in low-income countries.

Stronger emphasis on environmental sustainability of approaches

Some partners highlighted the importance of keeping in mind an end goal not just of improved
nutrition measureable in the short term, but that the goal should be sustainable diets. This
concept is captured to some extent within the principle to “manage natural resources” – which
was discussed by 10 of the 12 institutions – because the livelihoods, food production, and disease
exposure of farmers is closely connected to the natural resource base. Thus recognizing
ecosystem services as the foundation for nutrition, comments from partners indicated that the
“natural resources” principle should go beyond short-term farm-level natural resource
management, encompassing regional and global food systems – especially in light of climate
change that will increase vulnerability of farmers. (This was especially clear in the HLTF
documents.) If not, efforts will be short-sighted and weaker than what is necessary to ensure
food and nutrition security for all globally, for the long term.

Costing
Costing of recommended interventions is currently missing. The most important costing may be
to identify the costs of agriculture programs that include nutrition objectives, for planning and
budgeting purposes. Cost benefit analyses that look at the effects of “option A” (an approach
with nutrition considerations) and “option B” (a standard approach) would also be helpful.
Neither pure costing nor cost benefit analyses17 have been done with agriculture objectives in
mind; even Save the Children UK did not attempt to cost its agriculture recommendations within
the guidance note “An eight-step, costed plan of action.”

Effective delivery of nutrition education/behavior change within agriculture

Many guidance notes recommended agricultural extension agents as a channel for nutrition-
relevant information, but depending on agricultural extension agents for the array of nutrition
messages recommended may not be feasible; greater attention is needed to who will deliver
nutrition education in the context of agricultural programs, and what messages they should focus
on. More evidence and experience from various contexts would be useful to identifying
effective combinations of delivery channels, including not just who conveys the information by
how it was done. Further, relying on agricultural extension agents requires that they exist in
sufficient numbers in the first place. In many countries, they do not. An enhanced role of
agricultural extensionists in nutrition education probably needs to be combined with advice to
simply increase funding allocations for agricultural extension in general. This includes increases
in quality of training, including nutrition, as well as quantity of personnel (see capacity-
building); remuneration may also need increase in some cases to provide an incentive for skilled
people to join and to provide high-quality assistance.

The guidance provides some information on “how” nutrition education or behavior change
communication can be done effectively (beyond the “what” messages and “who” delivers
17
Credible cost-benefit analyses have been done for biofortification, reaching the top of the Copenhagen Consensus
list (2008), for the outcome of improved micronutrient intake. An initial cost benefit analysis of HKI’s homestead
food production model in one region of Bangladesh estimates an economic rate of return of 160% (see Annex 2).

Page 22
them), but this aspect is critical. (For example, dialogue and negotiation, barrier analysis, social
mobilization, exploration of motivations, demonstration and modelling, mutual support and peer
education, hands-on practice and feedback; “baby-steps” in existing systems to influence
nutritional change.) A few partners emphasized that behavior change is a social phenomenon –
that social barriers or supporters affect whether change occurs, so education, again, often needs
to go beyond messages to individual households. It also can be directed at consumers to increase
market demand for nutritious foods (as noted in the WB guidance note). There is substantial
experience on effective social and behavior change communication that would bring important
insights to operationalizing the “nutrition education” recommendation.18

Considerations for avoiding unintended disempowerment of women

Two areas related to women’s empowerment lacked a full discussion of potential unintended
consequences that could unintentionally result in disempowerment for women. One was
promoting market-oriented production of women’s crops (e.g. horticultural or indigenous crops)
for the purpose of empowering women through enhanced income generation, which could
potentially have the unintended consequence of shifting control over the crops to men. This has
sometimes been observed in practice, but how to ensure that women maintain production and
income control, even when yields and profits increase, was not discussed within the
recommendations. One possibility is that nutrition education – recommended by all institutions
– and extension can address roles and responsibilities of men and women. They can highlight
the benefits to the household from women’s income, taking a more proactive role in maintaining
women’s control over production and sale. Context assessment may also prove useful for
exploring the likely impact of marketing women’s crops.

The ubiquitous advice to recognize women’s role in providing child care also requires careful
operational thought and action. While the guidance generally was very supportive of approaches
to allow women to participate both in economic opportunities while being able to feed their
children well, there is a fine line between protecting women’s ability to care for their children
and prioritizing child care over other choices women may make. Similar to anti-discrimination
and maternity leave policies in high-income countries, it is important that the recommendations
avoid an unintended consequence of projects passing over women for lucrative opportunities
because they are assumed to be unable to take them on due to child care. Successful
approaches that increase women’s economic empowerment while maintaining or
improving child care practices need to be documented.

Overcoming inadequate support for context assessment, efforts to avoid harm, and
multisectoral collaboration
Although the recommendations stressed the importance of context assessment, currently it is rare
to find adequate funding, staff, and time for achieving that goal in most programs. Interventions
are frequently designed in proposals without comprehensive understanding of cultural context
and opportunities for collaboration with existing initiatives. Requests for proposals may need to
be reoriented to commit more funding, time, and staff to context assessment before the program
clock (3 years, 5 years, etc) starts ticking. Some existing tools describe participatory methods for
18
Some tools are included in Annex 2 under “nutrition education”; USAID-funded SPRING is also working to pull
together existing tools, and the forthcoming guidance document by the McKnight Foundation CCRP focuses on
lessons learned around behavior change within their agriculture programs.

Page 23
rapid assessment at low cost19, and these methods may increase willingness of donors and
program staff to invest in context assessment. Local NGOs sometimes specialize in participatory
assessment, and large donor projects could sub-contract with them for the purpose of context
assessment. Improved access to information on the existence and capacity of local NGOs would
be helpful. One NGO that commented emphasized the need for farming systems analysis and
research to design appropriate and effective interventions.20

The recommendation to do no harm was near universal, and processes to operationalize that
advice have advanced recently. More work is needed, however, to help agriculture projects
predict potential harms likely for their specific region and project, and to incentivize that
thoughtful process in the planning and monitoring stages. While the guidance notes listed many
general classes of harm (such as reductions in women’s time), this recommendation is difficult to
generalize because it is context-dependent, and a likely harm in one place may be a non-issue
elsewhere.

The constraint of inadequate incentives is also true for the advice to collaborate multisectorally.
All guidance notes were supportive of multisectoral collaboration, at least in planning stages of
projects. Although the guidance notes fully acknowledged the difficulty of collaboration, advice
was generally weak on improving incentives for effective collaboration, even in planning stages.
FAO’s “Joint Planning” document (in the “manuals” category) offers operational guidance for a
workshop approach, and is an important tool to accompany the advice.21

Emphasis on university training to build capacity

Commenters pointed out that the amount of capacity building needed is very difficult because
there are so few professionals globally who can credibly bridge the fields of agriculture and
nutrition. Universities around the world need to increase cross-disciplinary training, and
agricultural curricula need more inclusion of nutrition. This would help to increase the number
of people able to support agriculture-nutrition capacity building within ministries, as well as the
number of nutrition-cognizant people in national and international agricultural research centers.

Guidance specifically targeted to government audiences

The guidance here was mainly written for programming (often the primary audience was staff
within the authoring agency). Some translation or revision may be needed to speak directly to a
government audience. Many of the principles are, however, directly relevant to government
ministries: the governance, policy, and capacity themes (and part of the equity theme) are geared
toward governments, and many of the other principles can be re-formulated as policies that
would enable and incentivize all of those actions (e.g. policies to enable diversification).
Commenters pointed out the need for more policy guidance at the sub-national level, where
programmes are implemented.

19
For example, see ACF and FAO manuals in Annex 1, and other tools such as the RAP guide in Annex 2.
20
Examples include: (1) in areas with high rainfall at harvest time, where groundnuts are the main sauce: there is a
high risk for aflatoxins. Train beneficiaries on reducing risks. (2) Home vegetable gardens: difficult if livestock
roam freely around the village. (3) Animal protein and milk: Need to increase fodder production before introducing
animals. See FAO guide on farming systems: http://www.fao.org/farmingsystems/description_en.htm
21
There is also a new IFPRI book, “Working Multisectorally in Nutrition” (Garrett and Natalicchio eds., 2011).

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Clarity on targeting
Some commenters saw a conflict between targeting on agricultural vs. nutrition criteria. The
relatively low focus on lifecycle stage for targeting efforts in the guidance (only 3 guidance notes
suggested targeting young children) differs from the overwhelming focus on the “1000 days” in
nutrition community – such as in the SUN Framework (2010) and Road Map (2011) and the
1,000-days movement – referring to the period of conception to a child’s second birthday where
damage due to nutrition is largely irreversible. Setting inclusion criteria in agriculture programs
to include only households with pregnant women and young children would be logistically and
ethically problematic. “Targeting” in the guidance, however, can also refer to soft targeting, or
program design characteristics to reach vulnerable groups within households (e.g. producing
crops or livestock products that can be easily used as nutritious complementary foods for young
children).

Participatory development, ownership, and program sustainability

A theme highlighted by commenters was the need for participatory development and building
ownership in communities. As one commenter wrote, “health ownership is a cardinal point of
health promotion: that is, the ability of individuals and communities to act for themselves and to
undertake some of the essential educational process – looking at their own needs, deciding on a
range of actions, providing social support, monitoring what they do and measuring impact for
themselves.” This is related to ensuring program sustainability. Several guidance notes did
discuss community involvement and ownership during program design and even monitoring (see
context assessment synthesis: one purpose is to initiate a process of inclusion). This seems to be
an important point of the “how” or the process of nutrition-sensitive agriculture to ensure uptake,
impact, and continuation of new practices and behaviors.

Increased accessibility and generation of “how-to” knowledge and case studies

Overall, the guidance notes provide a comprehensive, well-founded set of principles for
maximizing nutrition impact of agricultural policies, projects, and programs. How to implement
the guidance effectively was generally not addressed substantially, although that is due to the
inclusion of only “guidance notes” in this synthesis draft (not operational manuals), and also to
the context-dependent nature of applying the principles. 22 In the few instances where
organizations gave “how-to” advice (such as using positive deviance sessions as a tool for
context assessment, women’s empowerment, and nutrition education), it was particularly noted
in the synthesis of guidance by theme. Some of the individual guidance notes highlight case
studies of well-designed programs trying to make the links (EC and WB provide many examples;
FAO 2001, Save UK 2012, and WV provide one example each), and the World Bank review
(2007) also provides several examples of such programs in detail. Many tools exist that would
assist with implementing the guiding principles, although they are not necessarily easily
accessible, and may not be adequate for needs in varying contexts. Partners noted that ‘how to’
guidance for agriculture and nutrition interventions individually exists and could be merged as
relevant to projects attempting to link the two. Incentives for knowledge sharing may also need
to be addressed: since most documentation that NGO produce are to meet the donors’ reporting
requirements, it may be difficult to learn from their experiences if they are not describing how
they proceed to integrate their activities, and lessons learned. Beyond the project level,
22
Some practical how-to tools are included in Annex 2; the ACF, EC, and WB guidance notes also contained links
to additional resources.

Page 25
operational guidance or a distillation of experience on how to strengthen nutrition governance
and alignment among sectors is needed. Research in implementation science can help to
identify approaches and tools that work.

Interactive capacity building

There is likely a limit, however, to what pre-written tools can do, for two reasons: firstly, that the
specific “how to” depends greatly on the context (and most organizations implicitly recognized
this, in spending so much page-space discussing the importance of context assessment and how
to do it). Secondly, capacity building training is most effective in person, with written material
only as a support. Absorbing and understanding even the principles in this synthesis paper
require time and familiarity with nutrition determinants. Some of the guidance documents
included an introductory primer on nutrition, which is helpful as reference material, but deep
learning from practitioners cannot be expected without face to face interaction and discussion.
Therefore, in addition to operational tools and implementation science research, a
recommendation of this synthesis is that the principles be communicated through interactions,
for example in workshops, and iterative feedback on country and program plans. Development
institutions are encouraged to provide such support. To do so, they must build their own
capacity as well as those of in-country practitioners.

Changing the discourse around food security

All guidance notes took as a given that food security means consistent physical and economic
access to nutritious diets. This meaning, while clear from the UN definition23, differs from a
view functionally limited to staple production or even income generation. Only one (WB)
recommended explicit efforts to return to nutrition in the discourse; many other guidance notes
mindfully used the term “food and nutrition security” partly to emphasize the centrality of
nutrition. Agriculture professionals often see “improved food security” as part of their mission.
Consistently referring to nutritious diets within discourse around food security could increase
commitment to mainstreaming nutrition in agriculture.

23
FAO defines “food security” as “a situation that exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic
access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and
healthy life (FAO 1996: World Food Summit Declaration and Plan of Action. Rome)

Page 26
Next steps

The most important next step is to include the agreed-upon principles in forthcoming agriculture
programs and learn from the outcomes. This requires commitment from the highest levels of
governments and development institutions to link agriculture and nutrition, which has thus far
been inhibited by four main constraints: (i) information on what to do, (ii) how to do it, (iii) how
much it will cost (per benefit gained), and (iv) how it will be supported or rewarded.

The first constraint to action so far has been a perceived lack of clarity in guidance and evidence
for nutrition-friendly agriculture. Interested agriculture professionals have been unclear on what
to do to improve nutrition through agriculture, and the nutrition community on the whole has not
yet come together around common advice. This synthesis is a step to fill that gap, and the
finding of remarkable similarity of guiding principles among guidance notes published by 12
international development institutions is encouraging.

A second constraint apart from “what to do” is how to do nutrition-friendly agriculture. Better
guidance on operational best practices, particularly around improving market access and
ensuring that women benefit, would be of great benefit to include nutrition in agriculture
projects. Recommendations specific to project types, value chains for specific crops, and
agroecosystem types may also help.

The lack of costing and cost benefit information is another constraint to serious buy-in from
agriculture sector staff who want to be sure to spend scare resources wisely. Cost and impact
information (including nutrition impact, productivity, and economic impact) should be gathered
wherever possible.

Each of these first three constraints deals with the availability of high-quality evidence based on
evaluations and case studies of the nutrition impacts of agriculture programs. Support for
producing the next generation of evidence is critical, including guidance on study design and
methodology, and adequate human and financial resources to carry it out.

A fourth constraint relates to how efforts to link agriculture to nutrition will be supported and
rewarded by governments and institutions. Food and agriculture policies supportive of healthy
diets and nutrition would help to make nutrition-friendly agriculture the lucrative option, which
would be by far the most powerful way to increase action. Support for capacity in agricultural
extension as well as nutrition training and staffing at all levels would increase the feasibility of
actions to improve nutrition through agriculture. This requires appropriate investments be made
in institutional development related to nutrition in the agriculture sector, an area which has so far
received very limited development support. Institutional incentives for multisectoral
collaboration, context assessment, and a planning process to avoid nutritional harm, would
increase the chances of their happening.

If the principles can be incorporated into agriculture programs now, including appropriate
monitoring and evaluation, then the result will be a new generation of evidence that will improve

Page 27
knowledge on operational “how-to” best practices, costs, and impact – and may result in a
revision of guiding principles. This new knowledge would further improve ability to plan for
and include nutrition outcomes in agriculture projects, propagating a virtuous cycle of
knowledge, commitment, and action.

Figure 1. Virtuous cycle of knowledge, commitment, and action based on next steps

Commitment
Knowledge Support
Agriculture
 Consensus around  Food and agriculture
sector buy-in
guiding principles policies supportive of
(what to do) nutrition
 Better operational  Increased capacity in
guidance (how to do it) agricultural extension
 Costing and cost benefit Action and nutrition
information – includes Principles  Incentives for
better evidence on incorporated multisectoral
impact collaboration, context
assessment and planning

Page 28
Section 3: Synthesis of guidance by theme

Nutrition Objectives

Including clear, specific, explicit nutrition objectives in agriculture projects, programs, and
policies was the most common message in all the guidance notes. All institutions that have
published guidance stated some form of this recommendation; 11 stated it outright, and IFPRI
implied it from statements to “design agriculture, nutrition, and health programs with cross-
sectoral benefits”. All of the guidance notes make the point that nutrition objectives are needed
to drive agricultural programs in a manner that would better address nutrition. World Vision
makes the strongest statement, that to have an impact, “improved nutrition outcomes, particularly
for children, must be an explicit objective of agricultural policy and programs,” and “there is
limited evidence that improved nutrition will occur” in the absence of such an objective.

Common among the documents were the words “clear” and “explicit” objectives, repeated
several times (BI, EC, FANTA, FAO, Save UK, SCN, WB, WV). Specific tools recommended
to clarify objectives included logical frameworks (ACF) and the Nutritional Impact Assessment
Tool (IYCN).

FAO (2009) brings out the important idea that explicit nutrition objectives guide agricultural
programs so that (1) they avoid harm and (2) they maximize opportunities. These two outcomes
are not the same, and it is important to note that both may be furthered by adopting nutrition
objectives. Similarly, the World Bank states that an approach without explicit nutrition
objectives will likely miss opportunities for improving nutrition – as well as overall farmer
wellbeing and female participation. The FANTA publication (2001) echoes those two effects,
and in addition points out that specific nutrition goals help to guide agriculture and health staff
“in their efforts to improve consumption and nutrition and to ensure integration and overlap with
health systems.” This is a reminder that objectives should and do matter to guide program staff
from planning committees to field level, and as a corollary, that they need to be communicated
clearly and understood by staff at all levels for appropriate action to be taken.

The SCN wording suggests that a nutrition objective makes explicit the inherent opportunities
within agriculture programs, and can “activate” such opportunities. ACF, Bioversity, IYCN and
FAO (2004) bring up the basic use of an objective to (1) identify and clarify activities to reach
nutrition and (2) design appropriate indicators and M&E systems to track desired impact. ACF
encourages planners to include a nutrition objective in the project log-frame, and also to “make
sure that the objective is obtainable within the framework of the project.” In addition, ACF notes
that the indicators chosen will depend on “the nature and duration of the intervention.” These
two points together underscore that planners truly need to think through how their program or
policy will reach nutrition objectives, and act and measure appropriately; that it is not enough to
simply add a global nutrition indicator to a project without linking it to concerted activities and
outcomes. Bioversity builds on this idea operationally, suggesting to “start first with the smallest

Page 29
change possible for the largest impact possible” to instill confidence, which implies it is
important to measure impacts other than stunting, which is slow to show change.

Context assessment

Papers from almost all institutions (11/12) included the specific recommendation to assess the
context where an agricultural program was being planned, during the design phase; the twelfth
(UN SCN) discussed tailoring interventions by agroecological zone, and using underutilized
local foods, thereby implying context assessment. This guidance was targeted more to program
and project planning than policy-making, although the HLTF also clearly recommended context
assessment for making policy choices “that take account of the local environment and social
realities.” The main point of the context assessment recommendation was to identify and build
on existing efforts, knowledge, and resources, in order to maximize effectiveness and efficiency
of interventions and reduce negative side effects.

Several specific functions of context assessment emerged from the guidance notes, listed below.
 Identifying nutritional problems, which could be done using existing data (such as
DHS and other survey data) (ACF, BI, FANTA, FAO, HLTF, WB)
 Identifying and targeting population groups most at risk (ACF, FANTA, WB)
 Identifying the main causes of those problems / the main constraints to good nutrition,
using existing data and reports, collaborating and communicating with other sectoral
practitioners, civil society organizations and workers familiar with the area, and holding
focus groups with community members (ACF, BI, FAO)
 Identifying opportunities within the agriculture sector to address those constraints,
including those based on seasonality, labor, and local foods; and adapting interventions to
the specific program community/country based on the agro-ecological, market, economic
and human resources available (ACF, BI, FANTA, FAO, HLTF, UN SCN, WB); and
taking into account climate change (HLTF). Ways to do this included:
o Creating seasonal crop and labor calendars, and fluctuations in food security and
nutrition (ACF, BI, FANTA, FAO)
o FAO recommended a specific assessment of how processing, storage, and
marketing affect prices of non-staple foods, which would enable prediction of
how income generation may or may not affect dietary quality.
o Several notes, most notably Bioversity International, highlighted the need to
understand local food resources, food culture, household decision-making and
markets around specific foods to envision how agricultural production could
maximize food-based opportunities (ACF, BI, FANTA, FAO, IYCN).
o HLTF specified that context analysis should take into account risks as well as
market opportunities.
 Understanding gender-specific demands and implications of potential investments
(ACF, HLTF, FAO, WB)
 Understanding existing knowledge, beliefs, skills and practices within
communities/cultures (Save UK), which complements outsider information (FAO, IFPRI)
and provides a basis for effective behavior change and information dissemination (ACF,

Page 30
 BI, IYCN); the positive deviance/hearth method was suggested as an effective method to
identify and scale up positive practices (BI, WV).
 Building on and complementing existing interventions within the agriculture sector
and other sectors (ACF, IFPRI, WB, WV)
 Initiating a process of collaboration and co-planning: activities related to context
assessment can build communication between development partners within or between
sectors, and can set a tone of inclusion of under-represented groups (e.g. women and
minorities) (ACF, BI, FANTA, FAO, WB)
 Assessing potential harms and developing mitigation strategies, as well as setting in
motion a process of continuous assessment throughout the project, as the effects of any
intervention in a given context need to be monitored to avoid harm (EC, WB).

FAO highlighted participatory approaches as the primary way to plan programs and involve
stakeholders. Several of the manuals listed in Annex 1, including ACF, Bioversity International,
and FAO manuals, include specific steps on context assessment and emphasize participatory
methods.

Do no harm

Ten of the 12 institutions cautioned that agricultural programs can have unintended
consequences that cause harm to nutrition, health, and livelihoods. Potential harms included:

 Overburdening women who are also responsible for care of young children, with
potential negative effects on optimal infant feeding (ACF, EC, IFPRI, IYCN, FAO, Save
UK, WB); could be mitigated by reducing tasks of women (FAO, WB)
 Potential negative impact of crop choice (especially considering cash crops) on food
production, financial risk, and gender inequality (ACF, FAO, IYCN, WB); could be
mitigated with diversification and context analysis
 Inability of smallholders to participate in projects requiring new investment, and the
danger of widening resource gaps between wealthy and poor farmers and out-competition
(ACF, IYCN); could be mitigated by encouraging small-scale appropriate technologies
(IFPRI)
 Higher food prices, through price supports or other reasons, can result in reduced
availability of food (FAO, IYCN)
 Danger of agrochemicals to health (ACF, FANTA, FAO, IFPRI, Save UK); could be
mitigated with protective gear and training
 Risk of disease from agricultural water use (malaria transmission, microbes and
pollutants in wastewater) and zoonotic disease and parasites (ACF, EC, HLTF, Save UK,
WB); could be mitigated with bednets, improved wastewater management, veterinary
services
 Reduction in natural resource availability or access (ACF, IFPRI, FAO); could be
mitigated with sustainable production techniques
 Higher production costs (FAO)

Page 31
  Danger of mechanization increasing unemployment among landless (IYCN)
 Manual labor can damage health and increase caloric needs (Save UK)
 Health risks of over-promoting animal-source foods: chronic disease, and milk may
displace breastfeeding (ACF)
 Increased production/reduced prices of foods that could influence diet patterns negatively
and contribute to obesity and chronic disease; could be mitigated with production and
promotion around micronutrient-rich crops based on context (WB)

Most of the notes identifying the risk of potential harm also suggested overall strategies to avoid
causing harm. The main strategies are:
1. Go through a systematic process in the planning phase to identify potential unintended
negative impacts on nutrition based on the context where the program is operating, and
develop a mitigation plan. (ACF, BI, EC, FAO, IFPRI, IYCN, WB)
2. Have a well-functioning monitoring system to detect negative effects, to ensure timely
mitigation efforts on unforeseen negative impacts (ACF, EC, FAO, IYCN, WB)
3. Have a clear nutritional goal to start with (FANTA, IYCN)
4. Collaborate with health officials to provide information on health risks and solutions
(which could be considered a specific type of mitigation plan) (IFPRI)

IYCN developed a “Nutritional Impact Assessment Tool” to assist project planners to avoid
unintentional nutritional harm, mentioned also by ACF, Save UK, and WB (see Annex 1,
“Manuals” section). This tool is the first formal attempt that “operationalizes a process for
considering the nutritional and food security impacts of proposed activities on these groups, and
helps designers to develop alternative sets of activities as well as a ‘do nothing’ alternative.”24

Program Monitoring & Evaluation

All guidance notes discussed the central importance of measuring nutrition-relevant impact
through program monitoring and evaluation, and most (nine of 12) also made suggestions for
specific indicators. The main reason was to demonstrate nutrition impact, but there were other
reasons. Several institutions underscored M&E for the purpose of timely identification of poor
implementation or negative effects, so that problems could be corrected by adaptive management
before substantial time and money is wasted (ACF, BI, FAO, IYCN, UN SCN, WB). Bioversity
also noted that M&E processes can help staff know when it is appropriate to phase out or provide
more permanent support (assuming the project timeline is flexible). Documenting successes and
failures, and lessons learned was seen as important for the general good (BI, IFPRI, Save UK).
UN SCN said that M&E can increase government accountability and policy-makers’ awareness,
raising the profile of nutrition on national agendas.

24
The steps are as follows:
1.List project objectives. 2.Define food insecure population groups. 3.Determine the nutritional status of
nutritionally vulnerable groups. 4.Create alternative approaches. 5.Estimate expected outcomes. 6.Modify the
approach as needed. 7.Assess alternative approaches. 8.Design a mitigation plan. 9.Develop a review plan.

Page 32
There was an expectation expressed throughout the guidance notes that projects should show
impact on nutritional status (ACF, EC, FANTA, Save UK); in fact Save UK said reductions in
child underweight “should be the litmus test for good agricultural investment.” In contrast, ACF
argued for increased attention to outcome indicators based on careful consideration of program
theory25, stating that “the measurable effects of stand-alone food security and livelihood
interventions on nutritional status are likely to be less significant…than multi-sectoral
interventions, thus most changes will be detected at the outcome level.” The World Bank
discussed the practical costs and technical training needs for measuring nutritional status for
agriculture projects, and suggested to consider carefully whether its measurement would be
worthwhile based on calculations of power and likelihood of observing change. The same note
recommended food consumption indicators as the most feasible and appropriate first step to
measuring nutrition-relevant impact (WB). Relatedly, FANTA stated that programs should be
able to associate any nutritional status changes with the specific strategy or interventions, in the
same logic of program theory: “intermediate results, together with the corresponding
performance indicators, trace out the underlying conceptual framework of a program…” Many
of the notes suggested both outcome (particularly diet) indicators and impact indicators (see
below).

Some institutions noted that specific indicators would clearly vary according to context and goals
of individual projects (ACF, EC, FANTA, FAO, WB). All indicators should be SMART
(specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound) (ACF, IYCN). Four guidance notes
pointed out that capacity to measure and analyze the indicators chosen is an important
consideration; there is no standard “off-the-shelf” set of indicators for nutrition in agriculture
projects yet, and often there are inadequate time and skills for analysis (ACF, FANTA, WB,
WV); ACF also suggested allocating 2% of the overall budget for M&E. FANTA and WB
recommended simple, easy to administer indicators of consumption and nutrition, only including
indicators that monitoring agents can accurately measure, or otherwise partnering with additional
technical support.

The following are indicators the guidance notes specifically mentioned as important or promising
in many contexts; references for the tools to measure some of these indicators are in Annex 2:

Consumption-related
 Dietary diversity scores (ACF, BI, EC, FANTA, IYCN, UN SCN, WB, WV)26
o HDDS (ACF, BI, UN SCN, WB)
o FCS (ACF, WB)
o IDDS for women of reproductive age (EC, FANTA, IYCN, WB)
o Minimum dietary diversity for children 6-23 months (EC, IYCN, WB, WV)
o Minimum acceptable diet for children 6-23 months (ACF, EC, WV)
 Meal frequency (ACF, WV)
 Consumption of iron-rich foods for children 6-23 months (ACF, EC)

25
The pathway from an intervention input through programmatic delivery, household, and individual utilization to
its desired impact; with reference to Habicht, JP and Pelto, G.
26
FAO could reasonably be added to this group although its guidance documents did not specifically mention DDS,
because FAO produced the widely-used “Guidelines for measuring household and individual dietary diversity”
(2011), referenced in Annex 2.

Page 33
  Number of days in the previous week where any amount of X (nutritious food) was
consumed, and change in grams/day of X consumed (WB)
 Other core IYCF indicators (excl breastfeeding, initiation of breastfeeding) (ACF)
 Caloric intake (IYCN)
 Caloric adequacy of available food (kcal/person/day) (FANTA)
 Vitamin A and iron intake (IYCN)
 HFIAS or HHS (FANTA-developed food insecurity measures27) (IYCN, WB)
 Months of adequate household food provisioning (MAHFP, developed by FANTA) (BI,
WB)

Nutritional status
 Stunting28 (ACF, EC, FANTA, IYCN)
 Underweight (FANTA, IYCN, Save UK)
 Wasting (FANTA)
 Anthropometry in general (BI, EC, WB)
 Vitamin A, iron, and iodine status for women and children (FANTA, IYCN, WB)

Sickness and health

 Sanitation, health, home facilities (BI)
 Incidence of illness (FANTA)

Gender
 Gender of project participants (FANTA, WB)
 Women’s access to land and other productive assets (WB)
 Women’s control over cash from agricultural activities (e.g. intra-household allocation of
income between men and women, or the dimension of women’s ability to make decisions
about purchases) (WB)

Other
 Changing seasonality of income, labor use, and micronutrient-rich food availability
(FANTA)
 The Nutritional Functional Diversity Index, developed by the Earth Institute at Columbia
University (Remans, Flynn, 2011), which quantifies the depth and breadth of agro-
biodiversity according to dietary usage (BI).

Multisectoral collaboration

Every organization discussed multisectoral collaboration of some sort as essential for impact on
nutritional status. Three quotes strung together from different notes clearly describe the rationale

27
These were years away from publication at the time the FANTA guidance notes were published.
28
The ACF paper specifies that stunting is most likely to change if children under age 2 years are direct
beneficiaries and the intervention lasts at least 3-5 years.

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for multisectoral collaboration: “Perhaps the greatest challenge for the implementation of the
guidance given throughout this manual is that no one can do it alone - it requires preparation,
action and collaboration across a variety of sectors and stakeholders” (ACF). “Agricultural
interventions can make important contributions in the form of increasing production and income
and, often, household food consumption. However, health and environmental conditions, health
status, and childcare and feeding practices will ultimately determine whether increased food
access and consumption has a positive effect on nutritional status” (FANTA). “Provision of
livelihood support, creation of social safety-nets and an explicit focus on maternal and child
health are essential to improving the food and nutrition security of [vulnerable] groups” (UN
SCN).

These quotes underscore the need to address all the underlying factors of malnutrition (food,
health, and care), and that agriculture cannot do that alone. All guidance notes expressed that
stakeholders (program planning staff and management, field-level operational staff, researchers,
educators) in various sectors (including agriculture, health, nutrition, water and sanitation,
environment, sociology, social protection, poverty reduction, education) and institutions
(government ministries, NGOs, and multilateral programs) all have essential roles to play in the
fight against malnutrition, and coordination can maximize impact. The World Bank noted
awareness-building on nutrition among all parties as critical for multisectoral commitment to
collaboration. Several terms for the concept appeared throughout the guidance notes:
multisectoral consultation, coordination, collaboration, partnership, combined action, linkages,
synergies, and integration.

The guidance notes agreed that coordination was desirable at least in the planning stage. There
was lack of clarity or possibly disagreement on whether sectors should collaborate mostly in
planning and then carry out their own sectoral responsibilities; or if sectors actually work
together in implementation as well. The stance of each institution was not very clear in any note,
although the EC recommended joint programming in emergencies and Save UK showcased an
integrated program. The two approaches are of course not mutually exclusive; sectoral
implementation based on shared accountability and indicators (IFPRI) can co-exist with
initiatives where multisectoral partners have joint funding for the same project (World Vision).
The opportunities for multi-sectoral implementation depend on context. Recognizing the
difficulty in prescribing one approach over another, FANTA offered a range of options for
successful collaboration: “[1] by implementing agriculture and nutrition programs in the same
geographical area, [2] adding program components to specifically address cross-sectoral issues,
or [3] fully integrating programs.

Six notes gave examples of how multisectoral linkages could occur:

 shared indicators and accountability mechanisms (IFPRI, HLTF, WV)
 shared funding for co-implemented projects (FANTA, WV)
 multisectoral structures such as a national nutrition council or a multisectoral, multi-
institution task force for joint investment planning (FANTA, FAO, HLTF)
 consultation with nutrition or water and sanitation colleagues for technical expertise or
collaboration on a baseline survey (ACF)
 improved professional training through problem-based learning (i.e. building capacity for
multisectoral thinking and work among sector staff) (IFPRI)

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  overlapping sector programs in the same geographic area (FANTA)
 linking smallholder production with social protections schemes, for example through
involving local producers in food-based safety nets (HLTF)
 specifying cross-sectoral collaboration as a condition in requests for proposals, and
requiring identification of potential collaborators in the field (FANTA)
 multidisciplinary extension teams, and increased communication among nutrition, home
economics and agricultural extension staff (through workshops, for example) (FAO, WB)
 IFPRI noted the need to learn more about how to build successful multisectoral
coordination.

FANTA also described an example of how to plan a functional multisectoral program; the quote
is included in its entirety here:
“A program design that effectively links agriculture, health and nutrition might employ the
following three-pronged approach:
1. The program has a well-designed agricultural component—effective at generating output,
income or added value, as well as at drawing in smallholders, women and/or poorer
households.
2. The program has a well-designed nutrition component—providing well-tailored health and
nutrition education to address specific local problems.
3. The agricultural, health, and nutrition components are mutually reinforcing. Project staff
collaborate to ensure appropriate health services and complementary health and nutrition
messages are provided, and that beneficiary populations participating in the agricultural and
health activities overlap.”

Maximize impact of household income

All 12 organizations discussed household income as an important mechanism for agriculture to

affect nutrition. Eight of the 12 also included a caveat, that income generation broadly is not
enough; it may be inefficient or ineffective at improving nutrition without special efforts. In the
words of the FANTA document, “Agriculture and Health Officers may reasonably anticipate
strong income-consumption linkages, but this outcome is not inevitable.” One document further
suggests that in some cases income-generating activities could do harm to nutrition, if it
increases a power imbalance between women and men (FAO 2004). IYCN highlighted that
income increases are not always necessary for nutritional improvements: “In Bangladesh, an
improved vegetable program increased vitamin A consumption, decreased chronic malnutrition
by 28 and 43 percentage points among girls and boys, respectively, and improved women’s
nutrition—all despite failing to produce measurable effects on household income.” In summary,
the effect of income generation on nutrition improvement is modifiable, and varies by
circumstance.

Several recommendations are provided for how to increase the likelihood of additional income
having positive nutrition effects. These include the following:
 Most prominent among the recommendations is increasing women’s access to and
control of income, achievable through project design. The notes cited increased

Page 36
 likelihood of women’s income translating to expenditures related to nutrition, keeping in
mind the need to promote IGAs that do not reduce quality of infant and young child care
(ACF, EC, FANTA, FAO, IYCN, WB, WV).
 Two noted the importance of liquidity of financial resources / frequency of income
stream (BI, FANTA) – implying that regular small amounts of income may even be more
beneficial than larger but less frequent payments.
 Related to both of the above points, two notes recommended diversification of production
systems and livelihoods, including small-scale agro-processing and in-kind revolving
funds or inventory credit (FANTA, SCN).
 FANTA also noted that income gains are more likely to be spent on food if nutrition
education is provided, or if income is in-kind (related to social protection schemes linked
to agriculture).
 Save the Children UK also pointed out the need to specifically target the poorest and
most vulnerable for income-generating opportunities.
 FAO and IYCN raised the concern that mechanization can be helpful to reduce women’s
workloads in some circumstances, but the situation should be carefully analyzed to
ensure that introduction of mechanization will not displace farm labor and thereby
deprive landless vulnerable households of income.
 HLTF suggested that producer organizations are a means to higher incomes for
smallholders including women.

IFPRI simply stated the issue as a question: “What incentives need to be put in place to ensure
that increased farmer income translates into better health and nutrition?” Further work could
increase understanding of how to leverage household income for nutrition in diverse contexts.

Equitable access to resources

Nine out of the organizations explicitly discussed improved equity of resources as a requisite
step toward improved nutrition for vulnerable households (ACF, EC, FANTA, FAO, HLTF,
Save UK, UN SCN, WB, WV). The main recommendations fell into two broad categories:
policies and program activities.

The policy side of ensuring equitable access to resources crosses over into the supporting role of
policy coherence, but development institutions could also advocate for policy changes. The main
policy recommendation was securing land rights for poor and vulnerable groups,
particularly for women (ACF, FANTA, HLTF, Save UK, UN SCN, World Vision) as well as
ethnic minorities (EC), smallholder/urban farmers (FAO, UN SCN), and emergency-affected
groups (EC). Land tenure is a necessary basis for productivity and food security, and the UN
SCN further noted that foreign direct investment may be a threat to vulnerable groups without
formal land rights, including to forests and rangeland (EC). The UN SCN further gave specifics
on how land tenure policies could improve even in situations where entrenched rules and
procedures could make sweeping change difficult. The HLTF tagged equitable access to
biodiversity onto the discussion of land rights, including the needs of landless laborers and
constraints to production due to climate change, experienced first by the most vulnerable.

Page 37
Apart from land tenure reform, other policy recommendations included:
 Policies to increase access to water (EC, FAO, HLTF, Save UK, UN SCN)
 Legal and policy support for the poor to access employment opportunities (ACF, EC,
WB)
 Policies to increase extension services, financing, access to inputs and appropriate
technologies for smallholders (FAO, HLTF, Save UK), adapted to reach women and
ethnic minorities (HLTF)
 Investment in agricultural research that reflects the interests of smallholders, particularly
women (HLTF)

Programmatic approaches to improved equity included:

 Credit and financial services, including insurance (ACF, EC, FANTA, FAO, HLTF, Save
UK, UN SCN, WV)
 Increasing smallholder’s (and women’s in particular) access to markets (ACF, EC,
HLTF, Save UK, UN SCN, WV) through transport, information, and farmer
organizations/ cooperatives;
 Increasing access to productive assets such as livestock, seeds, and storage facilities (EC,
FAO, HLTF, Save UK, UN SCN, WV);
 Improved access to water resources (EC, Save UK, UN SCN);
 Facilitating access to extension services and technology, especially for women (ACF,
FAO, Save UK);
 Social protection measures such as cash and food transfers and childcare services (ACF,
EC).

FANTA, HLTF and the UN SCN stressed the importance of farmer groups. The UN SCN
discussed support for farmer organizations or cooperatives at length, as an activity based in
improving equity as well as efficiency: “groups are able to access credit, information, and other
important goods and services better than individuals.” Some of the other potential equity
benefits of smallholder farmer groups include political power to protect their rights (including
land rights), bargaining power in markets, and ability to purchase equipment and training they
would not be able to afford individually, thus putting them on more equal ground with large-
scale farmers. Program activities with farmer groups could include capacity-building on
prioritizing, costing, and managing production and marketing, as well as training on value-
addition (UN SCN).

Targeting

Eleven of the 12 institutions explicitly recommended some form of targeting as a way to

maximize nutrition impact, mostly favoring pro-poor approaches, smallholder farmers and
women. Despite these underlying priority groups, advice was somewhat diffuse on whether to
target by income level, occupation (marginal farming, landless labor), geography (rural/urban/at-
risk areas), gender, lifecycle stage (first 1,000 days), or some other characteristic. The main
point voiced by all, however, was that it is important to target the most vulnerable groups;

Page 38
which population group represents those most vulnerable may vary by context. Two institutions
specifically stated that the target groups often may not be chosen a priori, and would depend on
context assessment (ACF, BI).

To enable targeting, several organizations pointed out that some form of data collection is
necessary. ACF, Bioversity and IYCN explicitly recommended collecting data on household
food security and nutritional status, with ACF highlighting nutritional status of women and
children under age two. In EC’s advice to “prioritize areas or groups worst affected by
undernutrition,” and HLTF’s guidance to “identify and address the needs of the most vulnerable
[which may be defined by geography, gender, livelihood, age, disease, disability, ethnicity],”
data collection is implied. Bioversity suggests deciding on geographic target areas based on
“rapid assessment, key informant interviews, and visiting clinics and hospitals to determine areas
of need...” Data collection need not always require primary data, however, but can rest on
household surveys, vulnerability maps, or other existing sources (as described in the “context
assessment” recommendations).

As for which groups to target:

 nine institutions recommended targeting smallholder farmers (BI, EC, FANTA, FAO,
IYCN, HLTF, Save UK, UN SCN, WB), and three of those pointed out the idea of
targeting via promoting appropriate technologies for smallholders (IYCN, HLTF, UN
SCN), such as micro-irrigation.
 five recommended targeting poor and/or food insecure households (ACF, FANTA, FAO,
UN SCN, WB).
 eight institutions advised explicit targeting of women (ACF, BI, FANTA, FAO, HLTF,
Save UK, WB, WV), although all guidance notes underscored the importance of women
in agricultural projects (see the “women’s empowerment” section).
 three also mentioned young children (ACF (<2 years), Save UK, and World Vision (<5
years) along with women/mothers.29
 three highlighted the vulnerability of landless laborers and the need to avoid labor
displacement (EC, IYCN, UN SCN).
 two mentioned targeting urban and peri-urban food systems to expand access to diets (BI,
UN SCN).
 one discussed reaching marginalized groups such as indigenous and nomadic peoples
(HLTF).
 one suggested targeting youths in training around new technologies, and gender roles
(FAO)

Some unique target populations were also mentioned. Bioversity recommended targeting “early-
adopters” within program communities, so that households which may perceive too much risk in
investing in something new can observe what happens before adopting it themselves. ACF
recommended approaches to prevent malnutrition over curing those already malnourished, which

29
“Targeting” here does not necessarily mean including only households with young children in agriculture
programs; it refers to program design characteristics to reach vulnerable groups within households (e.g. producing
nutritious complementary foods, an activity targeted to child nutrition).

Page 39
has implications for how data on food security and nutritional status are used for targeting; i.e
target those at risk rather than those already malnourished.

The point was also made that efforts to target need to be mindful of social implications.
According to the two institutions that raised this concern, “restricted targeting…could create
tensions within families” (ACF) and “care should be taken to not alienate the non-target groups”
(BI).30

Diversify production and livelihoods

Nine of the institutions included the specific advice to diversify agricultural production; in
addition, two that did not specify diversification (IYCN, IFPRI) could be assumed to support the
advice, since each recommended incorporating home gardens, which typically implies
diversification. Production diversification, according to the guidance, can offer support for
multiple pathways to nutrition, including:
 Food access and dietary diversification (EC, FANTA, FAO, WB, WV).
 Natural resource management (ACF, BI, UN SCN, WB)
 Productivity enhancement (BI); IFPRI also noted that incorporating home gardens, which
often implies diversification, can boost production.
 Risk reduction (e.g. from monocrop failure due to biotic or abiotic stresses, price shocks)
(ACF, FANTA, WB)
 Reduced seasonality (FANTA, FAO)
 Improved income streams and reduced cost of a nutritious diet (FANTA, Save UK, WB)
 Adaptation to climate change (UN SCN).
 Women’s empowerment, based on in production of home gardens and minor crops,
which in many cases would constitute production diversification – this comes from the
“what to produce” section (BI, FAO, IYCN).

Ways to diversify included intercropping (FANTA, UN SCN), improved seed and information to
facilitate diversification through extension services (FAO, UN SCN), home gardens (FANTA,
and others recommending gardens in the “Horticultural crops” section), introduction of cash
crops as supplements rather than substitutes for food crops (FANTA), and integrated crop-
livestock systems (FAO). FANTA acknowledged that many semi-subsistence farmers already
use diversity as a strategy, and that it would be a useful strategy to “build on and improve
traditional cropping systems.” This suggests that farmers often choose intercropping, for
example, as a rational response to various household needs and weather/market uncertainties,
and that displacing such systems could do harm.

Several development organizations consider off-farm employment as an important activity to

steady income and reduce risk. World Vision and UN SCN specifically mentioned livelihoods
diversification as a strategy to improve incomes, reduce risk/increase resilience, and “increase

30
Evaluations of social protection programs have shown that it is difficult to target single children within
households, because of the natural tendency to share resources between all children in a household.

Page 40
the amount of nutrient-dense foods for household consumption” (World Vision), presumably
through increased or more regular income streams or food preservation. UN SCN gave
examples of revolving funds and food processing as ways to diversify, noting that the latter can
also improve diet quality for urban dwellers. ACF also had a section on income-generating
activities for women, including food preservation, food service, and childcare provision; which
implies livelihood diversification as a strategy for improved nutrition, through women’s
empowerment, income generation, or reductions in seasonality.

What to produce

All organizations gave some guidance about what to produce on-farm to optimize nutrition. Most
(ten) gave general guidelines as well as crop-specific suggestions.

General guidance centered around production choice based on nutritional value (ACF, BI,
FANTA, FAO, HLTF, IYCN, Save UK, WB, WV). Most institutions recommended simply
choosing nutritious foods to produce on the basis of local nutrition issues and available
solutions (BI, FANTA, FAO, IFPRI, Save UK, WB, WV), which would increase availability of
nutritious food and meet increasing demand for it (HLTF, WB). Six also advised promotion of
micronutrient-rich foods (ACF, FANTA, FAO, IYCN, WV); three advised promotion of
protein rich foods (ACF, FAO, WV); three advised locally-adapted varieties, particularly
those which may have higher nutrient content (ACF, BI, WV); and unique advice from ACF
included promoting foods favored by children, foods rich in other non-nutrient components such
as antioxidants and fiber, foods low in anti-nutrients, foods or varieties acceptable in terms of
processing and cooking costs, and factoring in consumer acceptance; IYCN suggested increasing
production of foods consumed by at-risk groups. Strikingly, only one guidance paper included a
production choice recommendation based on increasing calorie intake: increasing oil and fat in
situations where fat/energy density is too low (FAO). To achieve nutrition impact, the great
preponderance of available institutional guidance recommended actions to improve dietary
quality over quantity.

Horticultural crops comprised the most commonly-suggested type of production to maximize

nutritional gain (by 11 institutions). The main reason was to increase availability, access, and
consumption of these crops to improve micronutrient intakes and dietary diversity, and
dietary patterns protective against obesity and chronic disease. The various notes interpreted this
goal in two distinct ways:
(1) focusing on household use through homestead food production (ACF, FANTA, FAO,
IFPRI, IYCN, UN SCN, WB, WV), and
(2) increasing general availability and reducing prices of horticultural products for general
public health nutrition, for both producers and consumers (FAO, Save UK, UN SCN).
Five of the notes also recommended horticultural crops particularly because they are often
under the control of women (ACF, BI, FANTA, FAO, IYCN); one noted that kitchen
gardening is a way for women to increase food access and decision-making without doing harm
to child care (ACF). To ensure that production translated to increased consumption, several
notes suggested combining horticultural interventions with education, behavior change including

Page 41
social marketing (ACF, FAO, UN SCN, WB; and several others more generally, see “Nutrition
Education” section).
Other goals of horticultural production included reducing seasonality (ACF, FANTA, FAO),
increasing income (ACF, FANTA, FAO, Save UK) and agricultural production (ACF, IFPRI),
and raising awareness about good nutrition in schools and communities (UN SCN).
Within horticultural crops in general, few notes made specific suggestions about what to grow,
but three notes named dark green leafy vegetables (ACF, FAO, WV). Three notes included
caveats about horticultural products: Save UK cautioned against high-value horticulture projects
simply as cash crops, WB noted a potential financial sustainability risk of subsidized home
gardens, and ACF noted that vegetables are low in energy content, that leafy vegetables may
contain tannins which can inhibit iron absorption31, and that it is important to choose vegetables
that are favored by children.

Animal-source foods (ASF) were discussed by nine institutions, with eight clearly endorsing
ASF production at least on a small scale. The main reason was to increase household access to
and consumption of ASF to improve nutrient intakes (including micronutrients, protein, and
fat) and food security (ACF, FAO, HLTF, Save UK, UN SCN, WB, WV). Similar to the
advice on horticulture, all these notes recommended homestead production of animals to
improve diets; ACF, Save UK and UN SCN highlighted their contribution to income
generation; Bioversity pointed out animal husbandry as a potential pathway to women’s
income; and HLTF emphasized the importance of livestock as smallholder assets. Advice on
how to promote animal production included promoting fish as well as livestock (ACF, FAO,
Save UK, UN SCN, WB, WV), distributing improved hen species but also using indigenous and
small livestock, training on livestock management, and improving veterinary services (UN
SCN).

In contrast to the horticulture guidance, most organizations urged homestead production of ASF
for household use and income generation, without also recommending increasing ASF
availability for general consumption (among urban consumers, for example, as was
recommended for horticulture). Save UK was the one exception, which generally recommended
increased availability and reduced cost of nutritious foods, including meat and milk in pastoral
areas. The suggested focus on small-scale production was due to environmental concerns
(ACF, IFPRI, UN SCN, WB), concerns about ASFs as risk factors for zoonotic disease (ACF,
WB), chronic disease (ACF), and food system-level food security concerns, because animal
production competes with cereal production and availability (IFPRI). Alongside other notes’
advice to ensure ASF consumption through education/promotional efforts at the household level
(ACF, WV), IFPRI recommended encouraging people to consume sustainable diets, implying
advice to reduce consumption of ASFs in many cases (such as in urban areas). UN SCN
recommended livestock sector reform to improve environmental sustainability. ACF brought up
the need to ensure that animal production does no harm to nutrition at the household level,
through zoonotic disease, parasites, reductions in water availability, and the possibility that
promotion of cow milk could displace breastfeeding if not done carefully.

31
While concern over anti-nutrient content is valid, this caveat is difficult to act upon: information on tannin content
of vegetables is generally unavailable, and dark green leafy vegetables are overwhelmingly recommended as being
nutritious foods (including by ACF).

Page 42
Underutilized foods were discussed at length by seven of the organizations, and mentioned
briefly by an eighth. Most conveyed the notion that traditional, indigenous, and/or wild foods
are often powerful nutritional resources because of their nutrient content (ACF, FAO, HLTF,
IFPRI, UN SCN, WB). ACF and FAO highlight the resource use efficiency and reduced inputs
of producing indigenous food crops, UN SCN noted their role in climate change adaptation due
to superior productivity response against local stresses, and Bioversity again noted that minor
crops, which include many traditional and underutilized crops, are often controlled by women
and may increase women’s empowerment. Echoing the general production advice of IYCN to
promote foods consumed by poor households, FANTA and FAO noted that indigenous food
crops are important in the diet of poor households and their continued productivity is important
to food security, as well as to harnessing a potential comparative advantage of
poor/indigenous farmers were niche markets and value chains to be created, as suggested by
IFPRI, HLTF, FAO, UN SCN, and WB. They could thereby also improve consumer nutrition
(FAO).

Advice on how to promote underutilized crops included research to improve understanding of

indigenous foods and their nutrient content (FANTA, FAO), improving production and
marketing of these foods through extension services (FAO) and research (HLTF), creating value
chains to promote their use (IFPRI), and promotion of indigenous crops particularly among HIV-
affected households (FAO). Two notes gave examples of underutilized foods: traditional staples
like sorghum and millet, forest products including trees and wild plants (UN SCN); wild fruits,
insects, worms and termites (which are acceptable and even prized in some cultural contexts) ,
herbs, and perennial plants (trees and bushes), which provide structural and soil-improving
functions as well as food use (ACF). WB noted a potential trade-off in their production as
limited commercial potential in some contexts.

Legumes were highlighted by half of the institutions; both for their nutritional value (rich in
energy, protein, and iron) (ACF, EC, FAO, IFPRI, WB, WV), for their use as fodder (WB),
and for their attribute of nitrogen fixation, which can improve soil fertility and yield and
reduce inputs (ACF, FAO, IFPRI, WB). FAO and WB noted that they are also typically
women’s crops. The only caveat about legume production was in terms of its use for land
management, which could potentially increase women’s labor (WB). Advice on how to
incorporate legumes included increasing awareness and consumption via extension services
(FAO), nutrition education on complementary cereal-legume protein (FAO), and intercropping
(FAO, IFPRI).

Biofortified crops, which often but not always are staple crops, were viewed more favorably
than staple crops in general, being fully endorsed as an important strategy by six of the seven
institutions that discussed them (EC, FAO, IFPRI, UN SCN, WB, WV), and accepted by the
sixth as long as they are produced by traditional breeding methods (ACF). Three of the notes
framed biofortification as a complement to other approaches (e.g. gardens and other efforts to
increase dietary variety) (ACF, FAO, WV), noting that biofortification “is not a panacea” (ACF,
FAO). Concerns about biofortification included opposition to genetic modification used in
production of some biofortified varieties, and questions about farmer and consumer acceptability
(ACF, WB).

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Staple crops production was mentioned by half of the 12 institutions. While three of them
made positive statements about the importance of staple crops for energy intakes and incomes
(ACF, EC, FAO), none made unqualified statements endorsing staples. Of the six institutions,
four voiced the caveat that staple crop production may be necessary but insufficient for
addressing undernutrition (ACF, FAO, Save UK, WV), because of its limited ability to
provide dietary diversity and also the anti-nutrient effects of phytates that reduce iron and zinc
absorption; one institution stated that evidence was lacking to support the theoretical positive
link between staple production and reduced undernutrition (EC); and one gave an example where
improved maize introduction could cause harm to vulnerable groups if it were to reduce their
ability to compete with larger farmers (IYCN). FAO suggested including staples consumed
more often by the poor, which may differ from those consumed by wealthier households.

Cash crops were viewed skeptically within agricultural production-based strategies to improve
nutrition. Six guidance notes mentioned cash crops, in the context of doing no harm and
mitigation of negative unintended consequences (ACF, FANTA, FAO, IYCN, Save UK), or
with regard to insignificant impact on nutrition (WB). The main concern for potential harm was
reduction in food security and diet quality, based on the opportunity cost for household food
production; “gains from cash crops do not automatically cover this potential food gap” (ACF).
According to FANTA, the risk is greater for high-value export crops than for commercialization
of a pre-existing food crop/ASF. Other concerns were increased risk due to dependence on
market volatility (ACF, FANTA), and increased inequity of income control between men and
women (FAO). Various strategies were proposed to mitigate nutritional risk from cash cropping.
Two notes suggested support for diversification strategies in the context of cash cropping
(ACF, FANTA), while the other notes overall were supportive of production diversification
(FAO, IYCN, Save UK, WB). FAO urged consistent monitoring of effects on nutrition and
community social welfare, as well as nutrition education. According to two notes, cash crop
promotion is less risky when land and labor are surplus (FANTA, IYCN), when there is strong
seasonality of food crops and the cash crop takes advantage of slack labor periods, and when the
cash-cropping is a women-led venture (FANTA).

Reduce post-harvest loss and improve post-processing

Beyond growing more food, retaining more of the food that is already grown would make a
significant contribution to agriculture and nutrition goals. ACF cited a statistic that 20% of
harvest is lost due to bad storage and handling. Reductions in post-harvest loss and improved
post-processing were discussed by nine of the 12 institutions, for three main reasons:
(1) increasing and prolonging food availability, access and consumption, particularly
micronutrient-rich food,
(2) preserving or increasing the nutrient content of the food, and
(3) increasing income through higher profit margins of food sold on the off-season or
with value-added processing, steadier income flows throughout the year, and
employment in processing ventures.
Other reasons not universally voiced included:
(4) improving food safety (FAO, IFPRI, UN SCN), and

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 (5) improving consumer access to diverse foods, through improved availability and
reduced prices (IFPRI, HLTF, UN SCN).
HLTF emphasized reductions in waste at all stages of the value chain. UN SCN pointed out that
education is helpful to translate increased year-round access to micronutrient-rich food into
consumption.

Several types of actions were suggested, with some specific approaches for each.
 Controlling pests and disease, including aflatoxin prior to harvest (HLTF, WB)
 Harvesting and handling
o Efficiency in post-harvest handling (ACF, HLTF, IFPRI, WB)
o Other “healthy harvesting” techniques, such as harvesting at maturity, avoiding
damage and bruising, and not consuming or selling crops recently sprayed with
pesticide (ACF)
 Preservation and processing
o Solar drying (FANTA, FAO, UN SCN, WB, WV) or shed-drying (ACF), with
vegetables blanched before drying (ACF)
o Fortification (ACF, EC, FANTA, IFPRI, WB, WV) or light milling (ACF)
o Pressing oilseeds (FANTA)
o Fermentation of flour, porridges and milks (ACF)
 Transport and Storage
o Washing and drying fresh produce before storage (ACF)
o Using cool, dark, well-ventilated facilities protected against insects and rodents
(ACF)
o Storage of seed and planting materials (FAO)
 Strengthening post-harvest issues in agricultural research (FAO)
ACF and FANTA both expressed that locally specific problems along the value chain and
feasible, innovative solutions would depend on context.

Increase marketing opportunities

Ten institutions discussed market access and opportunities. Reasons were mainly to increase
incomes, especially for women (implicit in all notes), and because “improving market access for
nutritious foods provides farmers additional incentives to produce [them]” (WB). Increasing
availability, access, and demand for nutritious local foods can improve consumer diets, in
addition to farmer income (HLTF, IFPRI, Save UK, UN SCN). There were several suggestions
for how to improve market access and opportunities:

 Policies to increase access to markets for smallholders (including women) (Save UK,
HLTF), such as removing constraints to domestic trade (HLTF). FANTA suggested
analysis of market-relevant policies to understand their impact on nutrition (e.g.
commerce regulations, policy support to agribusiness, and non-traditional agriculture
export promotion).
 Public investment in rural development to promote private investment in inputs,
services, and “value-added agroenterprises that integrate smallholders into national
and regional food supply chains.” (HLTF)

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  Farmer associations (FANTA, HLTF, UN SCN), business training and inventory
credit schemes (FANTA) to help smallholders achieve better prices, gain bargaining
power, and participate in decision-making processes.
 Small-scale processing and microenterprise, particularly for women (e.g. dried fruits,
jams) (ACF, FANTA).
 The need to choose marketable foods to produce was also noted (ACF, Save UK, WV),
as market viability is central to meeting needs for income as well as food.
 Market viability for nutritious foods that smallholders may have a comparative advantage
in producing can be increased through promotion and social marketing to increase
demand (FAO, IFPRI, UN SCN). The World Bank cited two examples of marketing
traditional African foods: a nutrition-focused marketing approach for African leafy
vegetables that led to increased production, farmer incomes, and consumption; and sales
of dried local wild fruit to Air Botswana.
 Improve infrastructure (e.g. roads, irrigation, storage facilities, wholesale markets,
electrification) to improve market access (EC, HLTF, WB).
 Market information (Save UK, WB).
 Save UK also discussed access to transportation and cultural restrictions as barriers to
women’s access to markets.
 FAO (2001) advised assessing the context to identify intra-household factors and
bottlenecks to marketing and income for smallholders.
 Meeting quality standards, such as through improved food safety (e.g. reducing
aflatoxins) (WB)
 Food procurement operations by governments for stockholding or food aid is a potential
market (HLTF)
 “Strengthen functional linkages between farmers, food traders and processors (for
instance, through enforceable contract farming systems)” (HLTF)

Reduce seasonality

Seven of the institutions included reducing seasonality of food access as a main

recommendation. As stated by World Vision, “this is particularly important for nutritionally
vulnerable groups such as children under 5, who have a very small window of time before
reductions in quantity and quality of food can cause severe and often irreversible health and
cognitive impacts.” The main recommended strategies cross into other themes, including
diversification and use of locally-adapted varieties throughout the year (BI, FAO, WV), and
improved storage and preservation (BI, FANTA, WB, WV), including inventory credit programs
(FANTA). FAO specifically mentioned designing vegetable gardens to maintain supply of
micronutrient-rich food year-round. ACF included other possible ways to reduce nutritional set-
backs in hungry seasons: pre-positioning health resources and food aid before the lean months
arrive, and providing food or cash transfers (indexed to price trends) or other forms of social
protection during the hungry season. HLTF focused on the importance of well-functioning
markets for year-round access to nutritious food.

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Women’s empowerment

According to the IFPRI paper, women “are the nexus of the agriculture, nutrition, and health
sectors.” The recommendation to empower women through agriculture programs and policies
was universal in the guidance notes, and it was far beyond a mere mention; each guidance note
had quite a lot to say on the topic. Due to the volume and specificity of guidance about
empowering women, it was taken as a distinct theme, even though women’s empowerment
issues also fall under the themes of “targeting,” “household income,” “do no harm,” “equitable
access to resources”, and “market access.”

All of the guidance notes discussed why it is important to empower women for nutrition impact,
and the reasons fell into two main categories: (1) reasons of equity and human rights, and (2)
practical reasons related to women’s centrality in translating agriculture inputs and outputs to
nutrition impact. The impact-related reason most often cited was that women’s income and
decision-making power have greater impact on household health and nutrition than income
controlled by men (ACF, FANTA, IYCN, FAO, Save UK, UN SCN, WB, WV). This rests on
women’s role across cultures as providers and gatekeepers of household food, childcare, and
health (ACF, EC, FANTA, HLTF, IFPRI, Save UK, WB, WV). Bioversity highlighted women’s
role as “keepers of food culture,” which affects how food production may or may not translate to
food consumption, and their role in using biodiversity in farming systems, which may reveal
underutilized agricultural approaches to improve nutrition. FAO,HLTF, and WB pointed out
that attention to women is due simply because of their large contribution to agriculture, which
would be foolhardy to overlook.

The guidance notes had many suggestions on what to do to enable women’s empowerment
through agricultural programs.
 In the planning stages of a program, IFPRI and IYCN advised assessing the trade-offs
between child care and agricultural production. ACF advised that time and labor demands
should be evaluated, and that physical labor is more difficult for undernourished people,
especially those suffering from iron deficiency – most of whom are women.
 Relatedly, several notes stressed avoiding harm mainly by
1. Avoiding increased workload on women, which could harm both their own nutritional
status due to physical work, and their children’s, if the time or quality women could
devote to child care were reduced (ACF, FANTA, FAO, IYCN, Save UK, WB). FANTA
pointed out increased female labor could also harm food production for the household,
since women are often responsible for producing gardens or other products for household
own-consumption.
2. Including men and boys so that they understand and become more supportive of women
or the projects targeting women can also be helpful to avoid harm and to increase chances
of success (ACF).
 Specific agriculture activities to reach women included:
1. Focus on food crops grows by women (ACF, BI, FANTA, FAO, IYCN, WB). FANTA,
FAO and Bioversity specify that non-staple minor crop production (including vegetables,
fruit, legumes, and traditional and indigenous food crops) and/or animal husbandry are
more likely to be female-controlled (depending on the local context). Bioversity points
out that focusing on women’s production of these can “offer opportunities for value

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 addition and increase income security” while FAO states, “commonly, crops grown by
women are used for home consumption and, therefore, have a direct impact on household
food security and nutrition.” ACF and IYCN advocate for home gardens primarily
because they are usually under women’s control, and can therefore increase women’s
decision-making power about food consumption. WB suggests training and market
opportunities for crops and animal products that women sell.
2. Improving women’s access to extension services, technology, inputs, markets, and
information (ACF, FANTA, FAO, HLTF, WV).
3. Investing in technologies to reduce labor and time costs, especially for typically women’s
tasks such as weeding, harvesting, processing and food preservation (FANTA, FAO,
HLTF, IYCN, Save UK, WB). World Bank lists some examples, such as lighter farm
tools, drum seeders that allow for mechanized weeding, mechanized mills, water-
harvesting technologies such as treadle pumps.
4. EC, IYCN, Save UK and all the others by implication of their initial rationale, stressed
the importance of strengthening women’s income control (through the above activities) –
as long as trade-offs with child care quality are not too great.
 Other add-ons to agricultural programs, related to women’s empowerment were suggested:
1. Creating an enabling environment for childcare (ACF, EC, FAO, IYCN, Save UK, WB);
ACF encouraged project planners to think about childcare during training for women,
breastfeeding spaces, engage fathers and mothers-in-law and other authority figures, and
to support day care centers or the like for working women (especially urban women).
FAO suggested a policy of allowing breastfeeding breaks for laborers. Save UK
suggested supporting men to increase their participation in care-giving.
2. Improving access to financial services (ACF, FANTA, WV)
3. Including gender-sensitive social protection measures, such as providing extra food
rations or vouchers, vouchers for services, multiple micronutrient sachets (ACF).
 Several notes couched activities to empower women within broad needs for policies that
support women’s rights to land, education, and employment (ACF, FANTA, WV), or
investment in agricultural research that affects the interests of women (HLTF).

Only three guidance papers discussed the process for how to best reach women in activities such
as those listed above. FANTA and FAO recommended that the best way is to involve women at
the design stage, and to continue working with them directly during implementation. That way,
“women can identify appropriate mechanisms for addressing labor and other time constraints”
(FANTA). FAO suggested that deliberate policies to target women through extension, designing
extension programs relevant to women’s agricultural activities, and/or increasing the number of
women extension officers would help to reach women farmers more effectively. World Vision
recommended positive deviance as an approach to empower women directly through confidence
in their own knowledge and abilities: “access to opportunities must be accompanied by programs
(such as PD/Hearth) than recognize and build on poor women’s priorities and knowledge; the
purpose here is to support women’s leadership and confidence-building, so that they can translate
opportunity into action.”

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Nutrition Education

Nutrition education was discussed by all 12 institutions, in terms of education, information,

promotion, and/or behavior change.32 Why: The main reasons for stressing incorporation of
nutrition education into agriculture projects was to improve consumption effects, and also to
improve nutrition impact of consumption (by modifying care practices and hygiene, for example)
(FANTA) – or as FAO summed it up, “to improve dietary habits and feeding practices.” World
Vision identified sustainability of interventions and associated nutrition benefits as a reason for
education and behavior change, and UN SCN described nutrition education as a way to “activate
the latent nutrition aspects of many agricultural development projects and programs,” or to
provide an “extra incentive to produce more, diversify production, and retain more food for
household consumption,” according to FANTA. The World Bank and HLTF also noted the
potential for general nutrition education efforts (reaching consumers) to increase consumer
demand. Mostly women were considered the primary target group for education efforts
(explicitly or implicitly), while a few papers also noted the importance of including men and
whole families (FANTA, FAO, WB, WV).

What: Important topics education or training could address included:

 Awareness-raising on food handling and food safety (ACF, BI, FAO, HLTF, Save UK,
UN SCN)
 Healthy food choices and balanced diets (FAO, HLTF, Save UK, UN SCN, WB)
 Nutritional requirements of different family members (ACF, BI, FAO, HLTF, Save UK)
 Encouraging cultivation and consumption of locally-available nutrient-dense food, even
if available nutritious foods are low status (FANTA, FAO, UN SCN)
 Food preparation and storage, including cooking demonstrations (ACF, Save UK, World
Vision)
 Reduction of post-harvest losses and long-term storage to maintain nutrient content
(FAO)
 Strategies to increase and diversify family food supplies (FAO)
 Encouraging environmentally sustainable food consumption patterns (IFPRI)
 Health risks of highly processed foods and obesity/chronic disease (UN SCN)
 Care practices, breastfeeding, and addressing food taboos (FANTA, FAO, HLTF)

How: Several of the guidance notes collectively spent a significant amount of page-space
describing principles for forming specific messages. They advise that successful education and
behavior change efforts will do the following:
 Base messages and strategies on an understanding of local perceptions about diet and
nutrition, reasons for current behaviors, and barriers and opportunities to behavior change
(ACF, BI, FANTA, Save UK). Bioversity suggests using the positive deviance approach
for behavior change, because it inherently builds in these considerations.
 Have a concise set of clear, actionable messages (ACF, BI, FANTA, Save UK).

32
Save UK put nutrition education in its own section, apart from agriculture, although that section contained similar
advice to many of the other guidance notes.

Page 49
  Build on existing messages and guidelines in-country, such as essential nutrition actions
or national food-based dietary guidelines (ACF, WV).
 Relate messages closely to the agricultural intervention, such as nutrition information
about crops produced and ways of preparing and preserving them (FANTA, Save UK,
UN SCN, WB).
 Release information through multiple channels at once (ACF, HLTF, Save UK).
 Four institutions (EC, FAO, Save UK, UN SCN) discussed ways to build an enabling
environment for nutrition education to take hold, beyond specific trainings: through
capacity building, including nutrition training for agriculture, health, and education
extension agents; nutrition curricula in primary schools, which may include school
gardens; and increasing the availability of fruits and vegetables.

Where: The guidance notes also presented a number of ideas for venues for reaching target
communities with nutrition education and information:
 Group-based activities (women’s groups, marketing associations, microfinance clubs)
(ACF, FANTA)
 Schools (ACF, FAO, UN SCN)
 Home visits (ACF, UN SCN)
 Community gardens or other gatherings specifically organized for trainings (ACF, FAO,
UN SCN)
 ACF and FAO also had the further suggestions of utilizing market days; religious centers;
performances (e.g. dramas, storytelling); and mass media (radio, television, billboards,
posters).

Who could or should give nutrition education trainings, and how much should be expected of
agricultural extension, is probably the subject of most debate within this theme. Five institutions
singled out agricultural extension agents as the most effective for communicating nutrition
information in the context of an agricultural program (ACF, FANTA, FAO, IYCN, UN SCN),
and Save UK and World Bank included agricultural extension as one possible channel along with
health workers, mass media and/or schools. FANTA, UN SCN and World Bank underscored the
need for information to be closely tied with the intervention, but FANTA also suggested that
agricultural extensionists could include simple, basic health messages. ACF and World Bank
discussed collaboration with health staff (CHWs, auxiliary nurses, birth attendants) or nutrition
volunteers to get all the necessary messages out. Other notes did not specify who should be
responsible for the nutrition education. The potential disconnect between the large array of
suggestions for messages and addressing all the determinants of nutrition security, and the vast
lack of capacity for agricultural extension agents to take on more than specific messages around
crop/animal production, was not well addressed. Program staff, which may include nutritionists,
or multisectoral collaborations, may be the assumed staffing mechanisms.

Management of natural resources

The fact that 10 of the 12 institutions discussed natural resource management at length, in
documents providing guidance on how to reach nutrition, is interesting. At first glance, the
identified goals of improved productivity (ACF, FAO, UN SCN), resilience and adaptation to

Page 50
climate change (ACF, EC, IFPRI, HLTF, Save UK, WB, WV), and increased equitability of
access to natural resources (BI, EC, FAO, HLTF) through soil, water, and biodiversity
conservation may seem simply production- or environment-oriented with little direct impact on
nutrition. These goals are relevant to nutrition, however, through supporting livelihoods, pro-
poor availability of water and water quality management, including control of water-borne
disease (EC, FAO, IFPRI, UN SCN, WV), and as a means to food security; and as IFPRI stated,
“stress on natural resources…may cause farmers to adopt farming practices that are harmful to
their own health and to the health of the consumers and that are ultimately not sustainable.”
According to the HLTF, which discussed managing ecosystems for food and nutrition
security extensively:

“Within any society, farmers – particularly smallholders – are most likely to be affected
by changing climate, degradation of the environment and increasing competition over
natural resources. Long-term food and nutrition security depends on the ways in which
ecosystems are managed and access to natural resources is governed.”

EC echoed that climate change and natural disasters are a clear threat to food security and
nutrition, and therefore nutrition-sensitive investments are those that increase resilience while
restoring or enhancing the natural resource base. FAO and HLTF (as well as IFPRI in another
theme) used the concept of “sustainable diets,” indicating that food choices and ability to sustain
food production are linked.

Each of the ten institutions discussed improving soil quality through fertility control of erosion.
Suggested mechanisms included legume production and intercropping, integrated crop-livestock
systems, economic support for inputs such as fertilizer, and sustainable land management
techniques. FAO and World Bank advocated for the use of iodine, zinc, and iron fertilizers,
which could improve soil fertility but more directly, can increase those micronutrients in food
crops grown in the soil. Five of the notes discussed equitable access to water and sustainable,
pro-poor management of water resources (EC, FAO, IFPRI, HLTF, UN SCN, WV); IFPRI and
HLTF noted this need would increase due to climate change. FAO highlighted the potential of
micro-irrigation (e.g. rainwater harvesting, low-cost drip systems, treadle pumps) based on
positive experience in Nepal. Four of the notes discussed biodiversity conservation as an
ecosystem service for nutrition, including use of agroforestry, locally adapted varieties and
supporting pest biocontrol from natural pests and parasites (ACF, BI, HLTF, UN SCN). FAO
supported integrated pest management. UN SCN and HLTF tied the issue of natural resource
management back to policy coherence around food and nutrition security, and urged global
policies supportive of conservation, biodiversity, and sustainable management of natural
resources. HLTF suggested several such policies, including pricing and distributing inputs
according to local conditions and natural capacity of ecosystems; paying farmers for ecosystem
services they provide; and well-functioning governance of land, plant genetic resources,
irrigation, and fisheries.

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Policy coherence

A majority of the guidance notes expressed that even efforts to improve nutrition through well-
targeted, context-appropriate, nutrition-friendly interventions at the household/community level
may be counteracted by a broader policy environment unsupportive of nutrition. HLTF writes,
“Policies that enable all people to enjoy good nutrition are referred to as “nutrition-sensitive.”
The common message on the need for policy coherence can be summed up as the need to
“mainstream nutrition considerations into relevant policies and programs, thus contributing to
long-term nutrition-sensitive development” (FAO). Nine of the institutions included the advice
simply to improve policy coherence, so that one policy does not work against another policy or
program (ACF, EC, FANTA, FAO, HLTF, IFPRI, Save UK, UN SCN, WB).

Further, most of those above-named institutions, and World Vision, offered recommendations on
exactly what kind of policies are needed. These included:

 Food policy, which was by far the most common concern (discussed by seven
institutions). Areas of food policy where guidance notes advocated for nutrition-sensitive
reform:
o Food price policies (EC, FAO, IFPRI). IFPRI made a special point that “price
policies can be used to promote consumption of more nutritious foods,” and
strongly recommended the use of policy instruments (including incentives, taxes,
and education/information) to correct market failures around the true price/cost of
food items, taking into account health and environmental externalities. HLTF
mentioned policies to mitigate food price volatility, and to ensure diversified
supply.
o Subsidies (EC, FAO, IFPRI, HLTF). IFPRI specifically noted that “downstream”
effects are as important to consider as immediate effects of subsidies, giving the
example that untargeted consumer subsidies can help the poor obtain food in the
short term but in the long term, they can negatively affect consumption choices
and reduce more nutrition-sensitive investment. HLTF also urged against
generalized consumer food subsidies.
o Trade policies, including import, export, and informal border trade of food (EC,
FAO, HLTF, Save UK, UN SCN), and agricultural inputs (HLTF). Policy
recommendations from HLTF differed based on whether countries were food-
exporting or food-importing.*
o Incentives (unspecified) to produce and market micronutrient-rich foods (UN
SCN)
o Policies specifically around export crops and staples (FAO).
o Control/release of food buffer stocks (FAO, HLTF)
o Food security policy, which need to be more based on the need for adequate
nutrition (WB)
 Pro-poor policies in general (EC, FANTA, HLTF, UN SCN).
o Land reform (FANTA, FAO, and others as detailed in the “equitable resources”
section)
o Legal codes, pro-poor regulations, and decentralization of licensing processes for
cooperatives, associations, and microenterprise (FANTA)

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 o Policies that enable access to agricultural inputs (HLTF, Save UK)
 Infrastructure-building (roads, transportation, communication) (FANTA, EC, FAO,
HLTF, IFPRI), which FAO noted can enable food distribution and reduce prices, and can
provide employment opportunities.
 Social protection/ social services (ACF, EC, FAO, HLTF*, IFPRI, Save UK)
o Cash transfers and other programs or policies to moderate prices33 for basic goods
and services for the poor (ACF, EC, FAO, IFPRI, Save UK)
o Provision of health services for the poor (FAO, IFPRI)
o School feeding programs (FAO)
o Supplementary feeding programs (FAO)
 Environmental policies, to support sustainable farming activities (FAO, HLTF, IFPRI,
Save UK), including policy support for climate change adaptation (HLTF)*
 Macro-economic policies promoting investment in the agriculture sector (EC, FAO,
HLTF)
 Policies to support open and well-functioning markets, enabling access to nutritious food
(HLTF)*
 Responsible foreign direct investment that includes smallholders (UN SCN)
 Policies around non-food land use (Save UK)
 Population policies (FAO)
 Disaster risk reduction (HLTF).

*The HLTF guidance documents were primarily about policy needs to support sustainable food
and nutrition security, and heavily emphasized three areas in great detail: environmental
sustainability, well-functioning markets free of trade distortions, and social protection. Detailed
quotes are found in Annex 3.

Good governance for nutrition

Good governance for nutrition refers to high-level planning and action specifically to reduce
malnutrition. Policy coherence – which is about changing policies in various sectors that are
counterproductive to nutrition policies, and adding helpful non-nutrition-specific policies such as
pro-poor regulations – goes hand in hand with good governance for nutrition. They are treated
separately here because ten institutions had advice focused on specific nutrition governance
(ACF, EC, FANTA, FAO, IFPRI, HLTF, Save UK, UN SCN, WB, WV). The EC paper had a
complete section on improving nutrition through governance, and HLTF documents also focused
strongly on this area (see Annex 3 “good governance for nutrition” table) with many points of
guidance.

Leadership and commitment at the highest levels of government and donors is a prerequisite to
support the processes needed within good governance for nutrition (ACF, EC, FAO, HLTF, Save
UK, WB). The World Bank noted that country client demand for improving nutrition is one of
the most important factors that would increase financing for nutrition-sensitive development. On
the other hand, HLTF noted that official development assistance “has an important role to play in
33
Could include tax breaks, pricing by ability to pay, vouchers, subsidies, other incentives

Page 53
supporting the case for catalyzing and then accelerating necessary increases in national
spending…the primary source of increased investment will usually be a rise in the amount of the
national budget going to food and nutrition security.” HLTF also suggested that international
partners come together around the issue: “At global level, partnerships can facilitate convergence
among initiatives on sustainable agriculture and food and nutrition security… Regional and
international organizations increasingly seek to align their assistance to national authorities and
other in-country partners.” The IFPRI paper suggested operational research is needed to learn
how to generate effective leadership for multisectoral collaboration and coordination.

The main recommendation in this area was to draw up a national nutrition strategy or action
plan (ACF, EC, FANTA, FAO, HLTF, WV). FANTA discussed two kinds of plans: a food
security that aims to improve nutrition (generally an agriculture sector document), and a nutrition
strategy that can be explicitly addressed by agriculture (usually a national-level or health-sector
document). ACF, EC, HLTF, FAO and World Vision noted that the current and planned budget
(from national and international sources), as well as institutional structures and capacity to
support the plan rapidly are also important factors, so that the plan doesn’t merely stay a plan.
FAO had several other suggestions for inclusion in national strategies, found in the table in
Annex 3.

Nutrition surveillance was also frequently recommended (ACF, EC, FAO, HLTF, UN
SCN,WV), disaggregated by age, gender, livelihood, and geography, and including surveillance
of trends affecting food and nutrition security such as food prices, local food availability and
consumption of quality foods, water and sanitation, and disease (HLTF). National-level capacity
to integrate and manage information from various sectors was noted to be largely absent (FAO),
and a topic that would benefit from research (IFPRI). HLTF urges support from international
organizations and non-governmental groups to assist governments with national monitoring and
information systems.

Accountability based on information, transparency, and nutrition indicators (EC, FAO, HLTF)
is important to good governance. HLTF states, “Countries making the most progress on food
and nutrition security are those with a strong political and financial commitment and a high sense
of accountability on all interlinked areas of food and nutrition security.” Three notes also
mentioned reform of international bodies affecting policies and actions at country-level, such as
the Committee on World Food Security (FAO, IFPRI, HLTF), would assist with accountability.
Sound government regulation around implementation of national policies (on fortification and
food safety policies, for example) is necessary to ensure nutritional benefits from activities are
realized (HLTF, WB), and all people, especially the most vulnerable and marginalized, should be
able to seek recourse if they do not receive their entitlements (HLTF).

Respect for human rights is a basic characteristic of good governance in general, and also for
nutrition (HLTF).

Other recommendations approached “policy coherence.” Incorporating nutrition into 5 or 10-

year development plans, poverty reduction strategy papers, and UN frameworks (EC, UN SCN)
is an element of good governance for nutrition, based on convincing planners that targeted
nutrition policies and interventions are necessary above and beyond economic development.

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Agreement with international codes supportive of nutrition, such as the International Code of
Marketing of Breast Milk Substitutes is also a step toward good governance (ACF, EC).

Capacity-building34

Capacity-building, a theme closely related to nutrition governance, was discussed by seven

institutions (ACF, FAO, IFPRI, HLTF, UN SCN, WB, WV). Advice was given regarding kinds
of capacity needed as well as actors who need it. Ministry staff, including local and extension
services in agriculture and health, were specifically singled out as needing greater capacity to
understand and address malnutrition (ACF, FAO, UN SCN, WB), as well as policymakers and
communities/the public (FAO). As stated by the UN SCN, “There is a shortage of qualified
personnel at every level – national, district, and local.” Kinds of capacity needed included
identifying food and nutritional problems and their causes and prioritizing needs, designing
intervention strategies, providing management and operational support, nutrition communication
skills (FAO, UN SCN), capacity of NARS for breeding and dissemination of relevant
biofortified crops, and technical capacity for food quality control and laboratory analysis (e.g. of
aflatoxin, micronutrient content) (WB). Beyond increasing capacity of existing ministry staff, the
coverage of agricultural extension is low, especially of agents with capacity in horticulture,
livestock, and aquaculture, and agents often have very limited resources available to them (FAO,
WB). FAO,UN SCN, and the World Bank proposed that more nutritionists and home economics
staff would also help: “procuring funding for training nutrition specialists at all levels of
government should be a priority” (UN SCN). IFPRI suggested to “Invest in research, evaluation,
and education systems capable of integrating information from…agriculture, health, and
nutrition” as well as human and institutional capacity. Civil society involvement and inclusion
may increase capacity for action and assessment (ACF, EC).

Advocacy and communication

Communication and advocacy were raised by 10 institutions as important tasks to link

agriculture and nutrition. The most common recommendation was wider dissemination of
relevant knowledge and experience across sectoral, national, and institutional boundaries,
translated into policy-relevant messages for effective program and policy changes (BI, FANTA,
FAO, HLTF, IFPRI, WB, WV). Suggested formats for knowledge-sharing included bulletins,
regular working groups, workshops, interagency meetings, and policy dialogue (FANTA). ACF,
FAO, IFPRI, and Save UK advocated for continued awareness-raising among policy-makers of
various stripes on the extent and consequences of malnutrition, and EC recommended effective
nutrition champions in different stakeholder groups (such as the agriculture sector). FANTA
suggested broadening open use of food security and nutrition monitoring data, such as “standard
data on health and agricultural production and prices collected by ministries, NGOs, and UN
agencies.”
34
Note: this term refers to capacity building of personnel. Capacity building of households or beneficiaries is treated
under “nutrition education,” above.

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Related to the topic of advocacy is communicating the rational for agriculture programs and
policies to support nutrition. While most of the guidance was around what to do to design,
implement, and support nutrition-sensitive agriculture, the question of why to do nutrition-
sensitive agriculture is often pertinent to agriculture programmers when faced with changing the
scope of their programs. Several guidance notes discussed rationale for the agriculture sector to
have an interest in nutrition (EC, FANTA, HLTF, IYCN, IFPRI, FAO, and WB). These reasons
fell into two general categories:

Agriculture is supposed to be nutrition-sensitive anyway, and accountability can be improved.

 At a high level, objectives of agriculture program/investment funders are almost always
improved farmer well-being and improved food security (which means consistent access
to nutritious diets); and sometimes child health or survival (depending on the funding
source) (FANTA, FAO, WB)
 No other sector is better placed to address food production and consumption (WB)
 Consumption/diets can be improved without compromising other program-specific
strategic objectives (FANTA)
 Nutrition-sensitive agricultural activities are closely linked to increased women’s
participation, often an explicit goal of agriculture programs (WB)

Nutrition-sensitive agriculture would further the objectives of productivity and economic gain.
 Malnutrition results in lower labor capacity, productivity losses and losses in agricultural
income (EC, FAO, HLTF, IFPRI, IYCN, WB); this is especially pertinent in contexts
where HIV/AIDS is a factor (IFPRI). Nutrition-sensitive agriculture can help reduce
those constraints.
 Nutrition knowledge (on the part of both producers and consumers) can create incentives
to transition to diversified production, which can reduce risk and increase income from
high-value production (WB)
 Greater women’s participation (which is part of nutrition-sensitive agriculture) results in
higher productivity (WB)

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Agriculture programming for nutrition guiding principles – DRAFT – FAO 2012

Table 1: Purpose, Audience, and Scope of each Guidance Note

The purpose and audience of each guidance note were copied directly in most cases, and summarized when a direct quote was not available.

Organization Document title Year Purpose Audience Length

ACF Maximizing the July “This manual aims to provide practical ACF staff and other 100 pages
nutritional impact 2011 guidance to field workers in order to humanitarian (excluding
of food security maximise the nutritional impact of food practitioners annexes)
and livelihoods security & livelihoods (FSL)
interventions: a interventions”
manual for field
workers
BI Improving Oct “This guide describes the process and “This manual is aimed at 35 pages
(Bioversity nutrition with 2011 procedures for collecting important Bioversity’s national and (excluding
International) agricultural information required to assess local regional partners and annexes)
biodiversity: a farming systems and agrobiodiversity, humanitarian organizations
manual on household food consumption norms and with interests in the impacts
implementing food the nutritional status of vulnerable groups of agrobiodiversity on
systems field within a given population using specific food availability, nutrition
projects to assess indicators. Additionally, this guide and health in developing
and improve provides a framework for practical countries. It is a practical
dietary diversity, implementation of a holistic program that tool that can be used by field
nutrition and focuses on creating a customized workers trained in
health outcomes intervention based on community- agroecology and home
specific data.” survey data gathering
techniques, as well as
experienced health and
agriculture professionals.”

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Organization Document title Year Purpose Audience Length
EC Addressing Sept “This Reference Document is intended as “aid administrators working 100 pages
Undernutrition in 2011 a resource to guide the practical within country teams — (3pp
External incorporation of nutrition objectives into delegations of the EU and specifically
Assistance: an relevant sectors and different funding offices of Member States. pertaining to
integrated methods used by the European Union In addition… national food security
approach through (EU) — whether in development counterparts and other and
sectors and aid cooperation or in humanitarian stakeholders.” agriculture)
modalities response.”
FANTA Improving the 2001 “This strategy and policy brief presents “USAID Mission staff, 20 pages
Nutrition Impacts recommendations for improving particularly Agricultural and
of agriculture consumption and nutrition impacts of Health Officers.”
Interventions: agricultural interventions, emphasizing “The information is most
Strategy and opportunities for strengthening appropriate for Missions in
Policy Brief complementarity between agriculture, countries with high rates of
health and nutrition program areas poverty and malnutrition,
without compromising program-specific where agriculture is a
strategic objectives” significant source of income
for the poor and where the
Mission has expressed a
strong interest in tackling
problems of malnutrition”
FANTA Increasing the 1999 “to foster a clearer and more in-depth Broad; but “produced for 20 pages
Nutritional understanding of program and policy USAID’s Office of
Impacts of options for improving the impact of Sustainable Development,
Agricultural agriculture projects on consumption and Agricultural Development
Interventions nutritional status.” Division within the Africa
Bureau”

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Organization Document title Year Purpose Audience Length
FAO Assisting the food 2010 To describe the role of the food and 2 pages
and agriculture agriculture sector, and FAO, “to protect,
sector in promote and improve food-based systems
addressing to ensure sustainable food and nutrition
malnutrition security, improve diets, combat
micronutrient deficiencies, and raise
levels of nutrition, and in so doing,
achieve the nutrition-related Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs).”
FAO Investing in Food 2009 “The FAO Agriculture and Consumer investors (international and 2 pages (out
Security: Protection Department has produced this donor communities and the of a 30pp set
Linking series of briefs in the interest of guiding commercial private sector) of briefs)
Agriculture to investments. They highlight 12 aspects of
Nutrition Security agricultural production, processing and
food quality to illustrate where
investments can have big returns in terms
of improving productivity and
livelihoods while protecting the natural
resource base so essential for
sustainability.”

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Organization Document title Year Purpose Audience Length
FAO Incorporating 2004 “The overall objective of this Policy Country-level policy-makers, 76 pages
Nutrition Brief is to create awareness and and health and nutrition (2pp
Considerations understanding of the advantages of good workers35 specifically
into Development nutritional status to the development on agric.
Policies and process, so that nutrition considerations policies and
Programmes can be incorporated into development programmes,
policies to facilitate sustainable but other
development.” sections also
This brief will “(a) provide policy- contained
makers with practical strategies for relevant
incorporating nutrition considerations guidance)
into relevant development policies.
(b) provide health and nutrition workers
with a tool to advocate for nutrition at the
policy level.

35
“In adopting the ICN (International Conference on Nutrition) Plan of Action for Nutrition, participating countries agreed to prepare National Plans of Action
for Nutrition (NPAN). In formulating their NPAN, several countries expressed the need for assistance in terms of advocacy to raise awareness about the need to
integrate nutrition objectives into development policies. In response to this request, FAO developed this advocacy document.”

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Organization Document title Year Purpose Audience Length
FAO Incorporating 2001 “This paper presents a series of Policy-makers, research 5 chapters
Nutrition guidelines meant to encourage and assist planners and managers,
Considerations Member Nations of the United Nations agricultural research workers
into Agricultural Food and Agriculture Organization and extension services
Research Plans (FAO) in addressing and including
and Programmes nutrition and health issues in their
agricultural research planning and
programmes...The paper also offers
practical suggestions for implementation
of these Guidelines, which are designed
specifically for four different disciplines
of the agriculture sector: policy-makers,
research planners and managers,
agricultural research workers and
extension services.”
IFPRI Leveraging 2011 “This “Way Forward” statement is a Broad 4 pages
Agriculture for synthesis of IFPRI’s preliminary
improving conclusions based on the policy
nutrition and consultation process and is designed to
health outcomes: stimulate international debate on the way
The way forward forward.”
IYCN Achieving Feb “This fact sheet summarizes these “agricultural professionals 4 pages
Nutritional Impact 2011 relationships by offering examples of involved in the design and
and Food Security what works and what does not, serving as planning of projects”
through a resource for agricultural professionals
Agriculture: Fact involved in the design and planning of
sheet projects”

Page 61
Organization Document title Year Purpose Audience Length
IYCN Integrating Feb “This tool briefly describes how to Agriculture program 6 pages
Household 2011 develop objectives and determine designers
Nutrition and Food indicators that will maximize nutritional
Security objectives benefits for populations most vulnerable
into proposed to food insecurity and malnutrition.”
agriculture
projects:
Illustrative
guidance
Save the A life free from 2012 To “galvanize political Leaders of countries with 10 pages
Children UK hunger commitment…[to] dedicate the necessary high numbers of
Chapter 4: time and resources to ending the malnourished children,
Harnessing the malnutrition crisis.” global institutions that have a
Potential of mandate to tackle hunger and
Agriculture to malnutrition, and rich
Tackle country governments
Malnutrition
Save the Hungry for 2009 To “[provide] governments and Governments and 1 page
Children UK Change: An Eight- international agencies with a clear and international agencies
step, costed plan of credible roadmap to combat child
action to tackle malnutrition.”
global child
hunger,
Component 3:
Nutrition-Friendly
Agriculture and
Livestock Policies

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Organization Document title Year Purpose Audience Length
World Bank “Addressing Sept “The overall objective of this guidance “World Bank task team 40 pages
Nutrition through 2012 note is to offer practical guidance to leaders, development (excluding
Multisectoral support World Bank Task Team Leaders partners and country annexes)
Approaches: (TTLs), development partners and implementers”
Guidance Note for country implementers in maximizing the
Agriculture and positive nutrition impacts of agricultural
Rural investments, and minimizing the
Development” unintended negative consequences on
nutrition. The specific objectives of this
guidance note are to support TTLs,
partner agencies, and country clients in
making agriculture investments more
nutrition sensitive.”
World Vision Growing Healthy Feb “This discussion paper seeks to make Broad; specifically WV and 9 pages
Children: 2011 explicit the role that agriculture, in other NGO program staff
Addressing child particular, support to smallholder
undernutrition farmers, has in reducing child
through agriculture undernutrition… to stimulate thinking on
concrete ways to improve nutritional
status through agricultural interventions.”
World Vision Growing healthy Feb To present publicly the information in the Broad 4 pages
children: Key 2011 discussion paper above and key lessons
Lessons from from World Vision’s experience, and to
evaluations of gain feedback at an international meeting
World Vision's (IFPRI International Conference,
integrated “Leveraging Agriculture for Improving
agriculture- Nutrition and Health”)
nutrition-health
programming

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Organization Document title Year Purpose Audience Length
UN HLTF Food and Nutrition Mar “To contribute to a stronger focus on Broad 12 pages
Security for All 2012 outcomes related to agriculture, food and
through nutrition security within the Rio + 20
Sustainable processes and beyond.” -David Nabarro
Agriculture and
Food Systems
UN HLTF Food and Nutrition Aug “Policies and action for responses to food Broad 36 pages
Security: 2011 and nutrition insecurity need to address
Comprehensive two parallel tracks: (i) meeting the
Framework for immediate food and nutritional needs of
Action: Summary those at risk; and (ii) building longer-
of the Updated term resilience by eliminating the root
Comprehensive causes of hunger and poverty. The UCFA
Framework for sets out ways in which the HLTF can
Action support food and nutrition security
policies along these twin tracks…This
summary version of the UCFA has been
prepared as an easy-to-read concise
document that highlights the concepts
and principles of the framework. Special
attention has been given to maintaining
the meaning and spirit of the full version
of the UCFA without reopening sensitive
debates on which there is a measure of
consensus.”

Page 64
Organization Document title Year Purpose Audience Length
UN SCN 6th report on the 2010 “Chapter 4 discusses current trends in Broad 22 pages
world nutrition food and nutrition security, explores
situation, Ch4: immediate and long-term challenges, and
Sustainable Food presents the case for why agriculture is
and Nutrition central to improving nutrition.”
Security

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Agriculture programming for nutrition guiding principles – DRAFT – FAO 2012

ANNEX 1: ALL DOCUMENTS IDENTIFIED:

Institutional Guidance/Statements on linking agriculture and nutrition

Summary:
A total of 53 publications were identified to date; 31 development institutions have been
involved in publishing guidance, a statement, or explorations of the evidence linking agriculture
and nutrition. These fall into the categories of “guiding principles and operational guidance” for
increasing nutrition impact of agriculture programs; UN inter-agency guidance; “manuals” to
assist program staff in implementing the principles; “statements and strategies” describing
approaches of individual institutions; and “other” including four academic reviews, a community
conversation, and a research program. The papers identified in each category are identified
below.

Guidance notes (10 institutions)

ACF International (Action Against Hunger)

“Maximizing the nutritional impact of food security and livelihoods interventions: a manual for
field workers” (Geraldine Le Cuziat and Hanna Mattinen) July 2011
http://www.actionagainsthunger.org/publication/2011/07/maximising-nutritional-impact-food-
security-and-livelihoods-interventions

Bioversity International (BI)

“Improving Nutrition with Agricultural Biodiversity: a manual on implementing food systems
field projects to assess and improve dietary diversity, and nutrition and health outcomes”
Oct 2011
http://www.bioversityinternational.org/fileadmin/bioversityDocs/Research/Nutrition__new_/Imp
roving_Nutrition_with_agricultural_biodiversity.pdf

EC (European Commission)
“Addressing Undernutrition in External Assistance: an integrated approach through sectors and
aid modalities.” September 2011
Note: Sections 2.6-2.7 are: “Improving Nutrition through Food Security” and “Improving
Nutrition through Agriculture”
http://capacity4dev.ec.europa.eu/topic/fighting-hunger
http://capacity4dev.ec.europa.eu/sites/default/files/documents/topic/nutrition_en_web.pdf

FANTA (Food And Nutrition Technical Assistance - USAID)

“Improving the Nutrition Impacts of Agriculture Interventions: Strategy and Policy Brief” 2001
http://www.fantaproject.org/downloads/pdfs/NutAg_Mar01.pdf
Background paper: “Increasing the Nutritional Impacts of Agricultural Interventions” (Patricia
Bonnard) 1999
http://www.fantaproject.org/downloads/pdfs/nut_ag.pdf

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FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN)
“Assisting the food and agriculture sector in addressing malnutrition” 2010
http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/agn/pdf/Food_and_Agr_sector_and_malnutrition.pdf
“Investing in Food Security: Linking Agriculture to Nutrition Security” 2009
http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/ag_portal/docs/i1230e00.pdf
“Incorporating Nutrition Considerations into Development Policies and Programmes” 2004
Note: p44-46 is most relevant: Policies and programs in agriculture.
ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/007/y5343e/y5343e00.pdf
“Incorporating Nutrition Considerations into Agricultural Research Plans and Programmes”
2001
http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/y1181e/Y1181E00.htm

IFPRI (International Food Policy Research Institute)

“Leveraging Agriculture for improving nutrition and health outcomes: The way forward.” 2011
http://2020conference.ifpri.info/publications/the-way-forward/
This piece has also been published as Ch.23 in Reshaping agriculture for nutrition and health
edited by S Fan and R Pandya-Lorch, IFPRI 2012 (S Fan, R Pandya-Lorch, and H Fritschel)
http://www.ifpri.org/publication/reshaping-agriculture-nutrition-and-
health?utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=Feed%3A+ifpri-
agriculture-health+%28New+from+IFPRI+on+agriculture+and+health%29

IYCN (Infant and Young Child Nutrition – USAID)

“Achieving Nutritional Impact and Food Security through Agriculture: Fact sheet” Feb 2011
http://www.iycn.org/resource/?resource_categories=agriculture-
toolshttp://iycn.org/files/FINALIYCNAgricultureFactSheet022311.pdf
“Integrating Household Nutrition and Food Security objectives into proposed agriculture
projects: Illustrative guidance” Feb 2011
http://www.iycn.org/agriculture.php

McKnight Foundation Crop Collaborative Research Program (CCRP)

“What we know about agricultural interventions to improve child nutrition” Forthcoming
(listed alphabetically: Berti, P. Bezner-Kerr, R., Creed, H., Cruz, Y., Jones, A., Nicklin, C.,
Omonte, M., Perez, M., Scurrah, M.)
To be released 2012 or 2013.

Save the Children, UK

“A Life Free from Hunger: Chapter 4: Harnessing the Potential of Agriculture to Tackle
Malnutrition” 2012
http://www.savethechildren.org.uk/resources/online-library/life-free-hunger-tackling-child-
malnutrition
“Hungry for Change: An eight-step, costed plan of action to tackle global hunger” 2009
Note: “component 3” of the plan is about nutrition-friendly agriculture
http://www.savethechildren.org.uk/en/54_9544.htm

World Bank (WB)

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“Addressing Nutrition through Multisectoral Approaches: Guidance Note for Agriculture and
Rural Development” Forthcoming 2012
To be posted at www.worldbank.org/nutrition

World Vision International (WV)

“Growing Healthy Children: Addressing child undernutrition through agriculture.” (Sheri Arnott)
Feb 2011
http://voices.worldvision.ca/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/Food-Sec-Nutrition-Discussion-Paper-
FINALver-2-feb-2011-21.pdf
“Growing healthy children: Key Lessons from evaluations of World Vision's integrated
agriculture-nutrition-health programming” (Kioko Munyao) Feb 2011
http://2020conference.ifpri.info/files/2010/12/20110211parallel2C3_Munyao_Kioko_note.pdf

UN inter-agency guidance (2 inter-agency bodies)

UN SCN (Standing Committee on Nutrition)

“6th report on the world nutrition situation: Progress in Nutrition” 2010
Chapter 4: Sustainable Food and Nutrition Security
Note: the 6th report (SCN’s most recent) focuses on two priority areas: maternal nutrition (Ch
3), and agriculture as central to improving nutrition (Ch4).
http://www.unscn.org/files/Publications/RWNS6/html/index.html

UN HLTF on Global Food Security (High Level Task Force)

“Food and Nutrition Security for All through Sustainable Agriculture and Food Systems” March
2012
http://www.un-foodsecurity.org/
“Updated Comprehensive Framework for Action (CFA)” 2010
http://un-foodsecurity.org/sites/default/files/UCFA_English.pdf
http://un-foodsecurity.org/sites/default/files/SUMMARY_UCFA_EN.pdf

Manuals (8 institutions)

ACDI/VOCA
Set of four “Nutrition Integration Fact Sheets” on integrating nutrition into value chains for
legumes, vegetables, maize, and rice, accompanied by a nutrition primer. April 2012
http://www.thousanddays.org/author/acdivoca/

ACF International
“Maximizing the nutritional impact of food security and livelihoods interventions: a manual for
field workers” July 2011
http://www.actionagainsthunger.org/publication/2011/07/maximising-nutritional-impact-food-
security-and-livelihoods-interventions

Bioversity International

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“Improving Nutrition with Agricultural Biodiversity: a manual on implementing food systems
field projects to assess and improve dietary diversity, and nutrition and health outcomes”
Oct 2011
http://www.bioversityinternational.org/fileadmin/bioversityDocs/Research/Nutrition__new_/Imp
roving_Nutrition_with_agricultural_biodiversity.pdf

FAO
“Guidelines for joint planning for nutrition, food security, and livelihoods: Agreeing on causes of
malnutrition for joint action.” May 2011
http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/wa_workshop/docs/Joint_Planning_for_Nutrition_FA
O_May2011.pdf
“Protecting and Promoting Nutrition in Crisis and Recovery” 2005
ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/008/y5815e/y5815e00.pdf
“Guidelines for preparing micro-project proposals to improve food security and nutrition” 2002
http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/005/y2829e/y2829e00.htm
“Guidelines for participatory nutrition projects” 1993; currently being updated
http://www.fao.org/docrep/v1490e/v1490e00.htm#TopOfPage

GAIN, IDS, and USAID

Nutritious Agriculture by Design: A tool for program planning. May 2012
Not yet available online

IYCN
“Nutritional Impact Assessment Tool: a tool for maximizing the positive impacts of agricultural
interventions on nutritionally vulnerable and food insecure populations” September 2011
http://www.iycn.org/resource/?resource_categories=agriculture-tools

Statements and strategies (12 institutions)

AGRA (Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa)

“Transforming agriculture, nutrition, and health linkages” (Ngongi) Feb 2011
http://2020conference.ifpri.info/files/2011/02/20110210inaugural_panel_Ngongi_Namanga_note
.pdf

AVRDC – The World Vegetable Center

Brochures of mission and activities Consumption/nutrition is one of the main themes
http://203.64.245.61/web_docs/brochures/HQ_brochure_web.pdf
http://203.64.245.61/web_docs/brochures/unique_center_latest.pdf
“Indigenous Vegetables: A home-grown answer to malnutrition”
http://203.64.245.61/web_docs/brochures/point/Point-Nutrition.pdf
“Home Gardens: Fresh vegetables within reach of all”
http://libnts.avrdc.org.tw/web_docs/media/background/home%20gardens_rev_s.pdf

BMGF (Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation)

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“Optimizing Nutrition Outcomes from Investments in Agriculture” Aug 2012
http://www.gatesfoundation.org/agriculturaldevelopment/Pages/optimizing-nutrition-outcomes-
from-investment-agriculture.aspx

Bioversity International
“Resilient Food and Nutrition Systems: Analyzing the role of agricultural biodiversity in
enhancing human nutrition and health” 2011
http://www.bioversityinternational.org/fileadmin/bioversityDocs/Research/Nutrition__new_/Bio
versity_Nutrition_strategy__fullversion__.pdf

Concern Worldwide
“The Time is Now: Improving Food Security and Nutrition for the Poorest” 2012
http://www.concernusa.org/media/pdf/2011/06/FINAL_Hunger_Broch.pdf
“Realigning Agriculture to Integrate Nutrition (RAIN) Project” (Tom Arnold) Feb 2011
http://2020conference.ifpri.info/files/2010/12/20110211parallel1B3_Arnold_Tom_note.pdf

Fintrac and USAID

“Spotlight Analysis: Nutrition and Agriculture” Dec 2011
http://typo3.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/fsn/docs/Agriculture_nutrition/ACCESO_Spotlight_
Nutrition_12_11_ENG.pdf

HKI (Helen Keller International)

“Homestead Food Production and Nutrition Education” (Victoria Quinn) Feb 2011
http://2020conference.ifpri.info/files/2010/12/20110211parallel1B1_Quinn_Victoria_note.pdf
“Homestead Food Production – A Strategy to Combat Malnutrition and Poverty.” 2001
http://www.hki.org/research/HFP_Strategy_Combat_Malnutrition_Poverty_2001.pdf

ICRW (International Center for Research on Women)

“A Leadership Strategy for Reducing Hunger and Malnutrition in Africa: The Agriculture-
Nutrition Advantage” (C Johnson-Welch, K MacQuarrie, S Bunch) 2005
http://www.icrw.org/files/publications/A-Leadership-Strategy-for-Reducing-Hunger-and-
Malnutrition-in-Africa-The-Agriculture-Nutrition-Advantage.pdf

IFAD (International Fund for Agricultural Development of the UN)

Strategic Framework 2011-2015: Enabling poor rural people to improve their food security and
nutrition, raise their incomes and strengthen their resilience
http://www.ifad.org/sf/index.htm
http://www.ifad.org/sf/strategic_e.pdf

USAID (United States Agency for International Development)

Feed the Future Guide 2010
Note: p13-14 outlines FTF approach to reducing undernutrition through agriculture
investments.
http://www.feedthefuture.gov/guide.html
Feed the Future Indicator Handbook: Definition Sheets
http://www.feedthefuture.gov/documents/FTFHandbookIndicatorDefinitions.pdf

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WorldFish Center
“Fish and Human Nutrition”
http://www.worldfishcenter.org/sites/default/files/fish_human_nutrition_1.pdf

WFP (World Food Programme of the UN)

“Enhancing nutrition along the value chain” (Ken Davies, P4P) Feb 2011
http://2020conference.ifpri.info/files/2010/12/20110211parallel1A2_Davies_Ken_note.pdf
“WFP Nutrition Policy” (2012) discusses P4P and biofortification
http://documents.wfp.org/stellent/groups/public/documents/eb/wfpdoc061668.pdf

Other
(5 commissioned literature reviews, 1 research program, 1 community
dialogue)

AED and FAO

“Deepening the Dialogue: Agriculture and nutrition collaboration to enhance global food
security: summary report from the Open Forum held on Nov 1, 2010”
http://typo3.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/fsn/docs/Agriculture_nutrition/Deepening_the_Dialo
gue__Summary_Report.pdf

CGIAR (Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research)

CRP4: “Agriculture for Improved Health and Nutrition” 2011
http://www.cgiarfund.org/cgiarfund/sites/cgiarfund.org/files/Documents/PDF/crp_4_Proposal.pd
f

DFID-commissioned review (University of London):

“A systematic review of agriculture interventions that aim to improve nutritional status of
children.” (E Masset, L Haddad, A Cornelius, J Isaza-Castro) 2011
http://www.dfid.gov.uk/R4D/PDF/Outputs/SystematicReviews/Masset_etal_agriculture_and_nut
rition.pdf
http://eppi.ioe.ac.uk/cms/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=QbYFOlTyugs%3D&tabid=2974&mid=558
3
Masset E, Haddad L, Cornelius A, Isaza-Castro J. Effectiveness of agricultural interventions that
aim to improve nutritional status of children: systematic review. British Medical Journal (2012).
http://www.bmj.com/content/344/bmj.d8222

IYCN
“Nutrition and Food Security Impacts of Agriculture Projects: A review of experience” (Jim
Levinson) Feb 2011
http://www.iycn.org/agriculture.php
http://iycn.org/files/FINALIYCNReviewofExperience020911.pdf

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USAID (through A2Z, hosted by AED); IFPRI
“The Micronutrient Impact of Multisectoral Programs Focusing on Nutrition” (JL Leroy, M
Ruel, E Verhofstadt, D Olney) 2008
http://www.micronutrientforum.org/innocenti/Leroy%20et%20al%20MNF%20Indirect%20Selec
ted%20Review_FINAL.pdf

WorldFish Center
“The contribution of fish intake, aquaculture, and small-scale fisheries to improving
nutrition: A literature review” (N Kawarazuka) 2010
http://www.worldfishcenter.org/resource_centre/WP_2106_Nutrition.pdf

World Bank
“Pathways from Agriculture to Nutrition” 2007
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTARD/825826-
1111134598204/21608903/January2008Final.pdf

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ANNEX 2: ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

Some additional tools are identified below, which would assist implementers in following the
available guidance, or to understand the issues further. Note that this list is far from
exhaustive; it simply provides some pertinent references suggested by contributors.

Context Assessment and Implementation guidance:

A2Z: The USAID Micronutrient and Child Blindness Project

“Program Assessment Guide.” (Pelletier, D., Corsi, A., Hoey, L., Houston, R., Faillace, S.)
August 2010
http://www.a2zproject.org/pdf/PAG.pdf

AED
Designing by Dialogue. Consultative Research to Improve Young Child Feeding. (K Dickin, M
Griffiths, E Piwoz) 1997
http://www.globalhealthcommunication.org/tools/58

CINE (Centre for Indigenous Nutrition and the Environment at McGill University)
“Documenting Traditional Food Systems of Indigenous Peoples: International Case Studies;
Guidelines for Procedures” (2006)
http://www.mcgill.ca/cine/sites/mcgill.ca.cine/files/ProcedureManual_Steps.pdf

CORE Group
“Nutrition Program Design Assistant: A tool for program planners” (2010)
http://www.coregroup.org/component/content/article/119

FANTA
“Nutrition, Food Security and HIV: A Compendium of Promising Practices” (2008)
http://www.fantaproject.org/publications/fsHIVcompendium2008.shtml

FAO
“Analysis of Farming Systems”
http://www.fao.org/farmingsystems/description_en.htm
“A Response Analysis Framework for Food and Nutrition Security Interventions at District
Level, Drawing on Work done in NTT Province, Indonesia; A Facilitation Guide.” (2011)
http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i1996e/i1996e00.pdf
“A Response Analysis Framework for Food and Nutrition Security Interventions at District at
Inter-cluster and Cluster Level, Drawing on work done in relation to the IPC (version 1.1) and
the IASC Cluster System in Somalia; A Facilitation Guide.” (2011)
http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i1994e/i1994e00.pdf
“Improving nutrition programmes: an assessment tool for action” (2005)
ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/009/a0244e/a0244e00.pdf

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IFAD
“Good practices in participatory mapping” (2009)
http://www.ifad.org/pub/map/PM_web.pdf

INFDC (International Nutrition Foundation for Developing Countries)

RAP: Rapid Assessment Procedures: Qualitative Methodologies for planning and evaluation of
health related programmes (N Scrimshaw and G Gleason, Eds.) 1992
http://www.idpas.org/pdf/309A-Contents.pdf

IPC (Integrated Food Security Phase Classification)

Standardized Tool for classifying food security (2011)
http://www.ipcinfo.org/index.php

Manoff Group
Trials of Improved Practices (TIPs): Giving Participants a Voice in Program Design
http://www.manoffgroup.com/resources/summarytips.pdf
Technical Brief: The Manoff Group's Formative Research Expertise
http://www.manoffgroup.com/documents/technicalbrief-programresearchaug1.pdf

Micronutrient Initiative (MI)

Nutrition Survey Toolkit (2012)
http://www.micronutrient.org/nutritiontoolkit/

Never Ending Food

“Low Input Food & Nutrition Security Manual”
http://www.neverendingfood.org/h-low-input-fns/

WFP
World Food Programme's Food Security Analysis Service (Vulnerability Analysis & Mapping)
https://www.wfp.org/food-security

WHO/UNICEF
“Planning guide for national implementation of the global strategy for infant and young child
feeding” (2007)
http://www.who.int/nutrition/publications/infantfeeding/9789241595193/en/index.html
“Complementary feeding: family foods for breastfed children” (2000)
http://www.who.int/nutrition/publications/infantfeeding/WHO_NHD_00.1/en/index.html

World Bank
Nutrition Toolkit: Project Design
http://go.worldbank.org/7K1WV3B4M0

Context assessment data sources:

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DHS
http://www.measuredhs.com/
LSMS
http://go.worldbank.org/IPLXWMCNJ0
MICS
http://www.unicef.org/statistics/index_24302.html

FAO
Data
http://faostat.fao.org
Nutrition country profiles
http://www.fao.org/ag/agn/nutrition/profiles_en.stm

FIVIMS (Food Insecurity and Vulnerability Information and Mapping Systems) initiative
http://www.fivims.org/

UNICEF
Statistics and monitoring
http://www.unicef.org/statistics/index_24287.html
State of the World’s Children (2011)
http://www.unicef.org/publications/index_57468.html
“Tracking Progress on Child and Maternal Nutrition” (2009)
http://www.unicef.org/publications/index_51656.html

WHO
Nutrition databases
http://www.who.int/nutrition/databases/en/index.html
“Indicators for assessing infant and young child feeding practices: Part III Country Profiles”
http://www.who.int/nutrition/publications/infantfeeding/9789241599757/en/index.html
Global Nutrition Policy Review (2010)
http://www.who.int/nutrition/EB128_18_Backgroundpaper1_A_review_of_nutritionpolicies.pdf

World Bank
Data
http://data.worldbank.org/
World Development Indicators
http://data.worldbank.org/data-catalog/world-development-indicators
Nutrition Country Profiles (2011)
http://www.worldbank.org/nutrition/profiles

M&E

JPAL (Jameel Poverty Action Lab at MIT)

5-day course on evaluating social programs
http://www.povertyactionlab.org/course

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World Bank
Nutrition Toolkit: Monitoring and Evaluation
http://go.worldbank.org/7K1WV3B4M0
What can we learn from nutrition impact evaluations? Lessons from a review of interventions to
reduce child malnutrition in developing countries. 2010
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTWBASSHEANUTPOP/Resources/Nutrition_eval.pdf
“Methodologies to evaluate the impact of large-scale nutrition projects” (JP Habicht, GH Pelto, J
Lapp) 2009
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTISPMA/Resources/383704-
1146752240884/Doing_ie_series_13.pdf

Indicator guidance:

FANTA/FANTA-2
Household Hunger Scale (2011)
http://www.fantaproject.org/publications/hhs_2011.shtml
Household Food Insecurity Access Scale for Measurement of Food Access: Indicator Guide,
version 3 (2007)
http://www.fantaproject.org/publications/hfias_intro.shtml
Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS) for Measurement of Household Food Access:
Indicator Guide, Version 2 (2006)
http://www.fantaproject.org/publications/hdds_mahfp.shtml
Months of Adequate Household Food Provisioning (MAHFP) for Measurement of Household
Food Access: Indicator Guide, Version 4 (2010)
http://www.fantaproject.org/publications/hdds_mahfp.shtml
Measuring Household Food Consumption: A Technical Guide (2005)
http://www.fantaproject.org/publications/householdcons.shtml

FAO
“Guidelines for measuring household and individual dietary diversity” (2011)
http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i1983e/i1983e00.pdf
“Expert Consultation on Nutrition Indicators for Biodiversity .2 Food Consumption.” (2010)
http://www.fao.org/infoods/biodiversity/FoodConsumptionIndicatorfinaloct2010.pdf

IFAD
Results and Impact Management System (2011)
http://www.ifad.org/operations/rims/

IFPRI, USAID, OPHI (Oxford University)

“Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index” (2012)
http://www.ifpri.org/publication/womens-empowerment-agriculture-index

WHO, UNICEF, USAID, AED, UCDAVIS, IFPRI

“Indicators for assessing infant and young child feeding practices: Part I Definitions” (2008)

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http://www.who.int/nutrition/publications/infantfeeding/9789241596664/en/index.html
“Indicators for assessing infant and young child feeding practices: Part II Measurement” (2010)
http://www.who.int/nutrition/publications/infantfeeding/9789241599290/en/index.html

Women’s empowerment:

Actionaid, CARE, Christian Aid, Concern Worldwide, Find Your Feet, Oxfam, Practical Action,
Save the Children, Self Help Africa
“What works for women: Proven approaches for empowering women smallholders and
achieving food security.” 2012
http://www.actionaid.org/sites/files/actionaid/what_works_for_women_-_final.pdf

BMGF
“Creating Gender-Responsive Agricultural Development Programs” 2012
http://www.gatesfoundation.org/learning/Documents/gender-responsive-orientation-
document.pdf

CFS Policy Round Table on “Gender, food and nutrition security: A concept note.”
http://cso4cfs.files.wordpress.com/2011/06/cfs_policy_rt_concept_note_gender_nutrition_and_f
ood_security_24_05_11.pdf

CPHCC, WFP, UNSCN, ACF

“Enhancing women’s leadership to address the challenges of climate change on nutrition and
security and health”
http://climatehealthconnect.org/sites/climatehealthconnect.org/files/resources/Enhancing%20Wo
men%27s%20Leadership.pdf

Farming First
“Rural Women: Policies to help them thrive” 2012
http://www.farmingfirst.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/FF-Policy-Paper-Rural-
Women.pdf

FAO
“Policy on Gender Equality: Attaining Food Security Goals in Agriculture and Rural
Development” 2012
http://typo3.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/gender/docs/FAO_FinalGender_Policy_2012.pdf
The State of Food and Agriculture, 2010–11: Women in Agriculture: Closing the Gender Gap for
Development” 2011
http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i2050e/i2050e.pdf
“Country Programming Framework: Integrating Gender Issues” 2010
http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1913e/i1913e00.pdf
Gender and Nutrition Key Facts
http://www.fao.org/docrep/012/al184e/al184e00.pdf
“Focus On: Right to Food and Gender” 2007
http://www.fao.org/righttofood/wfd/pdf2007/focus_gender_eng.pdf

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IASC (Inter-Agency Standing Committee)
“Gender Marker Tip Sheet” 2011
http://pakresponse.info/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=1vjO3q47mu4%3D&tabid=107&mid=629
“Gender Handbook in Humanitarian Action: Women, girls, boys and men; Different needs, equal
opportunities.” 2007
http://www.humanitarianinfo.org/iasc/documents/subsidi/tf_gender/IASC%20Gender%20Handb
ook%20(Feb%202007).pdf

ICRW
“Bridging the Gender Gap in Agricultural Extension” 1985
http://www.icrw.org/publications/bridging-gender-gap-agricultural-extension
“Women, Land, and sustainable development” 1995
http://www.icrw.org/publications/women-land-and-sustainable-development

HKI
“Group Marketing and Women Farmers” HKI Bangladesh Bulletin No. 2, Feb 2010.
http://www.hki.org/research/HKI%20Bulletin%20Bangladesh%20February%2010%20Group%2
0Marketing%20and%20Women%20Farmers.pdf

Nutrition education:

FAO
“Nutrition Handbook for the Family.” 2009
http://www.fao.org/docrep/012/al302e/al302e00.pdf
“Complementary Feeding for Children Aged 6-23 months; A recipe book for mothers and
caregivers.” 2011.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/am866e/am866e00.pdf
“Trials of Improved Practices; Guiding Notes For TIPs Trainers and Implementers.”2011
http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/am868e/am868e00.pdf
“Trials of Improved Practices; Reference Notes and Tools.” 2011
http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/am869e/am869e.pdf
“Nutrition Education in Primary Schools: A planning guide for curriculum development” 2006
http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0333e/a0333e00.htm
Curriculum Development Centre, Zambia and FAO: “Nutrition Education, Supplementary
Material; Teacher’s Book Grade 4.” 2007
http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/ai210e/ai210e00.htm
“Setting-up and running a school garden; Teaching toolkit.” 2010
http://www.fao.org/docrep/012/i1118e/i1118e00.htm
“Setting-up and running a school garden; A manual for teachers, parents and communities.”
2005
http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0218e/a0218e00.htm
“A new deal for school gardens.” 2010 http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1689e/i1689e00.pdf

World Bank

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“Nutrition Toolkit: Nutrition Communication”
http://go.worldbank.org/7K1WV3B4M0

Management of natural resources:

AVRDC – The World Vegetable Center

“More Crop per Drop: Using Simple drip irrigation systems for small-scale vegetable
production” 2011
http://libnts.avrdc.org.tw/fulltext_pdf/EB/2011-2015/eb0086.pdf

FAO
“Forests for improved nutrition and food security.” 2011
http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i2011e/i2011e00.pdf

Nutrition-oriented agricultural production:

AVRDC – The World Vegetable Center

“Discovering Indigenous Treasures: Promising indigenous vegetables from around the world”
(2009)
http://libnts.avrdc.org.tw/e-book/ebook1.htm
“A Primer on Vegetable Gardening” (1993)
http://libnts.avrdc.org.tw/fulltext_pdf/EB/1900-2000/eb0131.pdf
These, and additional titles dealing with specific crops available at:
http://avrdc.org/?page_id=424

FAO
“Food composition study guide; questions and exercises – questions and answers.” (UR
Charrondiere,B Burlingame, S Berman, I Elmadfa) (2011)
http://www.fao.org/infoods/StudyGuideEquestionsrevised1July2011.pdf
http://www.fao.org/infoods/StudyGuideEanswersrevised1July2011.pdf
FAO and INFOODS
“International Food Composition Tables Directory”
http://www.fao.org/infoods/directory_en.stm
“FAO/INFOODS Food Composition Database for Biodiversity Version 2.0 – BioFoodComp2.0”
(2012)
http://www.fao.org/infoods/biodiversity/DocumentationBioFoodComp2.0.pdf
“INFOODS List of underutilized species contributing to the Nutritional Indicators for
Biodiversity. Version 1.” (2010).
http://www.fao.org/infoods/biodiversity/INFOODSUpdatedGFU-list.xls

Post-harvest Processing:

AVRDC – The World Vegetable Center

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“Vegetables Postharvest: Simple techniques for increased income and market” (2010)
http://libnts.avrdc.org.tw/fulltext_pdf/EB/2001-2010/eb0146.pdf

FAO
“Maintaining Quality of Food and Feed Grain through Trade and Processing; Training Manual.”
(2007)
http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/a1417e/a1417e00.htm

Marketing:

ACF
“The Market for the poor” approach: A new methodology to integrate poor people in market
systems” (2008)
http://www.actioncontrelafaim.org/sites/default/files/publications/fichiers/acf_market_for_the_p
oor.pdf

Farm Concern International

“Commercial Village Approach” – information can be found at:
http://www.farmconcern.org/

HKI
“Group Marketing and Women Farmers” HKI Bangladesh Bulletin No. 2, Feb 2010.
http://www.hki.org/research/HKI%20Bulletin%20Bangladesh%20February%2010%20Group%2
0Marketing%20and%20Women%20Farmers.pdf

Capacity Building:

FAO
“Nutrition Handbook for Community Mobilisers.” (2009)
http://www.fao.org/docrep/012/al303e/al303e00.htm
“Promoting Improved Complementary Feeding (with recipes); A Manual for Community
Nutrition Promoters.” (2011)
http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/am867e/am867e.pdf
“Integrating Food Security, Nutrition and Good Governance in District Development Planning
Through Advocacy, Social Mobilisation and Capacity Strengthening; A Methodological Guide.”
(Immink MDC) (2011)
http://www.fao.org/docrep/012/i1548e/i1548e00.pdf
E-learning course: Assessing Impact of Development Programmes on Food Security
http://www.fao.org/spfs/learning-from-results/e-learning/en/
“Needs Assessment for Professional Training in Nutrition Education, and Communication” 2011
www.nutritionlearning.net

FAO, Food and Nutrition Council of Zimbabwe, UNICEF, EC

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“Healthy Harvest: A training manual for community workers in good nutrition, and the growing,
preparing and processing of healthy food.”
http://motherchildnutrition.org/healthy-nutrition/pdf/mcn-healthy-harvest.pdf

IFPRI
“Agriculture, nutrition and health essentials for non-specialist development professionals” (J
Harris) (2011)
http://www.lidc.org.uk/_assets/2020_ANH_Essentials_JodyHarris_M.pdf

Other:

Chicago Council on Global Affairs

“Bringing Agriculture to the Table: How agriculture and food can play a role in preventing
chronic disease.” (R Nugent, chair) (2011)
http://www.thechicagocouncil.org/UserFiles/File/GlobalAgDevelopment/Report/Bringing_Agric
ulture_To_The_Table.pdf

CINE (Centre for Indigenous Peoples’ Nutrition and Environment) and FAO
“Indigenous Peoples’ food systems: the many dimensions of culture, diversity and environment
for nutrition and health.” (2009)
http://www.fao.org/docrep/012/i0370e/i0370e00.htm
Indigenous Peoples’ Food Systems and Wellbeing: Interventions and Policies for Healthy
Communities. (Kuhnlein HV, D Spigelski, B Erasmus and B Burlingame, Eds.) (in press)
Currently not available online

The Coalition for Sustainable Nutrition Security in India

“A Leadership Agenda for Action” (2008)
http://www.nutritioncoalition.in/pdf/Leadership-Agenda-for-Action.pdf

Farming First
“Guide to Food Security Initiatives”
http://www.farmingfirst.org/foodsecurity/

FAO
“Sustainable Diets and Biodiversity: Directions and Solutions for Policy, Research, and Action”
(ed. B Burlingame and S Dernini) 2012
http://www.fao.org/docrep/016/i3004e/i3004e.pdf
“Combating Micronutrient Deficiencies: Food-based approaches” (ed. B Thompson and L
Amoroso) 2010
http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/am027e/am027e00.pdf
“Impact of the Financial and Economic Crisis on Nutrition– Policy and Programme Responses”
(Brian Thompson)
http://www.fao.org/ag/agn/nutrition/docs/Impact%20of%20the%20financial%20and%20econom
ic%20crisis%20on%20nutrition.pdf

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 “The Contribution of Nutrition to Achieving the Millennium Development Goals”
http://www.fao.org/ag/agn/nutrition/Contribution%20of%20Nutrition%20to%20Achieving%20t
he%20Millennium%20Deve.pdf
“Nutrition-Sensitive Agriculture and Food-Based Approaches”
http://www.fao.org/food/nutrition-sensitive-agriculture/en/
“The Rome Principles: Declaration of the World Summit on Food Security” 2009
http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/wsfs/Summit/Docs/Final_Declaration/WSFS09_Declara
tion.pdf

FAVHealth (Effects of Fruit and Vegetables on Human Health)

http://favhealth2012.uasd.edu/

Global Donor Platform for Rural Development

“Common Ground: A Joint Donor Concept on Rural Development” (2006)
http://www.donorplatform.org/resources/publications

HKI
“Homestead food production model contributes to improved household food security, nutrition
and female empowerment – experience from scaling-up programs in Asia (Bangladesh,
Cambodia, Nepal and Philippines). HKI Asia-Pacific Nutrition Bulletin Vol. 8 Issue 1, March
2010.
http://www.hki.org/research/APRO%20Bulletin_HFP%20and%20Food%20Security.pdf
“Trend Analysis of the Jibon O Jibika Project, 2004-2009” HKI Bangladesh Bulletin No. 1, Jan
2010.
http://www.hki.org/research/HKI%20Bulletin%20Bangladesh%20January%2010%20Trend%20
Analysis%20of%20Jibon%20O%20Jibika.pdf
More information from Save the Children USA in Bangladesh “Jibon O Jibika Endline Report”
http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADS875.pdf
“Homestead Food Production in Barisal, Bangladesh: Capstone report.” (C Berning, B Correa, K
Sirman, and F Sosa) 2008
This report focuses on a cost-benefit analysis of the Homestead Food Production model,
estimating an economic rate of return of 160%.
http://elliott.gwu.edu/academics/grad/ids/capstone_reports.cfm

IFA
“Fertilizing Crops to Improve Human Health” 2012
http://www.fertilizer.org/ifa/HomePage/LIBRARY/Publication-database.html/Fertilizing-Crops-
to-Improve-Human-Health-a-Scientific-Review.-Volume-1-Food-and-Nutrition-Security.html
http://www.fertilizer.org/ifa/HomePage/SUSTAINABILITY/Nutrition

IFPRI
“Leveraging Agriculture for Improving Nutrition and Health: Highlights from an International
Conference”
http://www.ifpri.org/sites/default/files/publications/oc66.pdf
“Understanding the Links between Agriculture and Health” (2006) (C Hawkes and M Ruel)
http://www.ifpri.org/publication/understanding-links-between-agriculture-and-health

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“Working Multisectorally in Nutrition” (2011) (J Garrett and M Natalicchio)
http://www.ifpri.org/sites/default/files/publications/oc68.pdf
“Strengthening the Role of Agriculture for a Nutrition Secure India” (S Kadiyala, PK Joshi, SM
Dev, TN Kumar, V Vyas) 2011
ftp://ftp.solutionexchange.net.in/public/food/resource/res06021201.pdf
“Pro-nutrition agriculture in India: Entry Points and Policy Options” (SM Dev, S Kadiyala) 2011
ftp://ftp.solutionexchange.net.in/public/food/resource/res06021202.pdf
“Agriculture’s Role in the Indian Enigma” (D Headey, A Chiu, S Kadiyala) 2011
ftp://ftp.solutionexchange.net.in/public/food/resource/res06021203.pdf
“Improving Diet Quality and Micronutrient Nutrition: Homestead Food Production in
Bangladesh” (2009) (L Iannotti, K Cunningham, M Ruel)
http://www.ifpri.org/sites/default/files/publications/ifpridp00928.pdf
“Diversifying into Healthy Diets: Homestead food production in Bangladesh” Chapter 21 in
“Millions Fed: Proven Successes in Agricultural Development” (2009)
http://www.ifpri.org/publication/millions-fed
Harvest Plus publications on biofortified crops can be found at:
http://www.harvestplus.org/

Sight and Life

“Diversification from Agriculture to Nutritionally and Environmentally Promotive Horticulture
in a Dry-Land Area” 2011
http://www.sightandlife.org/fileadmin/data/Magazine/Archive/2011/Sight%20and%20Life%20
Magazine%2025%2001%202011.pdf

SUN Framework for Action (2010) and Road Map (2011)

http://www.scalingupnutrition.org/key-documents/

UK Government Office of Science, Foresight Project on Global Food and Farming Futures
“Understanding and improving the relationship between agriculture and health” 2010
(Wagge, J, Dangour, Al, Hawkesworth, S, Johnston, D, Lock, K, Poole, N, Rushton, J, Uauy, R)
http://www.bis.gov.uk/assets/bispartners/foresight/docs/food-and-farming/additional-reviews/11-
597-wp1-understanding-improving-agriculture-and-health
Future of Food and Farming Report (2011)
http://www.bis.gov.uk/assets/foresight/docs/food-and-farming/11-546-future-of-food-and-
farming-report.pdf

UNSCN (16th United Nations Conference of the Parties)

“Climate change and nutrition security” Dec 2010
http://www.unscn.org/files/Statements/Bdef_NutCC_2311_final.pdf

USAID
“Delivering Improved Nutrition: Recommendations for Changes to U.S. Food Aid Products and
Programs” (Webb, P., B. Rogers, I. Rosenberg, N. Schlossman, C. Wanke, J. Bagriansky, K.
Sadler, Q. Johnson, J. Tilahun, A. Reese Masterson, A. Narayan.) Apr 2011
http://www.usaid.gov/press/releases/2011/DeliveringImprovedNutrition.pdf

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WHO and FAO joint initiative: PROFAV (Promotion of Fruit and Vegetables for Health)
(supported by GlobalHort. CIRAD, NEPAD, TAHA and HODECT)
http://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/fruit/en/index.html
http://www.fao.org/agriculture/crops/news-events-
bulletins/detail/en/item/92762/icode/?no_cache=1

World Bank
“Prioritizing nutrition in agriculture and rural development projects: Guiding principles for
operational investments” (A Herforth, A Jones, P Pinstrup-Andersen)
To be released 2012

World Economic Forum

“New Vision for Agriculture” (2011)
http://www.weforum.org/issues/agriculture-and-food-security

Communities:
Agriculture-Nutrition Community of Practice
http://knowledge-gateway.org/ag2nut

Food Security and Nutrition Network

http://www.coregroup.org/our-technical-work/projectsprograms/tops-a-the-food-security-
network

Global Forum on Food Security and Nutrition

http://www.fao.org/fsnforum/

IFPRI
Conference website continually updated: Leveraging Agriculture for Improved Nutrition and
Health
http://2020conference.ifpri.info/

SecureNutrition Knowledge Platform

http://www.securenutritionplatform.org

There are many peer-reviewed scientific journal articles and books not listed here that
provide rich knowledge on the topic, and have informed the institutional publications
included.

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ANNEX 3: quotes supporting each theme by organization

Bolding indicates a major point in the original document.

Nutrition Objectives
Organization Indicative quotes from guidance papers
ACF GUIDANCE 4 – AIM FOR IMPACT ON NUTRITIONAL STATUS
“4.1 Include a nutrition objective in the logical framework, when this is
attainable: The nutrition objective in the log frame refers to the direct or
indirect improvement of nutritional status by the project beneficiaries as a result
of utilising the services provided by the programme. This objective explicitly
demonstrates how the project contributes to improve the nutritional
status of the population. Make sure, however, that the objective is
attainable within the framework of the project.
4.2 Have at least one outcome or impact indicator related to improved
nutrition : The chosen nutrition outcome or impact indicators will vary
according to the nature and the duration of the intervention. They will reflect
changes either at the outcome or at the impact levels, based on the nutrition
objective as defined in the section above.
· Outcome refers to the short/medium term change induced by the project.
· Impact is the long-term benefit for targeted groups and the wider society.”
Bioversity “Basic principles in designing a successful intervention:
International  Make a clear plan. Thoroughly outlined objectives and expected outcomes
make the monitoring and evaluation process smoother.
 Design the intervention in stages, starting first with the smallest change
possible for the largest impact possible. Initial successes with project
recommendations will instill confidence in the community and make them
more likely to try higher risk changes.”
EC Possible entry points for [improving nutrition through agriculture] include:
“explicitly incorporating nutrition objectives in policies and programmes”
FANTA “Develop clear nutrition objectives that agriculture-based programs can
explicitly address. For example, reducing the incidence of stunting or improving
vitamin A status in a specified area are achievable, cross-sectoral objectives.”
“In the absence of an explicit nutrition goal, Agricultural and Health officers
may lack a clear understanding of priorities and opportunities related to nutrition
that could guide them in their efforts to improve consumption and nutrition and
to ensure integration and overlap with health programs. Absence of a strategy
may even lead to increased nutrition problems.”
FAO “[addressing nutrition security] requires explicit incorporation of nutrition
objectives into the design and implementation of agriculture development
initiatives to ensure they are i) not detrimental to nutrition and that ii) potential
opportunities to improve nutrition are identified and fully utilized.” (2009)
“In countries where it is appropriate to do so, incorporate clear nutrition goals

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 and components in national development policies and sectoral plans,
programmes and projects, particularly in the areas of food and agriculture,
livestock, fisheries, forestry, rural and urban development, commerce,
infrastructure, credit, water and sanitation, health, education, environmental and
social-welfare, and adopt benchmarks of success with clear time frames and
budget allocations, as appropriate.” (2004)
IFPRI “Design agriculture, nutrition, and health programs with cross-sectoral
benefits.”
IYCN “Incorporate household food security and/or nutrition objectives into project
design.36” (fact sheet)
Save the “Studies show that when improved nutrition is made an explicit objective of
Children UK agricultural programmes they can lead to increases in the quantity, nutritional
quality and affordability of the food families eat.” (2012)
“Ensure nutrition is an explicit objective of agricultural programmes:
National governments developing agricultural policies must ensure that nutrition
is an explicit objective of agricultural programmes. These programmes must
support small-scale farmers, who provide for families most vulnerable to
malnutrition, by helping them with the vital resources and knowledge they
require and ensuring agriculture nutrition interventions are suited to the land
they own.” (2012)
“ensure that making a positive impact on nutrition is an explicit objective of
agriculture policies, by focusing on projects that are designed to improve
children’s diet – for example, home gardening or education projects that focus
on nutrition.” (2012)
“…we cannot assume that increasing agricultural production will reduce
malnutrition. The growth of agricultural output at national and global levels tells
us nothing about whether or not poor people are food-secure and consuming a
nutritious diet. In Africa, agricultural production and food imports have been
gradually increasing over the past decade, and there is now sufficient food
energy available to provide everyone with an average of 2,500 kilocalories per
person per day, yet this is the region that has made the least progress in tackling
malnutrition.” (2009)
UN HLTF “Attention to nutrition outcomes, especially between the start of pregnancy and
a child’s second birthday, is critical for ensuring the development of human
capital and enabling current and future generations to attain their full physical
and cognitive potential. Healthy diets help to minimize the risk of disease in
children and adults. Ensuring that sufficient nutritious foods are available to all
people, and that they can both access these foods at all times, and pay for what
they need, are critical elements of all people’s economic and social
development. Achieving this is possible if national policies take account of the
nutritional needs of all members of society, as well as the costs of achieving
them.” (2012)
36
The Infant & Young Child Nutrition (IYCN) Project has developed [The Nutritional Impact Assessment Tool] for
project designers seeking to build food security and nutrition objectives into agricultural projects. “[the tool]
operationalizes a process for considering the nutritional and food security impacts of proposed activities on these
groups, and helps designers to develop alternative sets of activities as well as a “do nothing” alternative.”

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UN SCN “Although many of the actions cited above include inherent nutrition
components, often an explicit focus on nutrition security is required to “activate”
these aspects of the project or programme.”
World Bank One of four main principles: “Incorporate explicit nutrition objectives and
indicators into project and policy design.”
“To be successful, efforts to maximize the nutrition impact need to first
incorporate nutrition goals explicitly into the design and implementation of
agricultural and rural development projects and policies. The available evidence
suggests that maintaining the business-as-usual approach focusing on
agricultural productivity, economic growth, and household level income has a
limited scope for addressing undernutrition. It misses the opportunities for
enhancing nutrition that are unique to the agriculture sector, such as improving
production and consumption of foods which make up diverse diets; and leaves
other sectors to take on the responsibility of trying to fill the gaps left by poor
diets. It also misses opportunities for reaching goals of improved farmer
wellbeing and female participation, among others.”
“The impact of agricultural projects could be greatly scaled up if nutrition
considerations are addressed more directly than at present.”
World Vision “In order for agricultural and other food security interventions to
contribute to improved nutrition security, improved nutrition outcomes,
particularly for children, must be an explicit objective of agricultural policy
and programs.”
“Integrate nutrition outcomes into agriculture project programming
performance measurement systems. Recent reviews (Berti et al 2004; World
Bank 2007) present compelling evidence that unless improved nutritional status
is an explicit objective of agricultural interventions, there is limited evidence
improved nutrition will occur. Agriculture interventions that have successfully
addressed child under-nutrition included nutritional objectives, implicitly
recognizing that there is not a direct line between investments in agricultural
production1 growth and improved nutrition.”

Context assessment
Organization Indicative quotes from guidance papers
ACF “Guidance 1 – Identify the scale and determinants of undernutrition
 Collect information about the magnitude and severity of
undernutrition, its causes and its variation in time. Look at trends in
nutritional status over time rather than the prevalence of undernutrition at a
single point in time…Construct a multi-sectoral seasonal calendar…
Disaggregate data (e.g. age, gender, socio-economic status, livelihood
zones) when possible, as this will allow you to better identify and target the
most vulnerable groups…Collect secondary information on the potential
causes of undernutrition…
 Assess the level of commitment of the government in tackling
undernutrition.

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  Collect information on existing direct and indirect nutrition
interventions to map and identify gaps
“Guidance 2 – Conduct a nutrition-sensitive assessment
 Conduct joint and multi-sectoral assessment or a Nutrition Causal
Analysis: Ideally, a joint team of FSL, nutrition, MHCP and WASH
practitioners will carry out the assessment, as a single sector assessment will
rarely provide all the required information…integrate some core questions
related to nutrition, care practices and WASH in a simple food security
assessment to assess nutrition security.
 Assess food consumption patterns and dietary intake: Make sure that the
assessment explores…Local perception of what constitutes a healthy diet
often differs substantially from a nutritionist perspective. Better
understanding of these concepts will aid in developing nutrition
promotion…Cultural and traditional beliefs around food are often strong and
very common.
 Assess care practices and capacities as well as health and environmental
conditions. Gender considerations, decision-making process, roles and
responsibilities of women in the household and in the community should
also be addressed.
 Explore local perceptions of malnutrition: Community-based nutrition-
sensitive programmes achieve greater impact on malnutrition.
Understanding and building on the local knowledge, experience and
perception regarding nutrition is the first step to ensure adequate and
successful interventions.
 Assess the risk of cyclical phenomena and disasters and their impact on
nutrition
 Explore the need to conduct an in-depth micronutrient assessment.”
“Consider socio-cultural and economic aspects of nutrition and food
systems. It is crucial to have a clear understanding of local traditions and habits
regarding nutrition and food systems, as socio-cultural factors greatly affect
the allocation and the consumption of foods produced at home or the use of
income. For example, in many cases livestock is slaughtered and consumed only
as a last resort even if malnutrition rates are alarmingly high or home grown
vegetables are only intended for sale. This is not a problem, but must be taken
into account in order to 88aximize the impact of the intervention – if vegetables
are systematically sold, sensitization should include aspects on how to construct
a healthy diet using foods available at markets, rather than solely focusing on the
consumption of home-grown produce.”
Bioversity “Project Facilitators use focus group and key informant interviewing to
International construct a broad view of community baseline circumstances and potentials
through collection of food culture, ethnofoods, and agroecosystem data sets…
Both qualitative and quantitative data should be systematized and visualized to
create a functional understanding of community food security, nutritional status,
and agrobiodiversity and their correlations to each other, if any. A set of
recommendations should be developed based on this data to use in the
intervention design phase. Additional information can also be collected if

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 deemed necessary to the development of a clear representation of community
circumstances.”
“Cropping systems, seasonality of production, and availability of resources all
interact with market and cultural structures within communities to affect food
security of the community. Creating a picture of agro-ecosystems at the village
level as well as the food-shed as a whole through mapping of farm systems and
market flows of agricultural products helps to correlate the landscape of food
production with food security perspectives.”
“Agroecosystems Analysis: FGD’s and Key Informant Interviews will be used
initially to collect data about the community’s resources, markets, production,
and power structures. The recommended data collection techniques [include]
community maps, soil samples, GPS climate info, market flow of goods (from
FGD), seasonal calendars.”
“Collecting Ethno-foods and Food Culture Data: …to record and obtain samples
of typical foods consumed in the area, as well as unique species available only in
the area of study. This data will capture seasonality, harvesting and processing
techniques of foods…an essential aspect of understanding food security because
it expresses how food is actually allotted in the home, as well as people’s beliefs
about who and when specific foods should be consumed.”
“The key to understanding potential for improving agrobiodiversity for health is
developing a complete picture of the nutritional value of available consumables
in the given community. This includes sets of questions related to cultural food
decision making and eating behavior in homes, as well as folk taxonomy and
growing season cataloguing of locally available traditional foods.”
“Basic principles in designing a successful intervention:
Utilize local capacity in new ways. Avoid designing a program that remains
depend on outside funding for the long-term and that over taxes existing social
servants.
Pay attention to local norms: Sensitivity to family decision making processes,
liquidity of income, festival and special occasion obligations and their costs, and
other nuances of household resources is essential.”
“Often both the capacity and the resources for positive sustainable change
already exist within the community. Data collected should be used to identify
‘positive deviants’, households in the community that are comparatively
nutritionally successful in spite of income and resource limitations, and discern
what behaviors could be making them more successful than other households in
the same situation. These behaviors should be used as a backbone for
intervention development.”
EC “[The need to assess potential negative side effects of interventions] highlights
the need for a robust situation analysis and on-going monitoring to make
informed decisions on interventions.”
FANTA “Conduct a review of local food security issues before drafting a strategy or
designing program interventions. In that way, the strategy and programs will
account for local macronutrient and micronutrient deficiencies and other health
and nutrition issues. Participation of local consultants and/or agencies is
desirable.” (2001)

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 “As a prerequisite to drafting a strategy, the Mission will need to review local
food security issues. This entails identifying and prioritizing nutrition problems
and agricultural constraints and opportunities, including important geographic
and seasonal variations, and the distribution of these problems and opportunities
among population groups. The review should also note strategic opportunities,
such as slack periods for labor, locally available pre-tested micronutrient-rich
varieties, and any comparative advantage in producing a certain high-value
commodity. It should capitalize on existing data and information available
through DHS surveys, World Bank poverty profiles, PVO household food
security and livelihood studies, PROFILES analysis and recommendations, crop
and labor calendars, and other means… The review process can also foster
collaboration with other local and international development agencies,
universities, institutes and non-governmental organizations. This process
requires that a wide range of agriculture, nutrition and health stakeholders
participate in the process of problem identification, strategy and program design,
implementation and evaluation of results. Close collaboration among
stakeholders is critical…” (2001)
“Program design decisions should be based on knowledge of local
macronutrient and micronutrient deficiencies or other nutrition issues.
Decisions should go beyond merely locating an activity in an area characterized
by a high incidence of poverty or selecting crops to be promoted strictly on the
basis of economic performance. Drawing up charts that match annual
fluctuations in malnutrition with crop calendars can help identify the array of
potentially appropriate agricultural interventions. Adding seasonal labor use to
the chart reveals project participants’ constraints and opportunities…” (1999)
FAO “FAO is committed to assisting countries…to support field interventions:
• understanding food consumption and dietary practices (in particular for mother
and child feeding) of key livelihood groups and their determinants;
• identifying gaps in food availability at local level in different seasons;
• identifying and designing realistic solutions to address constraints, together
with local institutions and communities, in particular women and members of
minority groups” (2010)
“In addition to being compatible with traditional development objectives, each
intervention category [inputs for diverse production, nutrition education,
biofortification, fertilizer & post-harvest handling] can be adapted to a wide
range of countries, agro-ecological zones and food typologies.” – the report then
talks about the most-needed interventions for three specific zones (warm arid
and semi-arid tropics, warm sub-humid tropics, warm humid tropics). (2009)
“Price is a major determinant of consumer choice in purchasing non-staple
foods. Therefore, an initial assessment to review how these [non-staple] foods
are processed, stored and marketed would be helpful.
Planners are also encouraged to assess the availability of commonly consumed
foods whose prices vary with increase or decrease in supply, and determine how
consumption of these foods is influenced by price changes and income levels.”
(2004)
“When introducing nutrition into the research agenda, the nutritional situations

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 of countries and communities will vary. Thus, it is necessary to recognize that
while there are certainly important agronomic factors involved, there are also
other factors such as gender issues, choice of approaches, policy directions and
institutional linkages to be considered.” (2001)
“Consider nutritional needs of local people, seasonal availability of food, level
of development, the economic situation (cost of farm inputs and labour
demands), and the environment, when developing production systems and
technologies for subsistence farmers.” (2001)
“The farming systems research approach, participatory rural appraisal (PRA),
research-extension-farmer linkages, participatory extension, and such concepts
as client-oriented, demand-driven research are all committed to the process of
involving major stakeholders (farmers, policy-makers, researchers,
extensionists)…By involving stake-holders, it becomes possible to take a
holistic approach to farmers’ needs and to include their nutritional requirements
in the planning and implementation of agricultural research programmes. PRA
can be used to identify the basic needs, eating habits and appropriate cropping
systems of various communities, as well as to gather information on problems
and constraints related to environmental degradation and crop-livestock
production systems.” (2001)
“Build on the existing knowledge and skill of the local farming communities…
Indigenous technical knowledge and wisdom can complement formal scientific
knowledge in terms of location-specific classification of the biophysical
environment, and can supplement scientific explanation and prediction.”
“Consider local and/or regional cultural practices when formulating research
policies, priorities and projects.” (2001)
“Examine the suitability of currently recommended production and post-harvest
practices for small subsistence farmers and processors, with special attention to
the local environment, nutritional needs, labour demands, affordability and the
overall level of economic development.” (2001)
“Identify and define limiting nutrients in the diet of the target group. This should
be done prior to planning research projects and in collaboration with nutrition
and extension agents. It can be done by conducting nutrition status surveys and
food consumption studies.” (2001)
IFPRI “Civil society actors such as nongovernmental organizations can bring
indigenous knowledge about agriculture, nutrition, or health to bear on projects
in other sectors.”
IYCN “Ensure that vulnerable household members consume the foods produced.
Even when a household has access to adequate food, cultural norms sometimes
prevent the consumption of particular foods.” (fact sheet)
Save the “Context-specific strategies are needed that take into consideration local
Children UK variations in what families like to eat, how they share food, who produces, buys
and prepares food, and how much they know about nutrition.” (2012)
UN HLTF “There is no single blueprint for sustainable agriculture and food security, and
no one set of policies is globally applicable. Policy choices are best informed
through economic analyses that take account of the local environmental and
social realities. Implementation should be scaled up in ways that take account of

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 local conditions and national priorities. Strategies for sustainable
implementation will vary between landscapes, social contexts, climates and
ecosystems. Hence the need for local communities to participate in identifying
and implementing the strategies and to help establish the right incentives.”
(2012)
“Interventions should be based on food and nutrition security assessments and
take country-level needs and capacities into account.” (UCFA)
“Analysis of national and regional food systems and their governance
arrangements is critical for improving the functioning of food markets and
identifying the most effective public and private investments. It is also key to
building more coherence between the various sectors involved in food and
nutrition security, including agriculture, health, education, environment, social
services and finance.” (UCFA)

“The design of investments must be preceded by a gender-sensitive analysis of

the context within which farmers are operating, the opportunities for marketing
and the risks they face.” (UCFA)
UN SCN The report does not mention context assessment explicitly, but discusses
tailoring interventions by agroecological zone, and exploiting underutilized
local traditional foods.
World Bank “Context assessment during the design phase will allow project teams to assess
potential harms and develop mitigation strategies appropriate for the
circumstance. For example, alternative child care arrangements may be more
easily attained in one place than another, which has implications for the strength
of the potential tradeoff between increased labor and decreased child care
quality. Livestock projects may have a higher probability of negative
externalities including zoonotic disease transmission in some situations than in
others.”
Includes a section on “Key questions…in designing nutrition sensitive ARD
projects” – to help design interventions that make most sense for the context:
“Regardless of the specific interventions that will be incorporated, the
questions below broadly cover the basic set of questions that the project
team may want to consider as they design a nutrition sensitive ARD project.
These questions may be used as part of a TOR for a consultant to specifically
look at the agriculture and nutrition linkage of the project design.
 What is the nature of the prevailing nutrition problems (energy and
protein deficiency, micronutrient deficiency or overweight and obesity)
in the country or region where the project or policy will be operating?
 Which population groups suffer most from these problems, e.g.
smallholder farm families, landless laborers, indigenous groups, urban
poor, women, children? Is it reasonable to expect that the project could
reach one or more of these groups?
 How is the project expected to influence gender-specific time demands
(weeding, watering, marketing, etc)? Are time demands for women
likely to reduce time for child care? If so, can additional time demands

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 be offset with labor-saving technologies for women?
 Who in the household is most likely to control how the additional
income is spent? Can project design be tweaked to increase women’s
discretionary income?
 Do farmers reside close enough to markets that they would reasonably be
expected to use income to purchase most of their dietary components? If
not, is there anything the project could do to improve access to diverse
diets, especially for women and young children (e.g. diversified
production, improved infrastructure)?
 Do farmers have access to markets where they would be able to sell
perishable foods? Is it feasible to incorporate farm product preservation
into project design?
 Could the project design integrate nutrition education/behavior change
strategies into production- and income-related goals? (e.g. demand
creation for nutrient-dense crops such as biofortified crops)
 Are there opportunities to include relevant nutrition information into the
current training and activities of agriculture sector staff? (e.g. training on
nutritional attributes of biofortified crops and minor crops.)
 Is the ARD project targeted in the same geographic area as other health,
water and sanitation, and social protection programs (also important for
reducing malnutrition)? If yes, is it feasible to encourage agriculture,
health, and social protection staff to consider joint supervision and
monitoring visits?
 Is the project likely to affect the quantity and quality of water available
to the households in the community, or risk of water-borne disease?”
World Vision “Sustainability of agricultural programme interventions and the nutrition
benefits accruing from such interventions requires a sustained effort in nutrition
education and behavior change and reinforce positive nutrition practices
already existing in communities. These should be linked to existing community
and government capacity building and advocacy mechanisms.” (“Key lessons”)

Do No Harm
Organization Indicative quotes from guidance papers
ACF “Do no harm!”
“As an absolute minimum, FSL interventions should not be harmful for the
nutritional status of the beneficiaries and mitigation measures (whether
preventive or corrective) should be properly implemented to this end.”
“FSL interventions have the potential to negatively impact on food security,
human health and the nutritional status of the beneficiaries, care practices45,
women’s and men’s status to name a few.To 93inimize this potential harm:
 Systematically identify potential unintended, negative nutritional effects
prior to the intervention and develop mitigation plans to control these….You
may consider doing this at the same time as you use the Programme Theory

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 to study the unexpected barriers and enhancers of your programme.
 Set up a continuous monitoring system that will ensure timely detection of
negative impacts, and implement corrective measures.”
“Refer to recent tools developed by USAID/IYCN help assessing the nutritional
impact of and mainstreaming nutrition into agricultural interventions. (ACF FSL
field workers are encouraged to use [the USAID/IYCN Nutritional Impact
Assessment Tool] although it is currently being field-tested)”
“Pay extra attention:
 When introducing new or improved agricultural technologies which
require additional workload and costs (e.g. improved seed varieties
requiring fertilizers and irrigation). Evidence suggests that smallholders may
not be able to participate as they lack the necessary means to use these new
technologies.
 When introducing cash crops (e.g. flower, tobacco or biofuel production) as
this may prevent farmers from working in their fields and negatively impact
household food production. Gains from cash crops do not automatically
cover this potential food gap. Reliance on cash crops also increases
dependence on external factors such as market variability. Encourage crop
diversification to reduce this risk.
 Provide protective clothes and/or equipment (e.g. gloves and mask) to
farmers when using dangerous chemicals including pesticides and
fertilizers. Note that ACF recommends an approach where the use of
agrochemicals remains minimal and is limited to specific circumstances.
Refer to ACF position paper on agrochemicals for detailed information.
 Provide protective clothes and/or equipment (e.g. impregnated bed net)
if the intervention involves irrigation schemes in areas with a high
prevalence of malaria or exposure to microbial and pollutants from
wastewater irrigation.”
 The main risk with livestock intervention is the spread of zoonotic disease.
 In addition to infectious diseases, parasites are also a concern for those who
have close contact with animals.
 Ensure appropriate consideration of natural resource availability (e.g.
pasture and water) as well as veterinary services, to avoid creating pressure
on the existing resources.
 Keep in mind that promoting ASF and, in particular, consumption of animal
milk may displace breastfeeding especially for children between 6 to 23
months.
 Remember that significant increases in ASF intake may put the individual at
risk of chronic disease. In undernourished populations, however, ASF
consumption is very low, in both absolute and relative terms. Moderate
increases in ASF consumption provide critical nutritional benefits that
outweigh the potential crossing of the threshold of significant risk for
chronic disease.”
 [Regarding food aid, ensure food safety standards, prevent market
distortions for local production, avoid gaps in aid because people rely on it,

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 avoid overdosing on micronutrients, protective gear for FFW programs.]
“…It is…crucial to avoid increasing the already heavy work burden of
women. Manual work in agro-sylvo-pastoral or in for-work activities is usually
time consuming and physically demanding, which may put strain on their
nutritional status and the time dedicated to childcare.”
Bioversity “Basic principles in designing a successful intervention: 1. First, Do No
International Harm. For each recommended intervention step devised, a clear list of both
benefits and risks for the step should be developed. Consideration of the risk
aspect of behavior change can make or break the acceptability of an intervention
recommendation.”
EC “Whatever strategy is chosen, attention needs to be paid to the potential negative
side effects of food security programmes on nutritional status — especially
where women are targeted and yet are also expected to be the primary carers for
young children. This highlights the need for a robust situation analysis and on-
going monitoring to make informed decisions on interventions. Corrective
measures can be incorporated to overcome obstacles, such as providing time and
space for breastfeeding in public works or agricultural programmes; or
distributing impregnated bed nets alongside surface irrigation schemes to
prevent increased malaria.”
FANTA “In the absence of an explicit nutrition goal, Agricultural and Health officers
may lack a clear understanding of priorities and opportunities related to nutrition
that could guide them in their efforts to improve consumption and nutrition and
to ensure integration and overlap with health programs. Absence of a strategy
may even lead to increased nutrition problems.” (2001)
“Governments and communities need to be sensitized to the dangers of chemical
inputs.” (1999)
FAO “[Addressing nutrition security] requires explicit incorporation of nutrition
objectives into the design and implementation of agriculture development
initiatives to ensure they are i) not detrimental to nutrition and that ii) potential
opportunities to improve nutrition are identified and fully utilized.” (2009)
“While cash cropping has the potential to improve nutritional status through
improved productivity and increased income, it may impact negatively if it
creates an imbalance or shift in the control of income between men and
women…Further, when people change from subsistence to cash cropping, they
may need to purchase most of the food they consume. This presents a likelihood
of replacing good-quality foods with less nutritious foods. Therefore:
■ It is advisable that, as a policy, strategies to monitor the effects of cash
cropping programmes on the nutritional and social welfare of communities be
appropriately integrated into programme activities.
■ Appropriate nutrition intervention programmes, such as nutrition education,
should be incorporated into those programmes as well.
“A decrease in food consumption due to higher food prices resulting from a rise
in producer prices can have a negative impact on food availability (particularly
for the poor) and nutritional status. Therefore, appropriate intervention strategies
that are targeted at the vulnerable need to be designed and put in place.” (2004)
“It is important to remember that new technologies and agricultural projects

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 could have a negative impact on family nutritional status if, for example, they
make greater demands on women’s time, taking them away from their family
care activities.” (2001)
“Evaluate the potential gender impact of technology, ascertaining that new
technologies do not shift extra farm responsibilities to women, and thus interfere
with their childcare and family responsibilities. When possible, tasks of women
should be reduced to allow more time for childcare.” (2001)
“Develop safe and environmentally friendly technologies that do not threaten the
health of users and consumers.
Evaluate negative and positive effects of research recommendations by studying
how they effect the prices of farm produce.
Evaluate the production costs of promising new materials in comparison to
known and existing varieties.” (2001)
“Provisions to counteract or avoid any negative impact on the poor should be
addressed during the design or formulation phases of policy, projects and
programmes. For example, a pricing policy aimed at stimulating production by
the average farmer may increase the price of a food commodity, which can make
that food commodity inaccessible to low income groups and thus lead to
compromised food intake and nutritional status. Even if agricultural policies and
programmes are not directed specifically at the poor, they still may have an
impact on their lives, either positive or negative, especially concerning
nutritional status, food supply, shelter, clothing, fuel, drinking water, sanitation,
or availability of by-products from production activities.”
IFPRI “DO NO HARM
Mitigate the health risks posed by agriculture along the value chain.
 Agricultural strategies should seek to control the agriculture-associated
diseases and occupational hazards that are exacerbated by agricultural
intensification.
 New agricultural developments should be subject to health impact
assessment (HIA), which can identify health hazards and risks at the design
and construction phases when cost-effective safeguards can be incorporated.
 Also needed are improved production and processing practices, such as
better food safety practices and water management, as well as
 cost-effective risk-based technologies that are accessible to smallholder
farmers.
 Advances in health-risk assessment and management promote incremental
improvements through a multiple barrier approach. This provides a strong
basis for public health officials to participate in disseminating information
on health risks and solutions along the value chain.”
“Gender-sensitive programs that consider the synergies and trade-offs between
women’s roles in agricultural production and childcare can promote positive
nutrition and health outcomes.”
IYCN [The Nutrition Impact Assessment Tool focuses on avoiding harm. Key points
from this operational tool are listed below this table.]
“While the majority of agricultural projects result in improved lives and
livelihoods, some do just the opposite.”

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 “Modeling the expected impacts on vulnerable groups at the design phase helps
to ensure that they will benefit from the project.”
“Conduct a nutritional impact assessment during the project design phase.
When it is not possible to include nutrition objectives, incorporation of a
nutritional impact assessment in the planning process can help to avoid
unintended negative impacts. This process leads to more nutrition-friendly
programming by identifying vulnerable groups within food insecure populations
and estimating potential impacts based on expected shifts in land use, crop
prices, food crop availability, and labor utilization.”
“Achieving food security:
 Carefully watch the effect on food prices. …impact on food security…
depends on whether poor households are net sellers or net purchasers of
those commodities.
 Be particularly careful with projects that promote cash crop production.
Contrary to conventional wisdom, introduction of cash crops frequently has
a negative effect on household food security. Achieving positive effects
often depends on whether the land and labor used is in surplus and on the
variability in the supply prices of basic food crops.
 Encourage small-scale agricultural processes and beware of projects that
involve labor-displacing mechanization
Avoiding harm:
 Smallholders may not be able to participate in improvements.
 Mechanization may disproportionately favor larger farms
 Benefits of price supports can be unequally distributed. (In Honduras, price
supports for maize benefited larger, land-owning families, while smaller
farmers who were net purchasers suffered under the higher prices. Similarly,
sugar price supports in Jamaica increased employment, but the higher price
of consumption outweighed the economic benefits of increased
employment.)
 Without intentional support, the landless may not benefit.
 Time or physical constraints can limit women’s ability to feed their children
properly.”
Save the “When agricultural interventions fail to take nutrition into account, not only is
Children UK an opportunity lost to get the maximal return on investment but, surprisingly,
these interventions can actually have a negative impact on nutrition. To address
this, USAID is piloting a “do no harm” tool” (2012)
“Agricultural work can affect nutrition and health in three ways:
1. manual work is physically demanding, can require higher calorie intakes, and
can directly damage health
2. agricultural work exposes individuals to harmful germs, such as those found
in water-borne diseases or that come from animal sources
3. where agriculture production involves the use of chemical pesticides,
exposure to these can be a threat to health.
In many regions of the world the harmful impact of agricultural work on health
has contributed to a downward spiral of low agricultural productivity, low
income, poverty, and even worse nutrition and health. Agricultural programmes

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 that are seeking to improve nutrition must take account of the impact of
agricultural activity on the health of farmers and labourers, which can affect
nutrition, in order to ensure that these programmes do not inadvertently cause
harm. USAID’s new ‘do no harm’ tool is designed to ensure that agriculture-
related programming does not have a negative impact on the nutritional status of
communities. While the tool does not ensure a positive result for nutrition, it is a
first step in ensuring that programmes that increase food production do not cause
harm.” (2012)
“Policies must take specific account of the fact that the majority of small-scale
farmers are women, who are balancing childcare responsibilities and farming.
Agricultural policies that take women away from their children for long periods
may be detrimental to improvements in nutrition in the population.” (2009)
UN HLTF “[Sustainable agriculture] requires safe and sustainable livestock production, so
that adequate amounts of safe animal source products are available, without
generating new health risks.” (2012)

UN SCN
World Bank The specific objectives of this guidance note are to support task team
leaders, partner agencies, and country clients in making agriculture
investments more nutrition sensitive in the following ways: … (3) minimize the
unintended negative nutritional consequences of agricultural interventions and
policies on the lives of the poor, especially women and young children...”
“…some agriculture projects could cause unintentional nutritional harm.
Nutritional status of household members is strongly influenced by clean water,
disease occurrence, food quality, and child care practices. Several unintended
but related consequences (such as reducing women’s available time for child
care) have been documented as arising from some agricultural interventions.”
“In addition to the suggested list of interventions, an ARD project team
would need to ensure that no inadvertent harm is caused. Context
assessment during the design phase will allow project teams to assess potential
harms and develop mitigation strategies appropriate for the circumstance. For
example, alternative child care arrangements may be more easily attained in one
place than another, which has implications for the strength of the potential
tradeoff between increased labor and decreased child care quality. Livestock
projects may have a higher probability of negative externalities including
zoonotic disease transmission in some situations than in others. Monitoring of
potential harmful impact during the project implementation also would provide
information important for triggering mitigation strategies. Some common
examples of unintended negative consequences of ARD projects are
shown…below, with suggested approaches to avoiding or mitigating them. The
mitigation measures for irrigation projects are important because a large part of
ARD investments are for irrigation and drainage.
 Irrigation projects may cause an increase in hydrophilic vector-borne disease
such as malaria, schistosomiasis, and Japanese encephalitis  Include
analysis of hydrophilic vector-borne diseases in environmental safeguard
analysis, and ensure mitigation measures are established.

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  Animal husbandry projects may cause an increased risk of zoonotic diseases
 Strengthen mitigation measures and risk management framework of
zoonotic infections in program design.
 Reduction in women’s access to resources if projects shift production toward
male-dominated crops  In project social analysis or gender analysis, gather
information on who is benefiting from intervention activities, and develop
strategies to ensure equitable intra-household access to resources.
 Reduction in women’s time available for child care, impacting child health
and nutritional status  Include women’s time use analysis in project gender
analysis to determine labor time requirement by women; Introduce time
saving technologies for tasks commonly performed by women.
 Production increase/price reduction in calorie-dense foods may unfavorably
alter dietary quality and may contribute to obesity and chronic diseases 
Promote production and consumption of micronutrient rich crops; In the
project design phase, check levels of obesity as well as undernutrition; In
project Results Frameworks, include food consumption indicators to monitor
consumption trends which could affect likelihood of obesity and chronic
disease.”
World Vision

From the IYCN Nutritional Impact Assessment Tool:

“Decades of project evaluations and research have shown that agricultural programs that focus
on increasing production, developing value chains and high-value crops, and increasing incomes
do not necessarily have positive nutritional and food security impacts on vulnerable populations.
Sometimes the impacts are even negative.”
“Much as environmental and gender impact assessments are now standard practice in project
planning to prompt consideration of the project’s likely impacts in those areas, a nutritional
impact assessment prompts consideration of a project’s impacts on the nutrition of vulnerable
groups…
“The Nutritional Impact Assessment Tool provides a simple process, guiding designers to collect
existing data on nutritionally vulnerable and food insecure groups in their project areas. The tool
further operationalizes a process for considering the nutritional and food security impacts of
proposed activities on these groups, and helps designers to develop alternative sets of activities
as well as a “do nothing” alternative.” The steps are as follows:
1. List project objectives.
2. Define food insecure population groups.
3. Determine the nutritional status of nutritionally vulnerable groups.
4. Create alternative approaches.
5. Estimate expected outcomes.
6. Modify the approach as needed.
7. Assess alternative approaches.
8. Design a mitigation plan.
9. Develop a review plan.

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M&E
Organization Indicative quotes from guidance papers Recommended indicators
ACF GUIDANCE 4 – AIM FOR IMPACT ON meal frequency and
NUTRITIONAL STATUS dietary diversity patterns
“It is increasingly emphasized that FSL (or a FCS).
interventions must be able to demonstrate impact “Use dietary diversity
in terms of improving nutritional status… there is scores (DDS) to measure
no ready-to-use solution and the indicators to be the outcome of a short-
used will vary according to the nature and the term FSL intervention.
duration of the intervention. Once you have Dietary diversity scores are
conducted your nutrition-sensitive assessment easy-to-measure proxy
and identified the different pathways through indicator of food security
which your project may have an impact on and are cheap, quick and
nutrition, you will be well placed to determine easy to analyse. They also
the most pertinent indicators.” allow measuring trends and
4.1 Include a nutrition objective in the logical are sensitive to change…
framework, when this is attainable IDDS is also useful to
4.2 Have at least one outcome or impact determine the consumption
indicator related to improved nutrition of programme-promoted
“The chosen nutrition outcome or impact foods, if any.”
indicators will vary according to the nature and “Use the Household Dietary
the duration of the intervention. They will reflect Diversity Score (HDDS) as
changes either at the outcome or at the impact a proxy indicator of
levels, based on the nutrition objective as defined household access to food,
in the section above. In all cases, the indicators and Individual Dietary
have to be SMART (specific, measurable, Diversity Score (IDDS) as a
achievable, relevant and time-bound). proxy measure of the
· Outcome refers to the short/medium term nutritional quality of an
change induced by the project. individual’s diet.”
· Impact is the long-term benefit for targeted “Four core indicators of
groups and the wider society. IYCF:
The measurable effects of stand-alone FSL Exclusive breastfeeding of
interventions on the nutritional status are likely to children under 6 mos,
be less significant (with the potential exception of Early initiation of
food aid interventions) than multi-sectoral breastfeeding,
interventions, thus most changes will be detected Minimum acceptable diet
at outcome level.” for children 6–23 mos of
“Changes in nutrition practices and behaviour age (mix of meal frequency
may be accounted for through pre-post KAP and diet diversity),
surveys. It is however relatively easy to measure Consumption of iron-rich or
change in knowledge, but it is difficult to iron-fortified foods for
measure sustainable change in practices and children 6–23 mos of age.
behaviour.” “Use anthropometric
5. Consider the intervention as a flow measurements to measure
with unexpected barriers and the impact of long-term
enhancers, through Programme FSL programming. The

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 Theory impact of an intervention on
Programme Theory is the pathway from an stunting (or chronic
intervention input through programmatic undernutrition measured by
delivery, household and individual utilisation to height-for-age) may be
its desired impact. The Programme Theory puts a observed in some situations
stronger focus on the intermediary outcomes and where PLW and children
problems that may arise alongside the under two are direct
intervention to bridge the gap between the beneficiaries, and the
concept of an intervention and the reality of its intervention lasts a
impacts. minimum of 3 to 5 years.
6. Be clear on how data will be used in the Stunting is much slower to
project’s overall monitoring and change than wasting and is
evaluation plan less influenced by
“Too often the M&E component is incorporated seasonality and disease
into the proposal without proper analysis and outbreaks. In addition,
without adequate funding and skills.” stunting in children mainly
“As a minimum, each project should include a occurs during the window of
Pre and Post survey, or baseline and endline opportunity (from
surveys, with regular measurements in between conception to two years of
(monitoring)… More powerful types of age) and this is the time
evaluation designs may be considered, such as when preventive actions
Pre and Post surveys with control groups or Pre have the greatest impact on
and Post surveys with treatment of determinants its occurrence. Stunting in
and known confounding factors, when the children of 3 years or older
intervention lasts several years and/or is usually reflect growth
integrated… Always seek professional advice retardation at an earlier age,
and support for these kinds of evaluations as they and is often irreversible.”
require strong technical and statistical skills and
raise ethical issues.”
“Experience suggests that 2% of the overall
budget should be allocated to M&E.”
Bioversity “In spite of excellent planning, an intervention Indicators that provide food
International can fail in the implementation stage due to security information:
unforeseen factors preventing acceptance of  Agroecosystems
recommendations or hindering expected results. visualizations
Because of this, regular evaluation of  Food culture data
intervention process should be undertaken both  Farming system
by the Project Facilitators assigned to a specific classification (e.g. soil
community, as well as by the PF Manager. An sampling, cropping
evaluation should return to the objectives and systems, elevation, water
expected outcomes of the intervention to assess resource availability)
the following:  Seasonal farming
1. Is the community accepting the intervention calendar
recommendations?  Household income
2. If not, why are they not accepting the  HDDS, MAHFP, 24-hr
recommendations? recall

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 3. If yes, are the recommendations having the  Sanitation, health, and
desired effect? home facilities
4. If no, why not?  Nutritional status
5. What could be changed about the approach to (anthropometric
make the intervention more successful? measurements of all
Answering these questions systematically at family members)
regular intervals will ensure that time is not  General socio-
wasted demographics
emphasizing a faulty recommendation.  The Nutritional
Evaluation enables mistakes to be corrected Functional Diversity
rapidly before creating a long-term perception by Index, developed by the
the community that the project is ineffective.” Earth Institute at
“Regular reporting about project process lends Columbia University,
insight into the appropriate timings for staffing quantifies the depth and
phase-out at the local level, as well as the breadth of agro-
potential necessity for more permanent biodiversity according to
infrastructural support. Data about community dietary usage (Remans,
changes and improvements should be carefully Flynn, 2011).
documented and compiled into a final report,  …cost of food,
fully discussing successful approaches, failures, proximity of markets,
and challenges in the intervention process.” rates of self-production.”
“Document both successes and failures in
approach to inform future intervention design
decisions”
EC “Agriculture can and should be an effective “There are a great many
way to improve nutrition. The sector should possible indicators, too
therefore consistently incorporate nutrition many to list in this
indicators in programme design, and nutrition Reference Document.
criteria in evaluations.” …boxes at the end of each
Possible entry points for [addressing nutrition section contain…indicators
through food security]: intended to complement the
“including nutrition objectives and indicators core/usual indicators for
(e.g. food intake/diet quality and anthropometry) each sector/thematic area.”
in monitoring and evaluation systems for Nutrition indicators listed in
policies, programmes and projects,…food Food security and
security information systems and early warning Agriculture sections:
systems.”  Minimum dietary
Possible entry points for [addressing nutrition diversity (6 – 23 mos)
through agriculture]:  Individual dietary
“designing strong monitoring and evaluation diversity score (women
systems and reporting on nutrition and food of reproductive age)
intake/diet quality indicators in addition to  Consumption of iron-
production figures and staple food availability.” rich or iron-fortified
foods (6 – 23 months)
 Minimum acceptable
diet (6 – 23 months)

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  Iodisation of salt”
FANTA RECOMMENDATIONS FOR “Improvements in child
PERFORMANCE MONITORING nutritional status:
1. Ensure periodic measurement of child and weight for age, height for
maternal nutritional status to confirm that age, weight for height, and
agriculture-consumption-nutrition linkages are caloric adequacy of
being appropriately addressed. Missions should available food
be able to associate changes to the strategy (kcal\person\day); standard
interventions. measures of improved
2. Use an appropriate measure to monitor vitamin A, iron, and iodine
changes in food consumption if the agricultural status for women and
program has a food security objective. children’s micronutrient
3. Choose an indicator that the monitoring agent status.
can accurately measure. Indicators of food access:
4. Use simple, easy to administer indicators of number or type of foods
improved consumption and nutrition unless consumed, dependency
adequate resources and technical capacity are ratio, or incidence of
available. illness, and they can be used
5. Monitor program design characteristics that individually or in
promote consumption and suggest better nutrition combinations with other
such as the gender of project participants, simple indicators…Diet
innovators and income earners, the unevenness diversity is an indicator of
and seasonality of income, or the form (in-kind or household food security that
cash) of income earned. is easy to implement and
“Intermediate results are another logical avenue cost effective…Diet
for cross-sectoral integration since improved diversity of women as
health and nutritional status has a positive effect compared to men is more
on productivity and hence economic growth. strongly associated with
Intermediate results, together with the household food security…
corresponding performance indicators, trace out Another option is to monitor
the underlying conceptual framework of a the program characteristics
program and point to the type of design that have been found to
components that will likely encourage increased promote consumption and
food consumption and better health and suggest better nutrition.
nutrition.” (2001) Depending on the actual
“Missions should be able to associate changes program design, these
with the specific strategy or interventions” (2001) indicators could include the
“Where the Mission has developed an integrated gender of project
strategy for addressing nutrition concerns, many participant and
of the indicators for program performance may innovators, changing
be collected by health sector activities, and seasonality of income
adjusted to reflect interventions implemented by (access), labor use, and
the agriculture sector. It is likely that Missions food or micronutrient-rich
will have to provide additional technical support food availability.”
to agricultural programs if direct measurement of
nutritional status by those programs is required.”

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 (2001)
FAO “Assess the impact of new development
programmes and projects on nutrition to clearly
identify the potential benefits for or risk to
nutritional well-being among vulnerable
population groups.
Develop and use relevant indicators of nutritional
well-being to monitor progress in social and
economic development and establish appropriate
mechanisms to regularly provide information
on the population’s nutritional status and factors
affecting it, especially that of vulnerable
groups, to policy-makers and planners and all
interested sectors, both private and public.”
(2004)
“Conduct regular discussions, inspections, and
monitoring…in order to assess progress.” (2001)
IFPRI “We need to capture the lessons learned from
small-scale projects and encourage better
monitoring and evaluation so that the evidence
base is stronger and can be used by others.”
IYCN “Be intentional about measuring impacts on food For food security: HFIAS
security and nutrition. Assessing food security or HHS as a first choice
and nutritional status prior to an intervention (FANTA-2), and those
permits targeting of the most vulnerable. aren’t possible, monthly
Modeling the expected impacts on vulnerable income/expenditure and/or
groups at the design phase helps to ensure that dietary diversity.
they will benefit from the project. Assessment For nutritional status: at
during key points of implementation— including least one of the following
post-intervention—helps improve effectiveness for children < 3 years or
and avoid unintended negative effects.” (fact reproductive age women:
sheet) caloric intake, (individual)
“Indicators should be SMART (specific, dietary diversity scores,
measurable, attainable, relevant, time bound)” weight for age, height for
(illustrative guidance) age, vitamin A intake, iron
intake, hemoglobin levels,
serum retinol levels.
Save the “The litmus test for good agricultural investment Underweight prevalence of
Children UK should be whether or not it helps to lower the children <5 years
percentage of underweight children under five
years of age.” (2009)
“More rigorous, better designed impact studies,
which collect children’s height and weight data,
are needed to help identify interventions that will
improve a child’s nutritional status.” [with
reference to the DFID-financed review by Masset

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 et al.] (2012)
UN HLTF “An analysis of the implementation of essential
nutrition interventions, their quality and
efficiency, is also required.”
UN SCN “Monitoring and evaluation of food and nutrition Household dietary diversity
security projects and programmes improves scores
service delivery and increases government
accountability.”
“The data generated…can increase policy-
makers’ awareness of threats to food and
nutrition security, and may help raise nutrition’s
“profile” on national policy agendas, especially if
nutrition information is collected along with
other indicators. For example, vulnerability
assessments are often based primarily on
fluctuations in the market price of staple foods,
and current production and yield levels.
Supplementing these reports with information
from household dietary diversity scores can
increase awareness regarding the importance of
consuming a varied diet, and highlight the
distinction between the quantity and quality
aspects of consumption. Whenever possible,
surveillance data should be disaggregated by
income, demographic, ethnicity, gender and other
criteria relevant to food and nutrition security.”
World Bank “Monitoring of potential harmful impact during Measurement of changes
the project implementation also would provide in food consumption:
information important for triggering mitigation TTLs can select food
strategies.” consumption indicators
“Incorporate explicit nutrition objectives and most relevant for the project
indicators into project and policy design.” expected impact on diets
“The specific objectives of this guidance note and food security. Some
are to support TTLs, partner agencies, and examples:
country clients in making agriculture  number of days in the
investments more nutrition sensitive in the previous week where any
following ways: … (2) measure the progress of amount of X (nutritious
activities affecting nutrition periodically through food) was consumed
relevant output and outcome indicators, such as  % change in grams/day of
food consumption indicators; …” X consumed
“Explicit nutrition objectives and  dietary diversity scores
interventions would need to be accompanied  FCS
by indicators to measure progress at either the  HHS – food security
output, outcome or impact levels. …Indicators MAHFP to indicate year-
at the output level (collected every 6 months for round continuity of food
Bank projects) are project specific, e.g. days of security

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nutrition education provided to beneficiaries etc.
However, at the outcome level, measurement of If the intent is to improve
changes in food consumption is an important step the nutritional status of
to determine if projects have positive effects on project beneficiaries, the
diet and food security, given that a major impact can most directly be
pathway of nutrition impact for agricultural measured by using
projects is through food consumption effects anthropometric or
(either by household production or through biochemical indicators
market purchase). Such outcome indicators could commonly used in nutrition
be measured at project milestones such as or health projects…sample
baseline, mid-term and project completion size and project duration
together with other outcome and impact must be large enough to
indicators.” have power to observe a
“If the intent is to improve the nutritional status difference in these
of project beneficiaries, the impact can most indicators.
directly be measured by using anthropometric or
biochemical indicators commonly used in Indicators for gender
nutrition or health projects. Collecting empowerment issues
anthropometric or biochemical indicators would critical for nutrition: (i)
require additional training and resources (such as women’s access to land and
medical equipment) to enumerators or project other productive assets, (ii)
M&E staff who collect data for agricultural women’s participation in
projects. Also, the sample size and project income generating activities,
duration must be large enough to have power to and (iii) women’s control
observe a difference in these indicators. over cash from agricultural
Therefore, attempts to measure effects on activities (e.g. intra-
anthropometry may not be appropriate in all household allocation of
circumstances, and power calculations should be income between men and
done a priori to assure that time and effort are women, or the dimension of
not wasted. ARD projects would take a first step women’s ability to make
towards measuring nutrition outcomes by decisions about purchases)
incorporating food consumption indicators … as
many of these have been validated to reflect
underlying nutrition status.
“Food consumption indicators have been
developed to measure dietary quality without
having to conduct a full food intake survey
(which would be costly and cumbersome to
administer). In addition to simple indicators that
can be constructed based on project interventions
(e.g. % of produced food consumed, number of
days in the previous week where any amount of
X (nutritious food) was consumed, % change in
grams/day of X consumed) there are established
indices that are commonly used by other
international organizations such as FAO and

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 WFP to measure progress at the outcome level.
… Each of these indicators, index or not, is
relatively straightforward to collect, and TTLs
can select food consumption indicators most
relevant for the project expected impact on diets
and food security. Collecting data on food
consumption does require some additional
training of the enumerator or project M&E staff,
but requires no special medical equipment like
the anthropometric or biochemical measures.
Therefore, for agricultural projects the use of
such consumption indicators is a practical option
that would provide relevant information about
nutrition-related impacts of ARD projects.”
World Vision “Integrate nutrition outcomes into agriculture “Promising household level
project/programming performance indicators are ‘children
measurement systems… There is an urgent need receiving minimum dietary
to develop a robust set of practical agriculture- diversity’ and ‘minimum
nutrition indicators and guidelines that will meal frequency’.” (“Key
support this important area of work.” lessons”)
“The ‘invisibility’ of malnutrition, particularly
the hidden hunger of micronutrient
deficiencies, is a major challenge for agriculture
programmes that seek to contribute to improving
child nutrition status. Increased investments in
qualified technical personnel and innovative
assessment methods appropriate to the rural
context in which most of the undernourished
children live are needed.” (“Key lessons”)

Multisectoral collaboration/coordination
Organization Indicative quotes from guidance papers
ACF “Perhaps the greatest challenge for the implementation of the guidance given
throughout this manual is that no one can do it alone – it requires preparation,
action and collaboration across a variety of sectors and stakeholders. The
food security worker has to be aware of what is needed in order to 107aximize
the nutritional impact of the FSL intervention, but s/he does not have all the
required technical expertise. It is essential to consult with the nutrition, Mental
Health and Care Practices and WASH teams from the outset, and share tasks and
responsibilities according to the technical expertise of each sector. In some cases
only light guidance is needed, e.g. advice on the inclusion and analysis of some
questions in an assessment, whereas in other cases a more in-depth implication
is required, e.g. conducting a nutrition survey or setting up a Behaviour Change
Strategy (BCS).”

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 “Create linkages and synergies with other interventions: The nutritional
impact of FSL interventions can be further enhanced if the intervention is linked
to other relevant programmes…Synergies should be created with initiatives or
service provision from the Ministries (health, agriculture, etc.) and with other
large-scale programmes that are funded e.g. by the World Bank.”
Bioversity “Collaboration of agriculture, nutrition, and anthropology/sociology consultants
International along with the program director, manager and facilitators and the community
itself to craft a holistic approach to address gaps and promote successes in food
system development and usage. A variety of types of interventions that address
community needs from multiple perspectives can be combined to maximize
nutrition improvement potentials.”
EC “Although food security programmes can have significant nutritional benefits,
they usually achieve better results, in particular for children, when combined
with action addressing other determinants of child nutrition (like maternal health
and care-giving practices).”
“…increasing collaboration with other sectors and joint programming (e.g.
establishing links between agricultural extension and health services for
activities such as communication and information systems)…is especially
important in emergencies.”
FANTA “Agricultural interventions can make important contributions in the form of
increasing production and income and, often, household food consumption.
However, health and environmental conditions, health status, and childcare and
feeding practices will ultimately determine whether increased food access and
consumption has a positive effect on nutritional status.” (2001)
“Recommendations for improving cross-sectoral integration:
 Create a task force comprised of Mission staff and cooperating sponsors
working on agriculture, health, nutrition or food security issues. The task
force can review country strategies and programs with an aim to identify
and strengthen linkages and to encourage effective cross-fertilization of
agriculture, health and nutrition programs.
 Adopt some form of cross-sectoral integration: by implementing agriculture
and nutrition programs in the same geographical area, adding program
components to specifically address cross-sectoral issues, or fully integrating
programs.
 Request that responses to new agriculture-related proposals outline key
cross-sectoral issues and identify potential collaborators in the field who can
serve as resource in the area of health and nutrition.”
“A program design that effectively links agriculture, health and nutrition might
employ the following three-pronged approach:
1. The program has a well-designed agricultural component—effective at
generating output, income or added value, as well as at drawing in
smallholders, women and/or poorer households.
2. The program has a well-designed nutrition component—providing well-
tailored health and nutrition education to address specific local problems.
3. The agricultural, health, and nutrition components are mutually reinforcing.
Project staff collaborate to ensure appropriate health services and

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 complementary health and nutrition messages are provided, and that
beneficiary populations participating in the agricultural and health activities
overlap.”
“Greater interaction between agricultural and health sector managers could
promote better program integration, and should be encouraged.” (1999)
“Encourage complementary investments in community health service
infrastructure.” (1999)
FAO “At its High-level meeting in November 2009, the UN Standing Committee on
Nutrition acknowledged that the sustainable alleviation of malnutrition required
the integration of food security, social protection and health. The food and
agriculture sector therefore needs to join forces with other development sectors
to address malnutrition.” (2010)
“Encourage the private sector, including small-scale producers and processors,
industries and NGOs, to promote nutritional well-being by considering the
impact of its activities on the nutritional status of the people.” (2004)
“…the policy of the agriculture sector alone cannot successfully promote and
support sustainable strategies and programmes to improve nutritional status.
Policies in related sectors and disciplines with direct impacts on nutrition, such
as health, education, environment, rural development, poverty reduction and
gender, also should be addressed to exploit the synergy. Ideally, a holistic,
integrated approach should be employed by those developing policies. In
practice, the development and coordination of a holistic nutrition policy could be
done through nutrition coordinating bodies or similar intersectoral structures.…
Collaboration and cooperation among the responsible sectors is imperative to
improve nutritional status and ensure that the improved status is sustainable.
However, in practice, collaboration among the different sectors is often hindered
by the parallel sectoral administrative arrangements in many countries.
Commonly, sectors that carry out nutrition-related activities are agriculture,
health, rural development and education. It is mainly among these sectors that
linkages should be aggressively fostered to enhance nutritional status. However,
NGOs should also be involved, because they have potential to be strong
collaborators. Since there is a move towards privatization in many developing
countries, the private sector is also an important collaborator.
A mechanism for fostering linkages and coordinating nutrition-related activities
of the different sectors could be established by a multisectoral body such as a
national nutrition council. The leadership of this body could be in the planning
ministry, with the primary roles of coordinating national level activities relating
to nutrition and advising governmental bodies on nutrition policy.” (2001)
“Establish multidisciplinary departmental/ministerial extension teams, under the
guidance of competent team leaders, to coordinate and supervise regional
extension services. Provide opportunities for extension management to
communicate effectively with research, nutrition and crop production specialists
to increase the potential for successful project implementation.
Initiate joint trials with research institutes and farmers. This collaboration will
contribute to the multidisciplinary team perspective.
Establish closer liaison between departments of agriculture and of health.

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 Establish communication and collaboration among nutrition, home economics
and extension officers. This will facilitate the exchange of information and
provision of advice; and in the production of crops suitable for domestic
preservation and storage.
…Organize training sessions and workshops for nutritionists and agricultural
extension agents in which they become sensitized to each others needs, and
develop better understanding and respect for each other’s disciplines.” (2001)
IFPRI “It is important to remember that agricultural growth alone will not eradicate
undernutrition and ill health—specific interventions such as nutrition programs
targeted at children under age two and improved healthcare services for
underserved populations are still needed. Moreover, these kinds of safety net
programs, as well as education and health services, infrastructure, trade policies,
and other factors, make up the larger context within which advances in
agriculture, nutrition, and health will take place. Changes in these factors will
also make a difference to how well the linkages among agriculture, nutrition,
and health operate.”
“Focus on partnerships among agriculture, nutrition, and health.
Professionals in agriculture, nutrition, and health speak different “languages,”
and efforts will be needed to overcome this barrier. These efforts will have to
start at the time of professional training, through, for example, interdisciplinary
problem-based learning approaches. National governments, farmers, healthcare
workers, nutritionists, environmental groups, civil society organizations,
educators, researchers, and the private sector all have important roles to play in
leveraging agriculture for improved nutrition and health and should work
together to achieve common goals. Special efforts should be made to ensure that
the nutrition sector, which is often given short shrift, is an equal partner. Global
and regional institutions that play important roles in the governance of the
agriculture, nutrition, and health sectors may need to be reformed for greater
effectiveness and integration of efforts.
Develop mutual accountability mechanisms among the three sectors. It is
important to promote openness and transparency and to develop clear guidelines
for stakeholder responsibilities and resource allocation in agriculture, nutrition,
and health. Leaders in the three sectors can create incentives that will make it
easier for people in those sectors to work together.”
“More remains to be learned about how to maximize the synergies among the
[agriculture, health, and nutrition] sectors using policies, investments,
regulations, and other tools of governance. In addition, it is important…to learn
more about how to prioritize and sequence actions and investments to link the
three sectors.”
IYCN “Improve health to ensure utilization of nutrients. Activities that improve
health include improving access to safe water, promoting hygiene and sanitation,
improving health services and access to them, and promoting timely care-
seeking for childhood illness.” (fact sheet)
Save the “COMPLEMENTING AGRICULTURAL INTERVENTIONS WITH
Children UK NUTRITION INTERVENTIONS
Agricultural interventions on their own are not enough. To be really effective in

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 improving child nutrition, they need to be complemented by other proven
programmes. These would include programmes that focus on healthcare, on
care-giving practices, and on access to water, sanitation and hygiene facilities, so
that high rates of infection can be overcome. Such a complementary, co-
ordinated approach has demonstrated positive results. For example, the Save the
Children Jibon-O-Jibika project in Bangladesh – which reduced malnutrition in
three districts in Bangladesh – integrated nutrition, home gardens and health
interventions. Investments should be made in similar multi-sectoral approaches
in order to identify best practice models that yield nutrition results.” (2012)
“In order to improve nutrition, agricultural interventions must be combined with
other activities that are shown to improve nutrition, including the direct
interventions.” (2012)
UN HLTF “Social protection schemes and safety nets are vital given the stresses regularly
faced by smallholders, laborers and other marginalized groups. These groups are
vulnerable to the impact of market shocks, climate change, political instability
and lack of employment as rural economies transform. Well-designed social
protection systems help households sustain their resilience to shocks – whether
natural or man-made. They ensure that even the poor and most vulnerable
people – including children, refugees and the elderly – are able to meet their
basic needs such as a nutritious diet at all times. Safety nets – including school
meals, work- or asset-creation programmes and risk-insurance schemes –
empower poor communities. They are especially valuable when linked to
sustainable smallholder production.* They can provide a springboard for
overcoming poverty.” *emphasis added (2012)
“A comprehensive approach requires: (i) addressing all dimensions of food and
nutrition security – availability, access, utilization and stability – and taking into
account the interconnectedness and interactions between them; (ii) addressing
the full spectrum of food and nutrition security, including sustainable
agricultural production, procurement and distribution of food, and safety-net
strengthening; (iii) integrating cross-cutting issues such as protection and
promotion of human rights, gender equity, support to nutrition, management of
sustainable ecosystems, and climate change mitigation and adaptation into law,
policy and programme design; and (iv) ensuring multisectoral engagement and
coordination on agriculture, social security, trade and market, employment,
health, education, nutrition, and humanitarian assistance. In practice, adopting a
comprehensive approach calls for maximum synergy and coordination among all
components of food and nutrition security and the sectors which influence
them.” (UCFA)
“Multistakeholder and multisectoral partnerships...are key if the contribution
of different stakeholders to food and nutrition security is to realize its full
potential. It is likely that partners will be linked to a range of sectors rather than
restricted to a single development outcome.” (UCFA)
“A whole-of-government approach backed by sustained political commitment
and by coherent and multisectoral policies and evidence-based strategies is at the
backbone of effective national policies and of actions for warding off hunger.”
“National leadership should emphasize the need for joint investment planning by

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 all stakeholders, coordinated stewardship, mutual accountability, and
predictability and trust.” (UCFA)
In the context of linking agriculture and social protection for improved nutrition:
“Improve the quality and diversity of diets made available through nutrition
interventions to highly vulnerable groups, taking into account cultural
sensitivities. Promote closer involvement of local producers and small- and
medium-scale businesses in producing nutrient-rich foods. Support the
production, access to and consumption of locally produced, highly nutritional,
quality products through training of agricultural extension agents and other
service providers. Accompany these actions with the intensification of nutrition
education and consumer awareness programmes, supported by multimedia
campaigns.”
UN SCN “Solutions to the challenges to food and nutrition security are complex and not
the responsibility of agriculture alone.”
“Provision of livelihood support, creation of social safety-nets and an explicit
focus on maternal and child health are essential to improving the food and
nutrition security of [vulnerable] groups.”
“An integrated policy approach that combines social protection measures, such
as safety nets, with livelihood diversification strategies that broaden income
streams allows households in both rural and urban areas to manage risk, increase
resilience to shocks, and create opportunities for increased food and nutrition
security.”
World Bank “Agriculture is a key player in the reducing undernutrition, together with health,
social protection, education and other interventions.”
“…it is inherently difficult to work on multisectoral activities that span across
[World Bank] Vice Presidencies or [government] Ministries…responsible
parties or their managers usually have little incentive to work beyond their ‘core
areas.’ They also lack professional contacts to easily solicit technical support in
areas that are outside of their core mandate or mandatory safeguard requirements
that cover certain environmental and social aspects…[this challenge] would
need to be addressed before nutrition sensitive agriculture can become more
mainstreamed within the World Bank… Introducing nutrition sensitive
agriculture requires a behavioral change since it requires working across silos.
This requires sensitization or awareness building among all parties: Bank clients,
Country Directors and the rest of the country management team, Bank
agriculture TTLs and their managers. It requires a change in the mindset that
results in nutrition being viewed as an important piece to improving human
capital and well-being, and that agriculture has an important role in achieving
this goal.”
“Close coordination between agriculture and health sector staff can also be
effective. Good practice examples:
 The success of the biofortified OFSP project in Mozambique was due in
part to integrated extension agent pairs (a male agricultural agent and a
female nutrition agent) embedded in villages to conduct group education
sessions on a variety of agricultural and nutrition topics including
production methods, storage, marketing, infant and young child feeding

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 and hygiene practices.
 A home gardening program in India showed consumption and nutrition
impact when messages were communicated from multiple kinds of
extension workers (e.g. agricultural extensionists, health workers from
India’s integrated early childhood program, and village-level workers).”
World Vision “Contribute to coordinated country-led action on child under-nutrition.
Concerted multisectoral planning and action at the country level, led by national
governments, is widely recognized as critical vital to sustainably reducing
undernutrition.”
“Integrated approaches need strong coordination with shared funding and
monitoring between sectors. This is one of the major challenges facing
integration of nutrition and agriculture as most funding sources are sector-based.
Engaging government stakeholders from agriculture, health, and other key
sectors in nutrition programme design, training, implementation, and evaluation
contributes to improved approaches, broad dissemination of learning, and
enhanced impact.” (“Key lessons”)
“The need for targeted attention to nutrition emerged when an extensive
evaluation of World Vision’s global programming clearly highlighted that
conventional sector-based development programming in agriculture and health
were not fully meeting the nutritional needs of young children, particularly those
less than 2 years of age. During the same period, World Vision was
implementing a number of integrated agriculture, nutrition and health
programmes which provided a rich body of evidence for how to design and
implement effective development programmes that met the needs of young
children…” (“Key lessons”)

Household income
Organization Indicative quotes from guidance papers
ACF “This manual also gives us the opportunity to dispel the myth that economic
growth and agricultural development in particular equals improved nutritional
status. Increasing agricultural productivity and/or increasing income do not
necessarily translate into improved nutrition.”
“Income generating activities (IGAs) have the potential to increase the
resources at the disposal of the household, and thereby improve access to
foods, health, and ultimately strengthen nutrition security.
6.5.1 Promote nutrition-sensitive IGAs
Prioritise IGAs that have a potential direct impact on nutrition, such as
livestock rearing, home gardens, processing of high nutritious food, production
of complementary foods, or healthy restaurants… Make sure however, that you
have done your market analysis and that the promoted IGA is viable.
6.5.2 Promote IGAs at home
Many types of IGA (e.g. sewing, food processing etc.) can be implemented from
home, allowing mothers to take care of their children while working. This is
especially relevant for mothers of infants and young children.”
Bioversity One of the main types of interventions:

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International “Economic, Market-Based Income Generating Interventions: Aimed at
increasing availability and liquidity of financial resources, these interventions
should be designed keeping in mind the need to ensure that increases in income
will be coupled with increased spending on nutritionally rich foods.”
EC “Underlying causes operate at household and community levels. They comprise
three categories: household food security, care for children/women and health
environment/health services. Income poverty underpins all three.”
“Entry points for [improving nutrition through food security] are relevant in
emergency and development contexts and include: income generation and
improving access to financial services for the poor.”
“Agriculture can improve nutrition in several ways: …reduced income poverty
— by selling own produce or agricultural labour/employment — with a potential
knock-on effect on the quality of the diet, access to health services and care;
empowerment of women as income-earners, decision-makers and primary
childcare-providers…”
FANTA “Linkages can exist between agricultural production, income and consumption.
For example, increased production can improve income, which, in turn, can
improve consumption patterns. …Agricultural and Health Officers may
reasonably anticipate strong income-consumption linkages, but this outcome is
not inevitable. Evidence shows that additional agricultural income in the form of
one’s own production or cash earnings from crop or livestock sales is more
likely to be spent on food if four conditions are met:
• The incremental income is earned or controlled by women
• The stream of income is regular or frequent, even if the absolute amounts are
small
• The income is in-kind (i.e., in the form of food)
• Training in health and nutrition is provided.”
“Among the options to ensure steadier and more diverse income streams:
• Diversification of production systems. Diversification of the production
system can take the form of new intercropping schemes, introduction of high-
value crops or non-traditional agricultural exports, establishment of or
modifications to pre-existing home gardens, and introduction of micronutrient-
rich varieties and crops…
• Small-scale agro-processing. Agro-processing can improve the storability of a
product by preserving the quality and making it available over a longer portion
of the year, e.g., solar-drying fruits and vegetables, pressing sunflower oil or
processing palm oil. By processing and storing a commodity for later resale, the
producer can sell in smaller quantities over a longer period of time, achieving a
steadier flow of income and capturing a higher price later in the marketing
season.
• Improved storage and inventory credit schemes. Inventory credit programs
(ICP) increase access. Through participation in an ICP, farmers reduce storage
losses, capture higher prices later in the marketing season when supplies are
low, and guard against family members consuming reserved seed and
emergency food stocks.”
FAO “When designing policies, caution should be exercised not to deprive people of

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 income-earning opportunities: while some degree of mechanization will increase
production and free women’s time for family care activities, income earned from
providing farm labour may be more important for vulnerable households.”
(2004)
“While cash cropping has the potential to improve nutritional status through
improved productivity and increased income, it may impact negatively if it
creates an imbalance or shift in the control of income between men and women.
Women are more likely than men to spend their income on food for feeding their
families. Hence, if women have control over some income, nutritional status is
likely to be improved.” (2004)
“Include nutrition issues in poverty reduction programmes. Since poverty
reduction and nutrition are inseparable, programmes and projects for reducing
poverty can be designed to address nutrition problems as well.” (2001)
IFPRI “Learn more about how different patterns of agricultural growth affect
nutrition and health.
What incentives need to be put in place to ensure that increased farmer income
translates into better health and nutrition?”
IYCN “Improvements in women’s income are more likely to translate into improved
food security than are improvements in men’s income—as long as women have
adequate time for child and family care.”
“In Bangladesh, an improved vegetable program increased vitamin A
consumption, decreased chronic malnutrition by 28 and 43 percentage points
among girls and boys, respectively, and improved women’s nutrition—all
despite failing to produce measurable effects on household income.”
“Evidence on tiller introduction for rice production from Bangladesh, the
Philippines, and West Java indicates a general displacement of labor and
benefits favoring larger farmers at the expense of smaller producers…” (fact
sheet)
Save the “Where local markets are functioning well and are accessible, smallholder
Children UK farmers may do better by selling their produce rather than eating it. In these
instances, smallholder farmers should be supported to prioritize their income.
Education about nutrition should be prioritized to encourage farmers to spend
their increased income on more nutritious food.” (2012)
“Agricultural policies must be adopted that are designed specifically to increase
the incomes of the poorest sections of society and take into account the
difficulties they face in accessing land, inputs and labour.” (2009)
UN HLTF [Ending hunger and malnutrition, enabling all people to attain food and nutrition
security and enjoy their right to food] means ensuring that people have better
(and equitable) access to food through decent jobs, increased purchasing power
and well-functioning local and regional markets.” (2012)
“Support development of, and strengthen, producer organizations in which
women participate on an equal footing. Effective farmer organizations are a
means for empowering farmers and can enable them to generate higher incomes
and enhance food security.” (2012)
UN SCN “Increased purchasing power is a direct result of livelihood diversification,
which broadens household income sources thereby strengthening resilience to

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 the sorts of shocks experienced during the global downturn. Examples of
livelihood diversification for both rural and urban populations include
community-based, in-kind revolving funds and cottage industries that add value
to raw agricultural products, e.g. oil seed processing.”
“increases in purchasing power resulting from livelihood diversification do not
guarantee improved intake patterns. This is because direct reductions in income
poverty do not generally result in proportional reductions in malnutrition.”
World Bank “Agricultural-led growth is more pro-poor than non agricultural-led
growth, thereby increasing its potential to improve nutrition.
“Economic growth from agriculture has a modest effect on undernutrition.
A recent longitudinal analysis (Webb and Block 2010) found that agricultural
per capita income was more strongly associated with stunting reductions than
non-agricultural income, presumably because growth from agriculture benefits
the poor more than growth from other sectors. (Note: At the same time, obesity
prevalence increased at a greater rate with agricultural than non-agricultural
growth.) Absolute reductions in stunting were nonetheless modest; a doubling of
per capita agricultural income was associated with approximately a 21% decline
in stunting…Overall the effect of GDP growth on undernutrition appears
stronger from agriculture than non-agriculture, but quite modest regardless.”
“Various agricultural technology interventions, if effectively implemented,
will result in reduced food prices due to increased production, increased
efficiency in marketing channels, or a reduction of distortive policy measures,
including trade policies, etc. Reduced food prices would raise relative household
income for net-consumer households, in theory, resulting in better economic
access to food or health care...”
“On average, poverty and undernutrition are correlated and movement out
of poverty is important for improved nutrition. …The evidence, however,
shows that household income does not necessarily lead to improved
nutritional status of its most vulnerable members. In a particularly striking
country example, 40 percent of children in Ethiopia even in the wealthiest
quintile are stunted. Similarly high rates are seen in India, where despite rapid
economic growth, stunting rates among the highest income quintile have
declined only marginally and remain at about 25 percent.”
When evaluating the impact of income on nutrition, available evidence
shows that it is important to look not just at household level, but at gender-
disaggregated data. Women’s access to income is strongly correlated with
improved nutrition in many settings. It may seem that intra-household resource
allocation is a concern of individual families, beyond the scope of project
planning – but in fact, the design of agricultural projects, including which
commodities are the focus and who is able to sell those, has been observed to
have a strong effect on women’s resource control [examples cited].”
“Empirical evidence also shows limited nutrition impact from increasing
household incomes through commercial agriculture. A World Bank review
(2007) concludes, ‘Overall, cash-cropping schemes (whether staple crops or
other) did not have a significant impact – negative or positive – on child
nutritional status’ although, in alignment with the primary goals of the cash crop

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 projects, household incomes generally improved. Consumption effects were
variable and depended on the amount of income increase, how much was
controlled by women, and changes in relative prices.”
World Vision “…our experience indicates that increased on-farm production of staple crops
and increased incomes are not synonymous with improved nutritional outcomes
at the household level, particularly for women and children.”
“Food security and other welfare gains such as improved nutrition are
strongly linked to the provision of greater economic opportunities and
increased decision-making power for women. Improving poor women’s
access to income-earning opportunities and productive assets is vital, to
strengthen the ability of women to meet their household responsibilities for
children’s health and nutrition.”

Equitable access to productive resources

Organization Indicative quotes from guidance papers
ACF “…the intervention should advocate for women’s access to land, livestock,
education, childcare, financial services, extension services, technology, markets
and employment.”
Bioversity
International
EC “Possible entry points for reducing undernutrition through [food security]
include:
“cash and other social transfers (including food) to increase access to food
including in emergencies”
“equitable access to labour opportunities for poor households (e.g. establishment
and enforcement of legal frameworks that protect the poor in labour markets,
support for alternative forms of employment)…and to productive assets (e.g.
livestock, means of transport)”
“Possible entry points for reducing undernutrition through [agriculture] include:
“securing access to land (e.g. land use rights) and other productive resources
(e.g. water) for poor or marginalized groups (e.g. ethnic minorities, emergency-
affected populations, pastoralists depending on the context)”
“facilitate equitable access to financial services for smallholders, including the
poor”
“Possible entry points for reducing undernutrition through [the environment and
sustainable management of natural resources] include:
securing ownership, access and management rights to land (e.g. forests,
rangelands) and other productive resources for poor or 117arginalized groups
(e.g. ethnic minorities, emergency-affected populations)”
FANTA “Credit and insurance schemes are critical to smallholders’ ability to
purchase improved inputs or diversify income sources. Smallholders
generally have excellent rates of loan repayment; particularly women. For very
poor households, credit is often the only avenue for investment and expansion.
Credit clubs can also be an excellent avenue for offering health and nutrition

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 education.” (1999)
“Land reform remains a pressing issue for women in particular, and the poor in
general.” (1999)
“Those working in the informal sector need business training and a network or
association to give them a voice.” (1999)
FAO “A large number of people who are prone to food insecurity and are nutritionally
vulnerable live in rural areas, where their occupation is mainly subsistence
agriculture. The majority are low-income groups, such as small-scale farmers
and pastoralists. Most of these people are unable to produce enough food to
meet their daily requirements. At the same time, they cannot afford to buy
enough food to supplement their needs. These people often lack required
farming inputs such as extension services, access to technology, land, storage
facilities and credit to increase their agricultural productivity.
In response, policies in agriculture need to encourage access to means of
production such as land, credit, improved seeds, water, extension services,
inputs and appropriate technology. Policies that provide support to food
production by small-scale farmers will enhance household food security and
increase the income of these farmers.” (2004)
“Access to credit by poor households will enable them to increase their income
through agriculture or self-employment. Policies that support financing or
small-scale financing programmes also promote equity and are therefore
encouraged.” (2004)
“Agricultural policies should be designed in such a way that they promote: the
right to access resources that can contribute to improved nutritional status (e.g.
land, credit, implements, skills training);” (2001)
“Include women’s agricultural activities in extension programmes. This is an
important consideration for extension services in particular.” (2001)
“Consider the need for the multiplication, certification and maintenance of seeds
or other planting materials of new or improved varieties in terms of their
sustainability, and their availability for adoption and use by poor farmers…
Promote adoption of improved technologies, first ascertaining that they are
affordable to resource-poor farmers.” (2001)
IFPRI
IYCN
Save the “Agricultural programmes must also be improved to increase access to the vital
Children UK inputs poor people rely on to participate in agriculture – particularly land, tools,
fertilisers and seeds, credit, agricultural services, markets and water. This
chapter will discuss some of the barriers to participation that poor people –
particularly women – face, and will highlight the needs of agricultural labourers
who purchase rather than grow most of their food.” (2012)
“Barriers for women farmers created by any gender inequalities (eg, access to
land, credit, agriculture extension services, inputs, transportation) should be
identified and overcome. For example, women receive only 5% of agriculture
extension services worldwide.” (2012)
“Policy-makers should ensure poor, rural farmers such as smallholders,
sharecroppers and labourers will benefit from investments in agriculture. Any

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 improvements in the productivity of this group will depend on the quality of the
land they own – if they do indeed own any land – and their access to inputs,
such as fertilisers or tools. Poorer farmers, particularly women (see more
below), tend to have small plots of often poor-quality soil with little access to
water.” (2012)
“A wide range of strategies will be needed to deal with the securing of land
rights, crop diversification, effective regulation of informal labour markets,
improved access to markets and, where necessary, economic support for
agricultural inputs.” (2009)
UN HLTF “…policies and investments for food and nutrition security should have the
following characteristics: …d. Ensuring that households — and all individuals
within them — are able to purchase, access and use the food they need through
benefiting from: Adequate productive resources; Decent work; Well-designed
social protection and food assistance programmes, with safety nets that protect
the food security and productive potential of the most vulnerable; Knowledge
and understanding on nutrition and care, especially needs in pregnancy and
childhood.” (2012)
“[Strategies to increase food production and security] should contribute to the
realization of the right to food. Success also depends on all stakeholders –
especially the least resilient – being able to influence the policy choices that
affect their livelihoods. To this end, it is important to strengthen the capacities
of producer organizations (including cooperatives) and increase their access to
markets and services.” (2012)
“Sustainability in agriculture and food systems means improving the ways
resources are used and distributed. That involves continuous striving to
increase efficiency and reduce waste through all stages of food production,
processing and consumption while also seeking to ensure equitable access to
nutrition.” (2012)
“Smallholders – especially women – need to have secure, affordable and
sustainable access to well-managed natural resources (land, water and
biodiversity), energy, agricultural credit and loans, market facilities, market
information, infrastructure, appropriate technology, training, education,
extension and advisory services. This means ensuring a “smallholder bias” when
such amenities are being managed on behalf of rural populations.” (UCFA)
“The capacity of smallholder farmers (including those who raise livestock and
who fish) to produce more food is often constrained because they cannot access
key inputs and because their production systems are likely to be affected by
climate change.” (UCFA)
“Provide productivity-enhancing safety nets to poor smallholder farmers
through targeted programmes that supply critical inputs such as tools and
implements, locally adapted quality seeds, fertilizer, animal feed, small
irrigation pumps, and veterinary drugs and services. Special care needs to be
given to ensuring women’s access to productive resources. Technical advice on
good management practices for cultivation, livestock and aquaculture, market
and price information, and local seed multiplication should be expanded to
include soil health, water and integrated pest management, animal health

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services, climate-smart technology choices and risk management practices.
Technical advice should be adapted to reach women farmers, ethnic minorities
and other vulnerable groups. Restrictions and other taxes on imports should be
applied sparingly. Landless poor people, including those in urban areas, should
benefit from access to small cultivation plots for market or kitchen gardens and
similar input packages.” (UCFA)
“Address basic energy needs of smallholders and rural households through
low-carbon energy options, and develop the measures to make these options
accessible, addressing women’s specific fuel and energy needs.” (UCFA)
“Stimulate investment by farmers – especially smallholders – through
enabling them to access finance so that their agriculture serves as a sustainable,
environmentally sound and competitive source of growth and employment for
the national economy, and as a prime driver of economic development in rural
areas.” (UCFA)
“Strengthen access of smallholders and other food value-chain actors to
financial and risk management instruments in ways that encourage farm-
level investments, boost productivity, enhance assets and enable smallholder
farmers to derive more value throughout the food chain (for example, by
meeting the quality, volume and time-frame requirements of commercial
markets). These risk management instruments include leasing, insurance
schemes for risk mitigation, matching grants, credit guarantee schemes,
warehouse receipt systems, commodity-based financial products, and overdraft
facilities for input dealers. They should be accompanied with good-practice
principles by professional financial institutions with no interference by
governments in the provision of credit at retail level.” (UCFA)
“Enhance secure and equitable access to natural resources, including land,
water and biodiversity, by developing policies that reflect the needs of
smallholders and landless labourers; and promoting gender equity in access to
land and water, flexible and plural legal systems and dissemination of
transparent land information. Land redistribution can be envisaged for the
landless and the land-poor.” (UCFA)
“Invest in agricultural research on food crops, animal production, aquaculture
and inland fisheries in ways that reflect the interests of women and are sensitive
to the challenge of improving nutrition. Take account of the reality that many
farmers are unable to afford the inputs and technologies they need to increase
productivity, or the finance to purchase those goods and services.” (UCFA)
“Support development of, and strengthen, producer organizations in which
women participate on an equal footing. Effective farmer organizations are a
means for empowering farmers and can enable them to generate higher incomes
and enhance food security. Strong producer organizations enable smallholders
and other actors in the food chain to reduce costs and risks, manage common
resources and learn together. They need support at local, national and regional
levels to improve their bargaining power in policy processes and within food
value chains. Improvement in the capacity of value-chain organizations,
equipping them with technical capacity, will increase the efficiency of food
chains, better enable smallholder participation and contribute to constructive

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 dialogue among stakeholders.” (UCFA)
“Improve rights to water use and water management in rainfed and irrigated
systems, including at river-basin level, to improve productivity and water use
efficiency, promote ecosystem services, and account for competing uses.”
(UCFA)
UN SCN “Increasing smallholder production to improve food and nutrition security
requires investment in the following:
• improving availability of seeds and other inputs;
• developing water resources;
• strengthening and expanding agricultural cooperatives and farmers’
organizations;
“Strengthening and expanding agricultural cooperatives and farmers’
organizations is key to improving productivity as well as enhancing
smallholders’ livelihoods more generally. The former is achieved when
cooperatives and farmers’ groups are able to access credit, information and other
important goods and services better than individuals. The latter can occur in a
number of ways, including granting small farmers sufficient political power to
protect themselves and benefit from the long-term leasing of their agricultural
land by foreign investors, as well as increased opportunities for post-harvest
value addition, e.g. food processing. Both of these capacities are important in
developing countries where foreign direct investment poses a threat to
smallholders who may not have well-defined property rights, and who cannot on
their own afford the equipment and training required for food processing and
other activities that add value to their crops. Cooperatives and farmers’ groups
empower smallholders by creating informal “unions” which increase their
bargaining power as well as granting farmers a louder political voice. For
example, in Indonesia and Mexico the national plans for food security include
forming farmers’ groups that develop their own farmer group development
plans. Farmers learn how to prioritize, cost and manage their own activities. The
groups are financed via a revolving fund system, and although they are provided
with start-up capital, they become responsible for their own funding once the
initial financing is spent.”
“To lift themselves out of hunger, the food-insecure need control over resources,
access to opportunities and improved governance at the international, national
and local levels.”
“Land tenure is an issue throughout the developing world, and female
smallholders and urban farmers are two groups whose access to land is often
threatened, especially in situations where documentation of holdings is
insufficient or informal. Foreign direct assistance, for example, can threaten
local production systems in terms of ownership rights. Whenever possible,
improving vulnerable communities’ land tenure rights through statutory
recognition and recording of informal and tenure systems should be encouraged.
However, in situations where rules, procedures and registration fees may prove
prohibitive, recognizing temporary rights per cultivation season and/or
recognizing and administering – in an equitable way – rights of access to idle
cultivable land are alternatives.”

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World Bank Investments to improve opportunities for off-farm laborers (especially
women): Given the wide range of women’s and men’s needs for rural non-farm
services, it is critical to ensure gender equity in the planning, decision making,
and management process or service provision.
World Vision “Strengthening women’s access to productive resources such as land, credit,
seed, fertilizer, and information, as well as improving market access should be
part of support to agricultural development.”

Targeting
Organization Indicative quotes from guidance papers
ACF GUIDANCE 3 – IDENTIFY THE MOST NUTRITIONALLY VULNERABLE
“Interventions which aim to prevent undernutrition can be much more
effective than those that target children who are already undernourished.”
3.1 Collect data related to the nutritional status and needs of women of child
bearing age, pregnant and lactating women, and children under two
3.2 Identify food insecure households using various indicators
3.3 Prioritise children under two, pregnant and lactating women from food
insecure groups as direct or indirect beneficiaries of FSL interventions.”
“Restricted targeting may not always be feasible as this could be divisive
and create tensions between families. Ultimately, the target groups depend on
the context, outcomes of needs assessment and programme’s objectives and are
done on a case-by-case basis.”
Bioversity Geographic target area:
International “The target area is normally decided through rapid assessment, key informant
interviews, and visiting clinics and hospitals to determine areas of need…
Ideally, the area chosen should consist of a population with a similar nutritional
situation in order to obtain a reliable perspective.”
Target population:
“Different population groups could be used as targets for the study of nutrition
status within a wider population. The selection of appropriate target groups
depends on such factors as the purpose of the study, nutritional indicators of
interest, vulnerability of the target groups to nutritional deficiencies of interest,
how representative such groups are of the larger population, and accessibility of
such groups for assessment during the study period.”
“The following population groups have been selected as the targeted
communities in Bioversity’s nutrition strategy” women; rural smallholder
farmers; Populations living in urban and peri-urban settings without access to
diversity; Communities at risk of traditional food system loss.”
“Basic principles in designing a successful intervention: Be inclusive. Even
when targeting the intervention at a specific group within a community, care
should be taken to not alienate the non-target groups, potentially causing
complications for either the researchers or the recipients of intervention
attention. Think of creative ways to involve non-target groups in the roll-out of
the intervention.”

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 “Target early-adopters within the targeted community. Because of the risk
involved in adopting some intervention recommendations, the average
household will not be willing to buy in until they see successes in the
community.”
EC “Possible entry points for improving nutrition through agriculture include:
prioritizing areas or groups (e.g. smallholders or agricultural labourers) worst
affected by undernutrition.”
FANTA “Projects…should develop special mechanisms for drawing women,
marginal farmers, and poorer households into the groups.” (1999)
FAO “Address the needs of small and poor farmers, including those dependent on
poor-quality or fragile land; develop technology and systems applicable to
small-scale agriculture.” (2004)
“Appropriate intervention strategies that are targeted at the vulnerable need to be
designed and put in place.” (2004)
“Available national data on poverty, food security and nutritional status should
be considered when prioritizing development programmes. In particular,
agricultural research and extension services should give special emphasis to the
needs of resource-poor farming communities.” (2001)
“Prioritize [extension] actions in various areas and focus initially on those high
priority areas that need urgent attention.” (2001)
“Expand the extension coverage of women farmers by developing a deliberate
policy to target women farmers…Be aware of household/family dynamics in
order to ensure relevant targeting of technologies.” (2001)
Target youths in all gender-related training to help change cultural stereotypes of
gender roles. Young people also can help improve the adoption rates of
technologies by influencing their parents.” (2001)
IFPRI
IYCN “Encourage small-scale agricultural processes and beware of projects that
involve labor-displacing mechanization.”
“Give priority to agricultural activities that generate employment.”
“Assessing food security and nutritional status prior to an intervention permits
targeting of the most vulnerable.” (fact sheet)
Save the “INVESTING IN SMALL FARMERS:
Children UK Half the world’s undernourished people – and three-quarters of Africa’s
malnourished children – can be found on small farms. Policy-makers should
ensure poor, rural farmers such as smallholders, sharecroppers and labourers
will benefit from investments in agriculture.” (2012)
“Targeting women through a combination of nutrition education and agricultural
support is an effective strategy for reducing malnutrition in the most vulnerable
communities, with the impact most pronounced among the lowest income
groups. These programmes should also target men, so both men and women
know the importance of nutrition, especially for pregnant women and young
children.” (2012)
“[agricultural] programmes must support small-scale farmers, who provide for
families most vulnerable to malnutrition, by helping them with the vital
resources and knowledge they require and ensuring agriculture nutrition

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 interventions are suited to the land they own.” (2012)
“ensure that making a positive impact on nutrition is an explicit objective of
agriculture policies, by focusing on projects that are designed to improve
children’s diet – for example, home gardening or education projects that focus
on nutrition.” (2012)
UN HLTF “Smallholder agriculture has a central role to play in increasing agricultural
production sustainably and in reducing poverty. Small-scale farmers and
enterprises, many of them led by women, produce most of the world’s food and
should therefore be at the center of policies on food and nutrition security.”
(2012)
“[Put] smallholders, particularly women, at the centre of actions.” (UCFA)
“Any intervention aiming to promote food and nutrition security should seek to
ensure that smallholders – farmers, pastoralists, fishers – and other marginalized
groups (indigenous peoples, waged agricultural workers, micro entrepreneurs,
nomadic people and the urban poor) – are centrally engaged in policy formation
and implementation. The intervention should encourage their full, free, active
and meaningful participation, empower them to have greater influence over how
they live, enhance their income-generating potential and help revitalize small-
scale agriculture as a force to achieve food and nutrition security and healthy
ecosystems.” (UCFA)
“Scaled-up investments should target the elements of the agricultural sector that
smallholders use, sustain agricultural research and strengthen safety nets for
poor people.” (UCFA)
“Ensure that special care is taken in identifying and addressing the needs of
the most vulnerable. Food and nutrition insecurity may be pervasive in certain
population groups defined by geography, gender, nature of livelihood, age,
disease, disability, ethnicity or other characteristics. Care must be taken in
matching the nutrition needs of these groups with the kind of support provided.
It is also important to address any implicit or overt forms of discrimination that
may exist in social or institutional settings, and that may be exacerbating the
problem. For example, migrant workers might turn out to be among the hardest
to reach and therefore in need of special targeting measures. Defining the
benefits allocated through the programme and policies as a right can reduce the
element of stigma attached to participation.” (UCFA)
“Smallholder farmers should be the primary clients for information (including
data on weather and climate change), knowledge sharing (for example, through
farmer-to-farmer exchanges and farmer field schools), and knowledge and
training opportunities (especially women and young people entering rural labour
markets).” (UCFA)
“Scaled-up investments should target the elements of the agricultural sector that
smallholders use...” (UCFA)
UN SCN “Improving the capacity of smallholder production systems should be a primary
goal in efforts to overcome these challenges. However, while many of the
world’s poorest people are smallholders, and while in a number of developing
countries domestic food production occurs predominately through small-scale
farming, promoting food and nutrition security requires looking beyond

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 smallholders to other vulnerable demographics such as landless labourers and
the urban poor.”
“Some of the most important emerging themes for nutrition-friendly agriculture,
essential as part of a broader nutrition-sensitive development framework,
include:
Pro-poor food production systems: Providing direct support to rural smallholder
production and urban and periurban food systems to expand, enhance and
sustain people’s ability to procure and use the amount and variety of food
required to be active and healthy.”
“[Micro-irrigation] systems [such as low-cost drip systems, rainwater harvesting
tanks, treadle pumps, rower pumps and dug wells, which irrigate up to 0.5
hectares of land] suit smallholders, whose productivity and cropping intensity
can be doubled if access to irrigation is assured.”
World Bank “Undernutrition is intimately linked with both poverty and smallholder farmer
well-being and is a major constraint to rural development among farmers who
are the primary target population of ARD projects.”
“Empowering women through targeted agricultural interventions: strong
evidence”
“Studies have found that complementary investments such as nutrition education
and targeting women increase the likelihood of household gardens to show
positive nutritional outcomes.”
“The World Bank has a role in engaging in food security dialogues so that
[country-level food security] plans would better target food insecure households,
and would ensure that nutritional quality of food is regarded as part of food
security policies.”
World Vision “World Vision programs that have resulted in significant decreases in
stunting…target interventions to mothers and children under five.”

Diversify production and livelihoods

Multiple purposes overlapping with other themes: income streams, food production and dietary
diversification, risk reduction, natural resource management, reducing seasonality
Organization Indicative quotes from guidance papers
ACF “Promoting diversity will help maintain and rehabilitate productive ecosystems
to supply future generations with abundant food and agriculture.”
“Reliance on cash crops also increases dependence on external factors such as
market variability. Encourage crop diversification to reduce this risk.”
Bioversity One main type of intervention: “Agroecological Interventions: These
International interventions address issues of resource accessibility, market flows, agronomic
practice, and production decision making on both the household and local level.
Quality and quantity of products, as well as the capacity of the local
agroecosystem to meet nutritional needs can be improved through adjustments
in soil fertility, increased sharing of resources, creating new market
opportunities, promoting intensification and diversification in cropping, and
many other aspects of agroecological systems.”

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EC “Agriculture can improve nutrition in several ways:
• improved diet (quantity and quality) — by increasing household consumption
of own food produced and diversifying production…”
FANTA “RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPROVING ACCESS AND
CONSUMPTION IMPACTS: Encourage diversification of production systems
through intercropping, home gardens, and introduction of high-value crops in a
manner that supplements, not substitutes, food crop production.” (2001)
“Introduction of new crops and post-harvest technologies extends production,
income-generating options, and food access over a greater portion of the year.
Not only does this promote a steadier stream of income, it reduces risk through
diversification. Cultivation of new micronutrient-rich foods adds diversity to the
diet, and labor saving post-harvest technologies grant women more time to
fulfill production and care-giving responsibilities.” (2001)
“Among the options to ensure steadier and more diverse income streams:
• Diversification of production systems. Diversification of the production
system can take the form of new intercropping schemes, introduction of high-
value crops or non-traditional agricultural exports, establishment of or
modifications to pre-existing home gardens, and introduction of micronutrient-
rich varieties and crops. One option is to build upon and improve traditional
intercropping systems. African farmers intercrop coarse grains in order to reduce
income risk and total crop failure. Another alternative is home gardens. There is
substantial evidence indicating that home gardens serve as an important source
of micronutrients. In some cases, particularly in urban areas, they make a
significant contribution to a household’s food supply and income.” (2001)
“Intensive gardening should be promoted with the aim of diversifying food
production and consumption as well as expanding the seasonal availability
of food.” (1999)
FAO “..Food-based interventions include diversification of homestead food
production…” (2010)
“What is needed: focus on nutritional quality of food in addition to energy
adequacy. How to get there: invest in crop and dietary diversity to narrow
the ‘nutrition gap.’” (2009)
“Agricultural extension services [should] offer communities information and
improved inputs, including seed and cultivars for better crop diversity, small
livestock and poultry ventures, marine fisheries and aquaculture for improved
dietary diversity.” (2009)
“address the problem of seasonality through diversification in food production,
including fruits and vegetables, livestock, fishery and aquaculture…” (2004)
“Strategies such as food crop diversification, cultivation of indigenous plants,
development of vegetable gardens and fruit crops, rearing of small livestock,
development of backyard fish ponds, and agroforestry can be employed to
increase the food base and supplement staple foods.” (2001)
“Agricultural policies should be designed in such a way that they promote:
gender considerations and food-crop diversification that promote equitable intra-
household food distribution;” (2001)
“Assist farmers and growers in planning and producing crops that offer

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 continuity of supply, with emphasis on a wider range of crops species and
varieties that can provide improved and balanced diets.” (2001)
“Develop and maintain demonstration gardens at village level that demonstrate
the concepts of continuity of supply and improved household food security by
producing a range of crop species that can enhance the nutritional status of
individuals in the community.” (2001)
IFPRI
IYCN
Save the “Benefits to children’s nutrition can be achieved by encouraging households to
Children UK grow more nutritious crops, including fruits and vegetables, or to rear animals
for meat, eggs or milk, in addition to the staple crops they tend to rely on.
Increased production also means they can sell more, generate more income and
afford to pay for foods that will make up a more nutritious and diverse diet.
…all too often the objective of agricultural improvement schemes has been to
increase the yield of a staple crop (quantity) or high-priced horticultural product
rather than to produce more diverse nutritious foods (quality); and the cost of a
nutritious diet (affordability) is overlooked.” (2012)
“A wide range of strategies will be needed to deal with the securing of land
rights, crop diversification, effective regulation of informal labour markets,
improved access to markets and, where necessary, economic support for
agricultural inputs.” (2009)
UN HLTF
UN SCN “Ways in which agriculture can sustainably contribute to improving dietary
diversity and nutrition outcomes include support for agricultural extension
services that offer communities information and improved inputs such as seed
and cultivars for better crop diversity and biodiversity.”
“promotion of traditional cropping systems and crop diversification can protect
the natural resource base via decreased use of chemical fertilizers and improved
soil fertility. For example, reintroduction of the traditional milpa system –
intercropping of maize, beans and vegetables – in central America is gaining
increased attention as a sustainable alternative to maize monocropping …
Diversity in food production is also important for adapting to climate change.
For example, many traditional but neglected “orphan” crops, e.g. sorghum and
millet, are resistant to drought and other stresses related to climate change.”
“Increased purchasing power is a direct result of livelihood diversification,
which broadens household income sources thereby strengthening resilience to
the sorts of shocks experienced during the global downturn. Examples of
livelihood diversification for both rural and urban populations include
community-based, in-kind revolving funds and cottage industries that add value
to raw agricultural products, e.g. oil seed processing. In addition to generating
income, food processing initiatives can help to meet urban food needs,
especially in areas where storage facilities are inadequate and where food safety
is an issue.”
World Bank “Nutrition knowledge may be an added incentive to transition to a diversified
production model. Transition of households to diversified production is an oft
cited goal for the agricultural sector to raise household income, to minimize risk

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 exposure, and to promote ecosystem resilience. Demand for fruits & vegetables,
fish and livestock products is rising in many low- and middle-income countries,
and increasing smallholder farmers’ ability and willingness to make the
transition likely to have positive effects on incomes. Nutrition education can be
leveraged for diversification and increased income in two ways: through
producers, and through consumers, thereby acting on both the supply and
demand sides. Nutrition knowledge among farmers could be an additional
incentive for farmers to diversify their production model to include nutritious,
high-value crops, beyond the widely recognized incentives to reduce risk
exposure to weather, biotic stress, or price shocks. Additionally, nutrition
knowledge among consumers can increase demand for high-value nutritious
products substantially, and increase income for farmers who grow them.”
“Evidence supports the connection between crop diversification, dietary quality,
and micronutrient status. A recent DFID-funded review of agricultural
interventions to improve nutrition found that with very few exceptions, home
garden programs increased the consumption of fruit and vegetables, aquaculture
and small fisheries interventions increased the consumption of fish, and dairy
development projects increased the consumption of milk. In contexts where diets
are heavily starch-based, consumption of these nutritious foods is very likely to
move dietary patterns closer to those that are recommended globally and by
many countries…The few studies that have examined the connection between
crop diversity and dietary diversity have found positive correlations.”
World Vision “Support to agricultural and livelihoods diversification and local/community-
based food fortification (particularly with iron and zinc) are both important
strategies to increase the amount of nutrient-dense foods for household
consumption, particularly when those strategies seek a high degree of
involvement from women.”
“on and off-farm livelihoods diversification are all key to building resilience in
smallholder systems…”

What to produce (general)

Organization Indicative quotes from guidance papers
ACF “Promote micronutrient-rich crop varieties.
Instead of basing your crop selection only on local climate (e.g. drought
tolerance, disease resistance), taste preference and cost, take into account the
nutritional content of the crop and the prevalence of micronutrient
deficiencies in the area. For instance, maize is a good source of energy but it
contains less protein, vitamins and minerals than e.g. millet or sorghum….
Pay attention to the following:
-Vegetables and fruits are the biggest sources of micronutrients, although their
energy content is often lower than that of staple foods.
· Promote legumes, such as beans and lentils, as they are rich in energy and a
good source of both macro and micronutrients (especially protein and iron).
Legumes also improve soil fertility.

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 · Prioritise local varieties and wild fruits and vegetables as much as possible, to
promote biodiversity. Revive nutrient-rich traditional crops that are currently
underused or neglected.
· Increase the production and consumption of foods high in vitamin A or vitamin
C (e.g. guava, wild fruit and berries).
· Don’t forget herbs.
· Promote foods that are favoured by children (e.g. yellow varieties of sweet
potato and pumpkin and green leafy vegetables).
· Avoid vegetables with high levels of tannins (e.g. many dark green leafy
vegetables and oregano) because tannin inhibits iron absorption.
· Acquire nutrient data on genetic diversity of plant species as different varieties
of the same crop can have very different nutritional properties (e.g. bananas and
plantains have differing levels of vitamin A).
· Look at additional substances such as antioxidant or soluble fibres. They play a
substantial role in body functioning. For instance, fibre (mainly in fresh fruit and
vegetable and whole grain) is important to digest food and remove waste.
· Investigate bio-fortified crops (e.g. at HarvestPlus). Note that ACF does not
promote genetically modified bio fortification. Refer to ACF position papers on
GMO, biotechnology and biofortification available soon.
· Include other factors such as cost of grinding and milling, cooking time, fuel
consumption, crop residues and farmer/consumer acceptance in the decision-
making process of crop selection.”
Bioversity “The key to understanding potential for improving agrobiodiversity for health is
International developing a complete picture of the nutritional value of available consumables
in the given community. This includes sets of questions related to cultural food
decision making and eating behavior in homes, as well as folk taxonomy and
growing season cataloguing of locally available traditional foods.”
EC
FANTA “RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPROVING ACCESS AND
CONSUMPTION IMPACTS: …Introduce micronutrient-rich varieties or crops
that address local nutrition issues.”
“Develop program-specific guidelines. A useful follow-on activity would be to
develop separate, program-specific (non-traditional agricultural export, oil
processing, marketing associations, etc) guidelines for project managers. The
review would combine these findings with insights derived from additional,
program-specific literature reviews and interviews with relevant program staff.
Additional briefs on program-specific literature for PVOs and other cooperating
sponsors would summarize how to incorporate the ideas into project designs.
These publications would be short with clear action points. In some cases, a
decision-tree model could be adopted.” (1999)
“More attention should be given to crops that can be vegetatively
propagated. (e.g., cassava, potatoes, sweet potatoes, cashew) because they are
easier and cheaper to multiply and distribute. Local seed multiplication brings
seed closer to farmers and creates employment, but managerial and quality
control can be problematic.” (1999)
FAO “Surplus homestead production can also be commercialised locally or bartered,

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 thus generating household income for additional food purchase on the one hand
and facilitating access of local consumers to nutritious foods on the other.
Micronutrient-rich foods, such as animal source foods, fruits and vegetables, and
also oils and fats in areas where the energy density of the food is insufficient, are
particularly important.” (2010)
“What is needed: focus on nutritional quality of food in addition to energy
adequacy. How to get there: invest in crop and dietary diversity to narrow
the “nutrition gap.”
“…the agricultural sector can contribute to nutrition security through small
livestock and poultry ventures, aquaculture and horticulture.”
“Narrowing this [nutrition] gap first requires increasing availability and access
to the foods necessary for a healthy diet and, second, ensuring that intake of
those foods actually increases. The following proposed investment options have
been developed with both yield and nutrition goals in mind. Each aims to boost
production or consumption of a diversity of high quality foods.”
“[In the warm humid tropics,] production may be sufficient in terms of calories
but diets often remain nutritionally deficient. In Ghana, for example, dietary
energy supply meets population energy requirements but shares of protein and
lipids are lower than recommended. This is the case for a number of reasons,
including challenges beyond the reach of direct agricultural interventions such as
constrained access to markets due to poor infrastructure. Yet there are many
agriculture-based interventions that could improve nutrition outcomes in this
zone, such as: small livestock production projects to provide an accessible
source of fat, protein and essential micronutrients, provision of dietary
diversification advice such as cereal-legume mixing to maximize protein
availability, and horticultural training to improve availability of micronutrient-
rich vegetables and fruit. Horticulture also has the potential to increase incomes
via produce sales if there is market access.” (2009)
“Governments are encouraged to adopt policies that promote the production and
availability of nutritionally adequate foods to all population groups.” (2004)
Design farming systems with sufficient variety in the crop mix to provide a
balanced diet and meet the nutrient requirements (energy, protein, vitamins and
mineral salts) of the target group, which includes resource-poor, small farmers
and their communities…Access by farmers to coordinated advice on nutrition
and production-related issues is essential at this point.” (2001)
“Agricultural research projects aimed at assisting resource-poor farmers in
increasing their crop yields also should consider whether these crops will offer
more nutritious foods for the family members’ diets.” (2001)
IFPRI “Learn more about how different patterns of agricultural growth affect
nutrition and health. Should investments focus on staple crops, high-value
crops, or livestock?”
IYCN “[To achieve food security and maximize nutrition impact:]
 Increase production of foods that are eaten by at-risk population groups.
The poor tend to disproportionately consume specific foods—often less-
desirable crops. When the production of these crops decreases, poor
households must pay more for the foods, or may be forced to consume more

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 expensive crops.
 Introduce micronutrient-rich crop varieties. Agricultural projects that
utilize micronutrient-rich plant varieties have major potential for ensuring
needed nutrients and improving nutritional wellbeing.” (fact sheet)
Save the “Agricultural policies must be designed to increase the availability, and reduce
Children UK the cost of nutritious food – not simply staple foods or cereals. In Mali, for
example, children in villages that practice market gardening or irrigation are less
likely to be stunted than those in villages producing only the staple crop
(millet)… Likewise, in pastoral areas, increasing the availability and quality of
more nutritious foods, including meat and milk, is known to be closely linked to
children’s improved nutrition.” (2009)
UN HLTF “The world’s governments can end hunger and malnutrition, enabling all people
to attain food and nutrition security and enjoy their right to food. Achieving this
goal involves an increase in the availability of nutritious food, through
intensified production of food for human use, and reducing waste.” (2012)
“Types of food consumed change as people’s incomes increase. To meet these
demands, farmers seek to produce more crops, livestock and fish. The productivity
of smallholders in poor countries is typically much less than it could be.” (2012)
“Promote closer involvement of local producers and small- and medium-scale
businesses in producing nutrient-rich foods. Support the production, access to
and consumption of locally produced, highly nutritional, quality products
through training of agricultural extension agents and other service providers.”
(UCFA)
UN SCN
World Bank “Increase access to and year round availability of high nutrient content
food.”
“National calorie supply is correlated with reduced undernutrition but is
not deterministic. …of the countries meeting the MDG1 target to halve hunger,
fewer than 1/3 are on track to meet the MDG1 target to halve undernutrition,
showing the limited translation of national-level grain availability to nutritional
improvements…One factor in the disconnect between food production and
nutritional outcomes may be the persistent practice of measuring food as
calories (quantity), instead of focusing on the diversity (quality) for a
healthy and active life…One recent paper shows that prices of non-staples
increased substantially more than starchy staples in Central Java during the food
price crisis in 1999, and were accompanied by strong consumption reductions in
meat, fish, vegetables, fruit, eggs, and milk.”
“In households that consume at least some of what they produce, an
increase in production can directly affect the diet and nutritional status of
household members. Evidence indicates that dietary impacts differ based on the
type of food the household produces. That is, the effect of production on diet
cannot be explained by its monetary value alone. This pathway is particularly
important in contexts where markets access is limited and households routinely
depend on self-production for some components of their diets. The best evidence
for nutritional effects of increased production for home consumption is found

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 from increasing small scale production oriented towards nutrient dense foods.
Increasing nutritious food production can come about in three distinct ways:
Adding production of specific nutrient-dense foods such as fruits & vegetables,
fish, and livestock; Increasing nutritional content of the food produced (e.g.
through crop biofortification, mineral fertilization, and industrial food
fortification); Improving preservation of nutritious food for year-round access to
eliminate seasonal food shortages.”
“A recent DFID-funded review of agricultural interventions to improve nutrition
found that with very few exceptions, home garden programs increased the
consumption of fruit and vegetables, aquaculture and small fisheries
interventions increased the consumption of fish, and dairy development projects
increased the consumption of milk. In contexts where diets are heavily starch-
based, consumption of these nutritious foods is very likely to move dietary
patterns closer to those that are recommended globally and by many countries.i
There is some evidence that consumption of these foods increased micronutrient
intakes and status, especially vitamin A.”
“Support to increase productivity of small scale nutritious food production
(e.g. livestock, dairy, fish, legumes, fruits and vegetables): Most small scale
farmers with market access still consume a portion of the food items that they
grow. Therefore, by encouraging farmers to grow nutritious foods such as fruits
and vegetables, legumes, milk, eggs, fish and meat, the consumption pattern of
farmers can be affected positively.”
World Vision “Increase household production and use of nutrient dense foods. In addition
to supporting increased production of staple crops, attention should be paid to
increasing production and consumption of nutrient-dense foods. …Examples of
nutrient-dense foods include animal-based foods (livestock, fish), protein-rich
plant foods (legumes), and vitamin and mineral-rich foods (e.g. leafy green
vegetables and fruits as well as new biofortified varieties of staple foods)…
“the…use of locally-adapted seed and livestock varieties…is key to building
resilience in smallholder systems…”
“Address child stunting through building better linkages between
complementary feeding requirements and agricultural production … The
most sustainable, cost-effective way to improve the complementary feeding of
children in poor, rural households is by ensuring that nutritionally-appropriate
foods are available and utilized at the household/community level… agriculture
remains an optimal sector of focus for ensuring that nutritionally-appropriate
complementary foods are available and contextually/culturally-appropriate.”
“Selecting nutrient-rich foods for promotion, such as the orange-fleshed sweet
potato…or animal-source foods, is an essential first step in achieving the goal of
improved child nutrition.” (“Key lessons”)

What to produce: Horticultural crops

Organization Indicative quotes from guidance papers

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ACF
 “Vegetables and fruits are the biggest sources of micronutrients, although
their energy content is often lower than that of staple foods.
 Promote foods that are favoured by children (e.g. yellow varieties of sweet
potato and pumpkin and green leafy vegetables).
 Avoid vegetables with high levels of tannins (e.g. many dark green leafy
vegetables and oregano) because tannin inhibits iron absorption.”
“Interventions promoting increased production of fruit and vegetables
(homestead gardens in particular) and animal food products have considerable
potential to address micronutrient deficiencies…evidence shows gains in
production, income, household food security, dietary intake and fewer
micronutrient deficiencies as a result of the interventions, especially when
combined with other components — education, 133ractice change and women’s
empowerment. (see the Asia case study online — Diversifying diets through
homestead production)”
6.2.1 Promote homestead food production
“Increasing homestead food production (“kitchen gardening”) through vegetable
gardens, horticulture and/or animal husbandry carries great potential for
improving food intake while using household labour intensively on small
land surfaces within the homestead. It allows women to grow fruits and
vegetable and rear small animals while fulfilling their domestic and child care
responsibilities. It can be promoted both as a primary occupation and a means to
access diversified foods all year round, including during the counter
season… Homestead food production is a great way increase the
micronutrient contents of the diet.”
Bioversity “Non-staple minor crops as well as animal husbandry offer opportunities for
International value addition and can increase income security for women.”
EC “Possible entry points for improving nutrition through agriculture include:
increasing investment for the production and consumption of fruit and
vegetables (micronutrient-rich plants) alongside staple crops.”
FANTA “Intensive gardening should be promoted with the aim of diversifying food
production and consumption as well as expanding the seasonal availability
of food. Depending on the location, gardening can yield produce year round.
Horticultural crops are good sources of micronutrients and surplus production
can be sold. Since gardening is predominantly a woman’s activity in Africa, a
portion of the incremental income tends to go toward household food
consumption.” (1999)
FAO “…the agricultural sector can contribute to nutrition security through small
livestock and poultry ventures, aquaculture and horticulture.” (2009)
“…there are many agriculture-based interventions that could improve nutrition
outcomes in [the warm humid tropics], such as: …horticultural training to
improve availability of micronutrient-rich vegetables and fruit. Horticulture also
has the potential to increase incomes via produce sales if there is market access.”
(2009)
[To combat micronutrient deficiencies, one main strategy is:]
“Dietary diversification (availability and consumption of micronutrient-rich

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 foods) through: social marketing of micronutrient-rich foods; increasing
consumption of dark green leafy vegetables; small-scale and community
gardening; and solar drying technology for preserving micronutrient-rich foods.”
(2004)
“address the problem of seasonality through diversification in food production,
including fruits and vegetables, livestock, fishery and aquaculture…” (2004)
“Strategies such as food crop diversification, cultivation of indigenous plants,
development of vegetable gardens and fruit crops, rearing of small livestock,
development of backyard fish ponds, and agroforestry can be employed to
increase the food base and supplement staple foods.” (2001)
“Vegetable gardens should be designed such that they provide the necessary
micronutrients and there is continuity of supply throughout all seasons.” (2001)
“Crops such as groundnuts, cowpeas and other vegetables and fruit that are
commonly grown by women need to be promoted. Such crops, especially
vegetables, are normally consumed by household members and therefore, should
be considered, first, as important sources of food and valuable nutrients and only
second as sources of income.” (2001)
IFPRI “Food-based approaches and horticultural remedies used to treat poor
nutrition can also do a great deal to improve health.”
“Nutrition interventions such as home-based gardens can both improve nutrition
and raise agricultural production.”
IYCN “Incorporate home gardens. Women are usually responsible for home gardens,
and therefore, have greater control over household food consumption decisions
than their husbands.” (fact sheet)
Save the “Benefits to children’s nutrition can be achieved by encouraging households to
Children UK grow more nutritious crops, including fruits and vegetables, or to rear animals
for meat, eggs or milk, in addition to the staple crops they tend to rely on.”
(2012)
“home gardening projects have increased the amount of fruits and vegetables
eaten as well as the amount of income generated…all too often the objective of
agricultural improvement schemes has been to increase the yield of a staple crop
(quantity) or high-priced horticultural product rather than to produce more
diverse nutritious foods (quality); and the cost of a nutritious diet (affordability)
is overlooked.” (2012)
“Agricultural policies must be designed to increase the availability, and reduce
the cost of nutritious food – not simply staple foods or cereals. In Mali, for
example, children in villages that practice market gardening or irrigation are
less likely to be stunted than those in villages producing only the staple crop
(millet)…” (2009)
UN HLTF
UN SCN “Promotion of gardens in schools, communities or individual households
increases awareness regarding the importance of good nutrition, building local
capacity, and increasing the physical availability of fruits and vegetables (see
Box: Keyhole gardens for improved food and nutrition security: an example of
extension-based nutrition education).”
“Collective action by small food producers can also help to orient and shape

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 markets to better capture and increase the availability of nutritious local foods,
and can increase the availability of affordable fruits and vegetables for urban
consumers.”
World Bank “Increasing vegetable and fruit consumption is important for providing
micronutrients, and also for maintaining or increasing healthful dietary patterns
as obesity and chronic disease rates are rising in most developing countries.”
“Promotion of nutritional homestead garden plots with appropriate
nutrition education: Homestead gardens can be in backyards, containers, small
patches of available land, vacant lots, on rooftops and on roadsides. They are
generally close to home and are managed by family members. Their products
include fruits, vegetables, herbs, legumes, sweet potatoes and most are grown
for household consumption.”
“Potential trade-off: Subsidized homestead garden schemes could pose a
financial sustainability risk.”
World Vision “Increase household production and use of nutrient dense foods. In addition
to supporting increased production of staple crops, attention should be paid to
increasing production and consumption of nutrient-dense foods. Examples of
nutrient-dense foods include animal-based foods (livestock, fish), protein-rich
plant foods (legumes), and vitamin and mineral-rich foods (e.g. leafy green
vegetables and fruits as well as new biofortified varieties of staple foods.)”

What to produce: Animal-source foods

Organization Indicative quotes from guidance papers
ACF “Interventions promoting increased production of fruit and vegetables
(homestead gardens in particular) and animal food products have considerable
potential to address micronutrient deficiencies…evidence shows gains in
production, income, household food security, dietary intake and fewer
micronutrient deficiencies as a result of the interventions, especially when
combined with other components — education, behavior change and women’s
empowerment. (see the Asia case study online — Diversifying diets through
homestead production)”
“Scientific reviews suggest that livestock & fisheries interventions are
associated with marked improvement in dietary intake and income, but evidence
remains scant on their impact on nutritional status. The impact studies are
subject to similar types of constraints as the study of [other] agricultural
interventions…”
“Promote the consumption of animal-source foods through livestock
programmes & fisheries
“ASF such as meat, eggs, dairy products but also fish, are a good, sustainable
source of macro and micronutrients (e.g. iron, zinc and calcium, vitamin A,
the only source of vitamin B12 and riboflavin). Their promotion and
consumption hence constitute sustainable food-based approaches to reduce
micronutrient deficiencies.”
“Do no harm!
 The main risk with livestock intervention is the spread of zoonotic disease.

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  In addition to infectious diseases, parasites are also a concern for those who
have close contact with animals.
 Ensure appropriate consideration of natural resource availability (e.g.
pasture and water) as well as veterinary services, to avoid creating pressure
on the existing resources.
 Keep in mind that promoting ASF and, in particular, consumption of animal
milk may displace breastfeeding especially for children between 6 to 23
months.
 Remember that significant increases in ASF intake may put the individual at
risk of chronic disease. In undernourished populations, however, ASF
consumption is very low, in both absolute and relative terms. Moderate
increases in ASF consumption provide critical nutritional benefits that
outweigh the potential crossing of the threshold of significant risk for
chronic disease.”
Bioversity “Non-staple minor crops as well as animal husbandry offer opportunities for
International value addition and can increase income security for women.”
EC
FANTA
FAO “…the agricultural sector can contribute to nutrition security through small
livestock and poultry ventures, aquaculture and horticulture.” (2009)
“…there are many agriculture-based interventions that could improve nutrition
outcomes in [the warm humid tropics], such as: small livestock production
projects to provide an accessible source of fat, protein and essential
micronutrients…” (2009)
“address the problem of seasonality through diversification in food production,
including fruits and vegetables, livestock, fishery and aquaculture…” (2004)
“Strategies such as food crop diversification, cultivation of indigenous plants,
development of vegetable gardens and fruit crops, rearing of small livestock,
development of backyard fish ponds, and agroforestry can be employed to
increase the food base and supplement staple foods.” (2001)
IFPRI “Projections show rising trends in consumption of livestock, dairy, and other
foods that make intensive use of energy and cereals, with worrisome
implications for global food security and the environment. Thus it will also
be important to work with consumer, public health, and environmental groups to
find ways of encouraging people to adopt sustainable patterns of food
consumption.”
IYCN
Save the “Benefits to children’s nutrition can be achieved by encouraging households to
Children UK grow more nutritious crops, including fruits and vegetables, or to rear animals
for meat, eggs or milk, in addition to the staple crops they tend to rely on.”
…fishing projects increased the number of people eating fish. Livestock can
improve nutrition by providing meat or dairy products for families to eat, or as a
way of generating money through the sale of milk.” (2012)
“Agricultural policies must be designed to increase the availability, and reduce
the cost of nutritious food – not simply staple foods or cereals. …in pastoral
areas, increasing the availability and quality of more nutritious foods, including

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 meat and milk, is known to be closely linked to children’s improved nutrition…”
(2009)
UN HLTF “Improve animal production services. The availability and quality of livestock
genetics, animal health services and medicines, and feed are important to protect
smallholder assets and to support crop production, nutrition and livelihoods.”
(UCFA)
UN SCN “aquaculture and small livestock ventures that include indigenous as well as
farmed species”
“Increasing smallholder production to improve food and nutrition security
requires investment in the following: programmes for animal production and
fisheries inputs;”
“Support to programmes for animal production and fisheries can be adapted to
smallholders, and provide important contributions to household food and
nutrition security. For example, in Tajikistan, home-based livestock husbandry,
including poultry, sheep and goats, is being promoted. The programme aims to
increase the purchasing power and food and nutrition security of some of the
most vulnerable and food-insecure households in rural areas. The main features
are distribution of improved laying hens, training on better poultry management,
improved veterinary services, and the rehabilitation of sheep and goat stocks
through improved management and husbandry practices (FAO, 2009j).”
“Some of the most important emerging themes for nutrition-friendly agriculture,
essential as part of a broader nutrition-sensitive development framework,
include…environmental sustainability: Improving agricultural production
practices to address environmental concerns such as biodiversity, sustainable use
of resources, and livestock sector reform.”
World Bank “Animal source foods can provide a variety of micronutrients that are difficult to
obtain in adequate quantities from plant source foods alone, and relatively small
amounts of these foods can substantially increase nutrient adequacy.”
“Potential trade-offs: Subsidized, small-scale livestock/fishery projects for
household food security are seldom profitable at the enterprise level; Livestock
production can have high negative externality on the environment; There is an
increased risk of zoonotic disease, particularly in larger-scale production.”
World Vision “Increase household production and use of nutrient dense foods. In addition
to supporting increased production of staple crops, attention should be paid to
increasing production and consumption of nutrient-dense foods. Examples of
nutrient-dense foods include animal-based foods (livestock, fish), protein-rich
plant foods (legumes), and vitamin and mineral-rich foods (e.g. leafy green
vegetables and fruits as well as new biofortified varieties of staple foods.)”

What to produce: Underutilized crops

Organization Indicative quotes from guidance papers
ACF “Promote micronutrient-rich crop varieties:
…Prioritise local varieties and wild fruits and vegetables as much as possible, to
promote biodiversity. Revive nutrient-rich traditional crops that are currently
underused or neglected.

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 Increase the production and consumption of foods high in vitamin A or vitamin
C (e.g. guava, wild fruit and berries).
Don’t forget herbs.
“Box: The advantages of perennial plants
Moringa is a tough, fast-growing tree that produces very nutritious edible leaves
and pods. It can also be used for live fencing. The seeds can be used to purify
water. Pigeon pea is a strong bush, which lives for about four years. It produces
nutritious seeds and the plant helps to improve the soil. Cassava is a nutritious,
tough bush, which can live for two to four years. Both the roots and the leaves
are edible.”
“[Beside promoting consumption of livestock and fisheries,] Promote other
local, cheap sources of proteins and micronutrients:
Insects, worms and termites are highly nutritious and often overlooked as a
source of food. Many insect species contain as much – or more – protein as meat
or fish. Some insects, especially in the larval stage, are also rich in fat and most
insects contain significant percentages of amino acids and essential vitamins and
minerals. They also offer particular benefits to those who want to reduce their
environmental footprint, because they are exceptionally efficient in converting
what they eat into tissue that can be consumed by others – about twice as
efficient as chickens and pigs, and more than five times as efficient as beef
cattle. In addition, consuming worms, termites or insects have the potential to
generate income and jobs for rural people who capture, rear, process, transport
and market them as food.”
Bioversity “Non-staple minor crops as well as animal husbandry offer opportunities for
International value addition and can increase income security for women.”
EC
FANTA “Research should focus more closely on indigenous food crops. The adoption
rate for research-based innovations is bound to be higher when the innovation
addresses consumer tastes and preferences. Indigenous food crops also tend to
predominate in the diet of poor households, and participants know how to
cultivate them.” (1999)
FAO “[warm arid and semi-arid tropics] zones also are good candidates for
agricultural extension services that increase awareness and consumption of
existing local or indigenous plants and animals to improve nutrition.” (2009)
“Indigenous food crops are nutritious and need less inputs than other crops;
they are a good choice for farming families that are affected by HIV/AIDS.”
“Indigenous foods and foods consumed by the poorest of the poor are often
overlooked by agricultural research and extension programmes. As an example,
in some countries, research and extension have promoted single staple foods to
the exclusion of other local staples. In many cases, the excluded staples are
resistant to adverse local weather conditions and are therefore dependable in
terms of providing continuous food supply. Potentially, they can supplement
major staples by providing food during hunger periods, when supplies of major
staples have been depleted. In addition, in many countries, the food security
situation has deteriorated because of the HIV/AIDS pandemic. The young
productive age groups are killed by the disease, and food production is left for

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 the very young and the old. Therefore:
■ Through agriculture policies, ministries of agriculture can be encouraged to
improve the production and marketing of indigenous and low-cost foods through
their extension programmes.
■ Policies that foster close collaboration between nutrition and agricultural
research need to be developed. Foods consumed by the poor can be identified
through nutrition research. In collaboration with research, the nutrient content of
indigenous foods and foods consumed by the poor can be analyzed, in order to
enhance the production and consumption of these foods.
■ In view of HIV/AIDS, when giving advice to affected farming families, it
should be considered that family resources are usually depleted by medical care,
and as such, farm inputs are unaffordable; available labour is often engaged in
looking after the sick; therefore, crops that need less inputs and tending such as
indigenous crops could be promoted.” (2004)
“Strategies such as food crop diversification, cultivation of indigenous plants,
development of vegetable gardens and fruit crops, rearing of small livestock,
development of backyard fish ponds, and agroforestry can be employed to
increase the food base and supplement staple foods.” (2001)
“Regularly monitor the types of foods consumed by the poor. Often research
does not focus on traditional food crops if they are not export or cash crops.”
(2001)
“Include underexploited, non-conventional food plants and indigenous species in
research programmes, where plausible. This has the potential to diversify the
food base, improve household food security and enhance consumer nutritional
status.” (2001)
“Provide [extension] information and advice on the production, marketing,
processing and utilization of underexploited traditional food crops and
indigenous crop species.” (2001)
IFPRI “For underutilized crops rich in nutrients, value chains can be created to
promote their conservation, cultivation, marketing, and consumption.”
IYCN
Save the
Children UK
UN HLTF “Emphasis should be given to research on improving the productivity of local
foods so that they are more competitive and contribute to improvements in
nutrition.” (UCFA)
UN SCN “integrated agro-forestry systems that reduce deforestation and promote
harvesting of nutrient-rich forest products; aquaculture and small livestock
ventures that include indigenous as well as farmed species; education and social
marketing strategies that strengthen local food systems and promote cultivation
and consumption of local micronutrient rich foods;”
“Diversity in food production is also important for adapting to climate change.
For example, many traditional but neglected “orphan” crops, e.g. sorghum and
millet, are resistant to drought and other stresses related to climate change.”
World Bank “Promoting the production, marketing and consumption of nutritious
indigenous foods, e.g. development of an indigenous knowledge system:

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 Conservation of indigenous food plants are often undertaken for biodiversity
reasons and methodologies for collecting and analyzing their germplasms are
developed. Among these indigenous food plants, some are particularly rich in
micronutrients and/or can enhance the bioavailability of micronutrients in other
staple crops when consumed together…
Good practice example: The Ministry of Agriculture in Malawi identified the
Moringa tree as a potential solution to the country’s vitamin A deficiency
problem, given its higher content compared to all other common leafy green
vegetables commonly consumed in Malawi. Based on this finding, the
Government developed an indigenous knowledge system for nutritional plant
species which includes a system of collecting, documenting, and using
indigenous knowledge.”
“Potential trade-off: Markets for indigenous foods may be limited therefore
limiting commercial potential.”
World Vision

What to produce: Legumes

Organization Indicative quotes from guidance papers
ACF “Promote legumes, such as beans and lentils, as they are rich in energy and a
good source of both macro and micronutrients (especially protein and iron).
Legumes also improve soil fertility.”
Bioversity
International
EC “Possible entry points for improving nutrition through agriculture include:
increasing investment for the production and consumption of fruit and
vegetables (micronutrient-rich plants) alongside staple crops (see the…Asia case
study — Counting on beans for nutrition).”
FANTA
FAO “[warm arid and semi-arid tropics] zones also are good candidates for
agricultural extension services that increase awareness and consumption of
existing local or indigenous plants and animals to improve nutrition. For
example, intercropping cereal crops with drought-resistant legumes such as
cowpea or pigeon pea improves both nutrition and food security, the former via
increased protein intake, the latter via increased nitrogen fixation and subsequent
increased yield.” (2009)
“…there are many agriculture-based interventions that could improve nutrition
outcomes in [the warm humid tropics], such as: …provision of dietary
diversification advice such as cereal-legume mixing to maximize protein
availability…” (2009)
“Crops such as groundnuts, cowpeas and other vegetables and fruit that are
commonly grown by women need to be promoted. Such crops, especially
vegetables, are normally consumed by household members and therefore, should
be considered, first, as important sources of food and valuable nutrients and only
second as sources of income.” (2001)
IFPRI “increased intercropping with nitrogen-fixing crops such as lentils could

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 reduce agricultural inputs, restore soil fertility, and generate nutritional benefits
for people.”
IYCN
Save the
Children UK
UN HLTF
UN SCN
World Bank “Rangeland management or soil carbon sequestration projects that increase
legume production for food or fodder: Legumes are an important source of
nutrition to both humans and livestock by providing protein, minerals, fiber and
vitamins. By biologically fixing nitrogen in the soil, legumes also provide a
relatively low-cost method of replacing otherwise expensive inorganic nitrogen
in the soil. Moreover, legumes also improve other soil physical properties,
provide ground cover and reduce soil erosion, increase soil organic matter,
microbial activity and lowers soil temperature and suppress weeds and pests.
Legumes are crops grown primarily by women in many settings, and women
often prefer to grow edible species of legume to meet their combined goals of
food security, fodder, and soil improvement…Good practice example:
The Soils, Food, and Healthy Communities Project in Malawi supported by the
International Development Research Center of Canada and others aims to
improve the health, food security and soil fertility of resource poor households
in Northern Malawi through participatory research that tests legume systems.37
The project has demonstrated some nutritional outcomes such as nearly tripling
the frequency of legume consumption by young children, which has led to
improvements in weight and height growth of the children.
Potential trade-off: Increased land management with legumes may require more
labor. Increases in women’s labor may reduce time spent on other important
tasks.”
World Vision “Increase household production and use of nutrient dense foods. In addition
to supporting increased production of staple crops, attention should be paid to
increasing production and consumption of nutrient-dense foods. Examples of
nutrient-dense foods include animal-based foods (livestock, fish), protein-rich
plant foods (legumes), and vitamin and mineral-rich foods (e.g. leafy green
vegetables and fruits as well as new biofortified varieties of staple foods.)”

What to produce: Biofortified crops

Organization Indicative quotes from guidance papers
ACF “Investigate bio-fortified crops (e.g. at HarvestPlus). Note that ACF does not
promote genetically modified bio fortification.”
“…Biofortification…is not a panacea; it presents technical and ethical
challenges (some biofortified seeds are GMO) but has shown, up to now, modest
results in terms of impact on the nutritional status, though it also requires
acceptance from farmers and consumers.”

37
See http://soilandfood.org/ for more information about the project as well as published research results.

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Bioversity
International
EC “Possible entry points for improving nutrition through agriculture include:
fortifying basic foods, including bio-fortification (e.g. bio-fortification of sweet
potatoes in vitamin A.)”
FANTA
FAO “Agriculture-based interventions to improve nutrition security : research
and development (R&D) programmes breed plants and livestock selectively to
enhance nutritional quality. […These efforts are particularly important in the
warm arid and semi-arid tropics]”
“Introduction of drought-tolerant cultivars that have been bred to include high
levels of micronutrients should be a priority.”
“Selective breeding to increase the protein content of cassava, a central
component of the food typology [of the warm humid tropics], could increase
macronutrient intake.” (2009)
“Encourage the development of safe biotechnology in animal and plant breeding
and facilitate the exchange of new advances in biotechnology that are related to
nutrition.” (2004)
(from the glossary): “Biofortification: a recently invented term to describe the
nutrient enrichment of basic food crops through modern plant breeding, both
traditional and molecular. Whilst many would argue that dietary diversification
is the best way to ensure an adequate intake of both macro- and micronutrients,
the grim reality is that a significant portion of the developing world’s population
relies largely on one or more of the major cereals (rice, wheat, maize) for their
nutrition. As a result, deficiencies in essential micronutrients and vitamins are
endemic in Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America. Studies have shown
that modern plant breeding is one of the cheapest, most effective and sustainable
ways of supplying these needed nutrients through enrichment of staple food
grains. Biofortification is not a panacea in itself but a very important
complement to dietary variety and to supplementation.” (2004)
IFPRI “Biofortification of staple crops can significantly improve the nutrition and
health status of vulnerable groups, particularly women and children.”
IYCN
Save the
Children UK
UN HLTF
UN SCN “Ways in which agriculture can sustainably contribute to improving dietary
diversity and nutrition outcomes include support for…biofortification via
research and development programmes that breed plants and livestock
selectively to enhance nutritional quality.”
World Bank “Increasing nutritious food production can come about in three distinct ways:
Adding production of specific nutrient-dense foods such as fruits & vegetables,
fish, and livestock; Increasing nutritional content of the food produced (e.g.
through crop biofortification, mineral fertilization, and industrial food
fortification); Improving preservation of nutritious food for year-round access to
eliminate seasonal food shortages.”

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 “Biofortified crops have also been demonstrated to improve vitamin A and iron
intakes – alleviating two of the deficiencies causing a large amount of death and
disability.”
“Enhancing capacity of national agricultural research institutions to
promote the breeding for and dissemination of developed biofortified crop
varieties and fortified inputs: biofortified crops use plant breeding techniques
to improve the nutritional content of food such iron, zinc, and vitamin A.
…Typically the most profitable, highest yielding varieties are targeted to add
micronutrient-dense traits so that there are no trade-offs between yield and
nutritional content. Field testing and dissemination of many of these biofortified
varieties could be included under Bank-supported ARD projects.”
“Potential trade-off: Farmers growing biofortified crops may be less likely to
successfully market them without significant consumer sensitization.”
World Vision “Increase household production and use of nutrient dense foods. In addition
to supporting increased production of staple crops, attention should be paid to
increasing production and consumption of nutrient-dense foods. Examples of
nutrient-dense foods include animal-based foods (livestock, fish), protein-rich
plant foods (legumes), and vitamin and mineral-rich foods (e.g. leafy green
vegetables and fruits as well as new biofortified varieties of staple foods.)”

What to produce: Staple crops

Organization Indicative quotes from guidance papers
ACF “Existing evidence suggests that…even though the link between production and
nutritional outcome remains inconclusive, staple crop production plays a
significant role in energy intake of a household. Increasing yield has the
potential to significantly improve nutritional outcomes through both own
consumption and increased income, with potential indirect impacts through
agricultural growth and stabilized prices.”
“In many countries where ACF is working, micronutrient deficiencies result
from diets based mainly on cereals. These diets are not only often low in several
micronutrients, but they are also important sources of phytic acid and dietary
fibre, which inhibit the absorption and/or retention of nutrients such as iron and
zinc. Homestead food production is a great way increase the micronutrient
contents of the diet.”
Bioversity
International
EC “the potential benefits of agricultural programmes that focus on the production
of energy-rich staples are also very likely to help reduce undernutrition (such as
maternal undernutrition) although there is yet no evidence of this.”
FANTA
FAO “Agricultural development programmes that aim to increase production of staple
crops are essential for food security, yet they are insufficient for alleviating
hunger and malnutrition.” (2009)
“Evaluate all local staple foods and traditional food crops, in collaboration with
units responsible for nutrition, for possible inclusion in research programmes.

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 Determine whether the staple foods in current research programmes play major
roles in the diets and livelihoods of nutritionally vulnerable groups in terms of
contribution to nutritional status, income and food expenditure. One staple food
commonly consumed by the general population may be economically
inaccessible to people in the lowest income groups, while another staple food
may not be consumed by the majority of the population, but only by the poorest
of the poor.” (2001)
IFPRI
IYCN [In the Nutrition Impact Assessment Tool Guide, an illustrative example of
using the tool is given that outlines a hypothetical case in which a HYV maize
project would result in negative nutrition impacts for poor lowland households
who are net sellers of maize. In working through the likely impacts of each step
of the project, the case illustrates how poor households would be unlikely to
afford the inputs needed for the new variety, so wealthier farmers who could
afford them would produce more maize and the price would fall, reducing the
income for poor smallholders selling maize. For pastoralists (another population
group), the project could be likely to increase food availability, and therefore
increase calorie consumption and reduce child underweight, but would likely
have no impact on improved diet quality or vitamin A deficiency. In such a
case, the tool suggests that the proposed “approach should be abandoned in
favor of another” – and that adding project components such as nutrition
education and low-interest credit for poor households could mitigate negative
effects.]
Save the “all too often the objective of agricultural improvement schemes has been to
Children UK increase the yield of a staple crop (quantity) or high-priced horticultural product
rather than to produce more diverse nutritious foods (quality); and the cost of a
nutritious diet (affordability) is overlooked.” (2012)
“Agricultural policies must be designed to increase the availability, and reduce
the cost of nutritious food – not simply staple foods or cereals. In Mali, for
example, children in villages that practise market gardening or irrigation are less
likely to be stunted than those in villages producing only the staple crop
(millet)…” (2009)
UN HLTF
UN SCN
World Bank
World Vision “…our experience indicates that increased on-farm production of staple crops
and increased incomes are not synonymous with improved nutritional outcomes
at the household level, particularly for women and children.”
“Increase household production and use of nutrient dense foods. In addition
to supporting increased production of staple crops, attention should be paid to
increasing production and consumption of nutrient-dense foods. Examples of
nutrient-dense foods include animal-based foods (livestock, fish), protein-rich
plant foods (legumes), and vitamin and mineral-rich foods (e.g. leafy green
vegetables and fruits as well as new biofortified varieties of staple foods.)”

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What to produce: Cash crops
Organization Indicative quotes from guidance papers
ACF “Do no harm! Pay extra attention…when introducing cash crops (e.g. flower,
tobacco or biofuel production) as this may prevent farmers from working in their
fields and negatively impact household food production. Gains from cash crops
do not automatically cover this potential food gap. Reliance on cash crops also
increases dependence on external factors such as market variability. Encourage
crop diversification to reduce this risk.”
Bioversity
International
EC
FANTA “Nontraditional agricultural export (NTAE) promotion schemes should be
accompanied by extension and input access for traditional food crops as
well. Whenever possible, NTAE schemes should act as source of capital and
knowledge for domestic food production as well as export crops. International
markets can be fickle and volatile, and currencies of Sub-Saharan African
countries have been known to depreciate rapidly. Smallholders can hedge
against market risk by diversifying production, even into more lucrative NTAE
crops, but they should be cautious not to disrupt their local food supply.” (1999)
“In general, a greater proportion of additional income (cash and in-kind) is
consumed in the form of food when it is derived from food-crop production as
compared to when it results from an increase in commercial production. This is
particularly true if the commercial production takes the form of a newly
introduced farm enterprise (such as a high-value export crop) as opposed to
commercialization of a pre-existing subsistence activity (such as dairy
production).”
BOX 1: When to Introduce New Cash Crops
Critical questions can be posed to determine whether the introduction of a new
cash crop will reduce or increase food consumption. Affirmative responses
suggest a reduction in food consumption is unlikely. Negative responses signal
potential problems, and suggest the need to investigate further and correct
identified project design shortcomings.
 Is land in surplus?
 Is labor in surplus, especially female labor?
 Does the new crop (or production system) take advantage of slack labor
periods or periods when land is idle?
 Will the additional income be received or controlled by women?
 Is there strong seasonal variability in the supply/price of basic food crops?
FAO “Promotion of cash crops and non-traditional foods can affect production and
availability of food crops to the detriment of household consumption and
nutritional status.”
“While cash cropping has the potential to improve nutritional status through
improved productivity and increased income, it may impact negatively if it
creates an imbalance or shift in the control of income between men and women.
Women are more likely than men to spend their income on food for feeding their
families. Hence, if women have control over some income, nutritional status is

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 likely to be improved. Further, when people change from subsistence to cash
cropping, they may need to purchase most of the food they consume. This
presents a likelihood of replacing good-quality foods with less nutritious foods.
Therefore:
■ It is advisable that, as a policy, strategies to monitor the effects of cash
cropping programmes on the nutritional and social welfare of communities be
appropriately integrated into programme activities.
■ Appropriate nutrition intervention programmes, such as nutrition education,
should be incorporated into those programmes as well.” (2004)’
“The focus of research and extension on male-dominated cash crops sometimes
marginalizes women’s work.” (2001)
IFPRI
IYCN “Be particularly careful with projects that promote cash crop production.
Contrary to conventional wisdom, introduction of cash crops frequently has a
negative effect on household food security. Achieving positive effects often
depends on whether the land and labor used is in surplus and on the variability in
the supply prices of basic food crops.” (fact sheet)
Save the “all too often the objective of agricultural improvement schemes has been to
Children UK increase the yield of a staple crop (quantity) or high-priced horticultural product
rather than to produce more diverse nutritious foods (quality); and the cost of a
nutritious diet (affordability) is overlooked.” (2012)
UN HLTF
UN SCN
World Bank “A World Bank review (2007) concludes, ‘Overall, cash-cropping schemes
(whether staple crops or other) did not have a significant impact – negative or
positive – on child nutritional status’ although, in alignment with the primary
goals of the cash crop projects, household incomes generally improved.
Consumption effects were variable and depended on the amount of income
increase, how much was controlled by women, and changes in relative prices.”
World Vision

Reduce post-harvest losses and improve post-processing

Organization Indicative quotes from guidance papers
ACF “Improve post-harvest handling: It is estimated that over 20% of the physical
harvest is lost due to bad storage and handling practices. In addition, inadequate
handling and storage causes the loss of valuable micronutrients. Maintaining
micronutrient levels in commonly eaten foods should become an objective per
se. Include “healthy harvesting” techniques and promotion sessions to
preserve the quality and nutrient contents of the crops. Good practices include:
· Crops, fruit and vegetables are harvested only when they are mature.
· The crop is handled as little as possible to avoid any damage.
· The harvested produce is gathered in the shade.
· Timing for harvesting is taken into account. For example early morning is the
best harvesting time for most fruits and vegetables as they contain the least

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 water at that stage. Midmorning is preferred for leafy vegetables.
· Ripe and unripe fruits or vegetables are separated.
· The harvest is carefully put into baskets, boxes or crates lined with soft
material such as dry grass, newspaper, banana leaves or dry sand.
· Crops, fruit and vegetables recently dosed with pesticides are not consumed or
sold in the market.
Promote optimal food processing techniques to preserve the quality and
nutrient contents of the crops, maximise shelf life and facilitate transportation
and sales…Good practices include:
· Crops should be processed within 48 hours of harvesting.
· Sun drying is avoided, as it increases the loss of nutrients (especially vitamin A
and Vitamin C). The produce is dried in the shade with homemade open-sided
drying shed.
· Green vegetables are blanched before drying them.
· Flour, porridges and milks keep longer if they are soured or fermented. This
also improves the digestion of these foods and increases the absorption of iron
from the food. Milk is not exposed to daylight as it decreases the amount of
riboflavin.
· Cereals are milled lightly as milling reduces the amount of protein, fibre,
vitamins and minerals. Alternatively, flour is fortified in case of heavy milling
process.
Encourage healthy storage practices. Good practices include:
· Fresh produce is washed in clean water and thoroughly dried before storing.
· Storage is cool, dark, well ventilated and protected from insects and mice.
· Improved storage facilities are promoted over traditional ones.
Consult local extension workers, farmers’ cooperatives, FAO, Ministry of
Agriculture and Health, universities, NGOs or specialised organisations to
identify potential problems, and find evidence-based or innovative solutions.”
“Box: Food processing
Making jam or sauce is a low-cost method of processing food that can be done
easily in households, and contributes to family food security by making fruits
and vegetables available in the off-season. In Zimbabwe, food processing has
been touted as having the potential to reduce poverty and improve the quality of
life of the poor through improved incomes, employment, food availability, and
nutrition. Dried fruits, jams and jellies produced by small-scale processors have
penetrated the formal market (supermarkets and general dealer shops), and are
considered a potential micro-enterprise for women.”
Bioversity
International
EC “Possible entry points for improving nutrition through agriculture include:
supporting storage and processing methods to reduce post-harvest losses and
increase profit margins;”
“fortifying basic foods… See the Nigeria case study online — Public–private
partnership in fortification programmes)”
FANTA “RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPROVING ACCESS AND
CONSUMPTION IMPACTS: Promote small-scale agro-processing; Introduce

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 improved storage practices and technology.” (2001)
“Among the options to ensure steadier and more diverse income streams:
Small-scale agro-processing. Agro-processing can improve the storability of a
product by preserving the quality and making it available over a longer portion
of the year, e.g., solardrying fruits and vegetables, pressing sunflower oil or
processing palm oil. By processing and storing a commodity for later resale, the
producer can sell in smaller quantities over a longer period of time, achieving a
steadier flow of income and capturing a higher price later in the marketing
season.
Improved storage and inventory credit schemes. Inventory credit programs
(ICP) increase access. Through participation in an ICP, farmers reduce storage
losses, capture higher prices later in the marketing season when supplies are
low, and guard against family members consuming reserved seed and
emergency food stocks.” (2001)
“The feasibility of preserving, processing and fortifying local foods should
be studied further. These activities extend the seasonal availability of food and
generate employment.” “Where economically feasible, locally produced
products should be used in food fortification. A link between nutrition,
agricultural production and microenterprise and agribusiness development
can be forged through a food fortification program.” (1999)
FAO “food-based interventions include…improved food storage and processing to
increase the shelf life of foods produced and facilitate preparation and
consumption; reliable access to bio-energy for cooking;” (2010)
“FAO is committed to capacity building of local institutions or support to field
interventions [for] ensuring food safety and quality through the establishment of
effective quality control systems at all stages of the food chain.” (2010)
“Agriculture-based interventions to improve nutrition security: R&D
reduces post-harvest losses via improved handling, preservation, storage,
preparation and processing techniques.” (2009)
“…develop techniques that decrease post-harvest crop losses and improve food
processing, storage and marketing.” (2004)
[Main strategies to combat micronutrient deficiencies]: Dietary diversification
(availability and consumption of micronutrient-rich foods) through: …solar
drying technology for preserving micronutrient-rich foods.” (2004)
“Inadequate post-harvest technologies and practices contribute to unnecessary
nutrient and physical food losses.” (2001)
“Strengthen post-harvest research, processing and utilization activities in
agricultural research institutes to make them more demand-driven and
consumer-focused. Nutrition issues should be considered essential components
of post-harvest and food processing research.” (2001)
“Provide information and advice to farmers and growers regarding on-farm seed
production (to include vegetatively propagated material) and regarding secure,
on-farm storage of seed and planting materials. This can help ensure timely
sowing and planting, resulting in improved food security.” (2001)
“Involve women's groups that are concerned with food processing and other
post-harvest activities in the design and implementation of research

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 experiments.” (2001)
IFPRI “Incorporate nutrition into value chains for food products. Improved
nutrition results not only from greater volumes of food production on farms, but
also from the way food commodities are handled in the postfarm segments of
value chains.
 Processing can enhance year-round availability of products with high
nutrient value.
 Fortification during postharvest processing can improve nutrient content or
availability.
 Transport and storage improvements can reduce postharvest losses and
deterioration of the nutritional quality of foods.
 Efficiency in postfarm handling can reduce costs and retail prices, thus
increasing access for poor consumers.”
“Also needed are improved production and processing practices, such as better
food safety practices and water management.”
IYCN
Save the
Children UK
UN HLTF “…policies and investments for food and nutrition security should have the
following characteristics: …b. Reducing waste and losses along the food value
chain from producer to consumer”
“The world’s governments can end hunger and malnutrition, enabling all people
to attain food and nutrition security and enjoy their right to food. Achieving this
goal involves an increase in the availability of nutritious food, through
intensified production of food for human use, and reducing waste.”
“Sustainability in agriculture and food systems means improving the ways
resources are used and distributed. That involves continuous striving to
increase efficiency and reduce waste through all stages of food production,
processing and consumption while also seeking to ensure equitable access to
nutrition.”
“Reduce post-harvest losses along food chains by controlling pests and
disease, rehabilitating storage facilities, improving handling and storage
practices, providing processing and value-adding equipment, and reinforcing
extension services with inputs, ongoing training and logistical support.” (UCFA)

“Improve rural infrastructure such as roads, irrigation, electrification, water

for irrigation, storage facilities and rural markets to remove bottlenecks in
agroprocessing and marketing, reduce transaction costs and facilitate
productivity…this will help stimulate private investments. It will also reduce
post-harvest losses and help bring more food to the market at lower costs.”
(UCFA)
UN SCN “Ways in which agriculture can sustainably contribute to improving dietary
diversity and nutrition outcomes include support for reduction of post-harvest
losses via improved handling, preservation, storage, preparation and processing
techniques.”

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 “Increasing smallholder production to improve food and nutrition security
requires investment in the following: reducing post-harvest losses;”
“Reduction of post-harvest losses contributes significantly to improved food and
nutrition security in many developing countries, and deserves more attention
from policymakers and government. Significant proportions of fresh produce,
animal-source foods and cereals are lost to spoilage and infestation on their
journey to the consumer…Reduction of post-harvest losses has great potential to
increase rural income and employment, reduce food prices in urban areas and
improve food safety. Although some measures require economies of scale and
are not adaptable to smallholder contexts e.g. large, refrigerated storage
facilities), others are quite simple and are appropriate for even very low-income
farmers. For example, a review of projects in the Dominican Republic, Haiti and
Niger concluded that solar drying of fruits and vegetables rich in beta-carotene
was an appropriate technology for preserving these sources of vitamin A. Solar
dried fruits and vegetables maintain high levels of beta-carotene for up to 6
months (FAO/ILSI, 1997)…”
“Examples of livelihood diversification include…industries that add value to
raw agricultural products, e.g. oil seed processing. In addition to generating
income, food processing initiatives can help to meet urban food needs,
especially in areas where storage facilities are inadequate and where food safety
is an issue.”
“Promotion of preservation techniques to maintain micronutrient levels in foods
not only reduces post-harvest losses but, when coupled with education services
that emphasize the importance of dietary diversity, may also improve intake
patterns.”
World Bank “Increasing nutritious food production can come about in three distinct ways:
Adding production of specific nutrient-dense foods such as fruits & vegetables,
fish, and livestock; Increasing nutritional content of the food produced (e.g.
through crop biofortification, mineral fertilization, and industrial food
fortification); Improving preservation of nutritious food for year-round access to
eliminate seasonal food shortages.”

“Improving market access for nutritious foods provides farmers additional

incentive to produce the foods, and may involve partnerships with actors along
the value chain such as traders and supermarkets. These interventions can
include removing bottlenecks along the value chain such as reducing post-
harvest loss…”
“Food preservation technologies such as solar drying can reduce seasonality of
fruits and vegetables.”
“Good practice example: The World Bank-supported Haiti RESEPAG II aims to
develop capacity building in food harvesting and storage techniques (e.g. to
reduce aflatoxin) and improve food processing techniques through capacity
building and technical assistance such as fortification and food quality control
including laboratory capacity to analyze micronutrient contents.”
“Good practice example: A small company in Botswana has received

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 international recognition for its approach of harvesting and drying wild fruits
rich in vitamin C and dietary fiber, and processing them under HACCP
standards for retail to buyers such as Air Botswana, providing income to local
farmers and pastoralists who harvest the fruit.”
“Promotion of regional/national industrial food fortification: Food
fortification refers to the addition of micronutrients to processed foods, and is
considered to be a valid technology for reducing malnutrition when people
cannot consume a balanced diet that is adequate in every nutrient. In most
countries, industrial food fortification is often led by the Ministry of Health.
However, it typically requires the cooperation of the Ministry of Agriculture or
Food Safety Agencies as it relates to the processing of food. Therefore,
although none have been carried out to date, industrial food fortification could
be included into ARD projects that support the Government’s policy or
production of major cereals such as wheat and rice through an activity to fortify
them at the national or regional level.”
World Vision “Support to agricultural and livelihoods diversification and local/community-
based food fortification (particularly with iron and zinc) are both important
strategies to increase the amount of nutrient-dense foods for household
consumption, particularly when those strategies seek a high degree of
involvement from women.”
“Appropriate agriculture/livelihoods interventions should:
Be designed to smooth consumption in poor households throughout the year.
… This is particularly important for nutritionally vulnerable groups such as
children under 5, who have a very small window of time before reductions in
quantity and quality of food can cause severe and often irreversible health and
cognitive impacts… use of locally-adapted seed and livestock varieties,
improved farm management techniques (e.g. conservation farming, improved
post-harvest management, including preservation techniques such as solar
drying) and small-scale irrigation systems (such as drip irrigation) and on and
off- farm livelihoods diversification are all key to building resilience in
smallholder systems…”

Increase marketing opportunities

Organization Indicative quotes from guidance papers
ACF “As much as possible, the intervention should advocate for women’s access
to land…financial services…markets and employment.”
“…Dried fruits, jams and jellies produced by small-scale processors have
penetrated the formal market (supermarkets and general dealer shops), and are
considered a potential micro-enterprise for women.”
“…consuming worms, termites or insects have the potential to generate income
and jobs for rural people who capture, rear, process, transport and market them
as food.”
“[Fostering multisectoral linkages may involve] Linking various FSL
interventions with each other (e.g. homestead or community gardens, market

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 access, incomes generating activities, livestock rearing, cash transfers etc.).”
Bioversity
International
EC “Entry points for [improving nutrition through food security] are relevant in
emergency and development contexts and include:
facilitating physical and/or economic access [to markets] (including investments
in rural infrastructure such as feeder roads)”
FANTA “RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPROVING ACCESS AND
CONSUMPTION IMPACTS: Help farmers secure better prices for their
produce, locate new markets, and control the stream of earning through
participation in marketing associations and inventory credit schemes.” (2001)
“Those working in the informal sector need business training and a network or
association to give them a voice.” (1999)
[Needed in further studies: Analysis of the nutritional impacts of agricultural
marketing interventions, such as reforming commerce regulations, supporting
agribusiness, NTAE promotion, and small-scale processing.] (1999)
FAO “Surplus homestead production can also be commercialised locally or bartered,
thus generating household income for additional food purchase on the one hand
and facilitating access of local consumers to nutritious foods on the other.
Micronutrient-rich foods, such as animal source foods, fruits and vegetables, and
also oils and fats in areas where the energy density of the food is insufficient, are
particularly important.” (2010)
“Horticulture also has the potential to increase incomes via produce sales if there
is market access.” (2009)
[Main strategies to combat micronutrient deficiencies]: Dietary diversification
(availability and consumption of micronutrient-rich foods) through: social
marketing of micronutrient-rich foods…and solar drying technology for
preserving micronutrient-rich foods.” (2004)
“Provide [extension] information and advice on the production, marketing,
processing and utilization of underexploited traditional food crops and
indigenous crop species.” (2001)
“Consider intra-household factors which influence the behaviour of resource-
poor farmers in relation to commodity prices when giving advice to farmers on
marketing strategies. For example, subsistence farmers often are forced sell their
farm produce when prices are low to obtain cash income for family use, and
later must purchase the same commodity at a higher price for family
consumption.” (2001)
IFPRI “For underutilized crops rich in nutrients, value chains can be created to
promote their conservation, cultivation, marketing, and consumption.”
“Consumer awareness campaigns, such as nutrition literacy programs in
villages, can increase poor people’s knowledge of and demand for nutritious
food. More consumption of nutritious foods can not only improve health,
but also open new markets for agricultural producers.”
IYCN
Save the “ACCESSIBILITY OF LOCAL MARKETS
Children UK A family’s decision on whether to sell or consume the food they grow is

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 influenced by market demand for their products as well as the availability of
market information. Any efforts to improve nutrition through agriculture should
assess how local markets are functioning and how different groups of producers
are able to make use of them. To be truly accessible, a market must be within
reach geographically with appropriate transportation, and also available for use
by smallholder farmers and particularly female farmers. Factors that limit
women’s access to markets can include local beliefs about women’s place being
confined to the home, their access to transportation and men’s role in controlling
income and vital market information.” (2012)
“Address local markets: Policies should be designed with the local markets in
mind and seek to improve accessibility for small-scale farmers to the markets for
producers, and availability and affordability of nutritious foods.” (2012)
“A wide range of strategies will be needed to deal with the securing of land
rights, crop diversification, effective regulation of informal labour markets,
improved access to markets and, where necessary, economic support for
agricultural inputs.” (2009)
UN HLTF “… it is important to strengthen the capacities of producer organizations
(including cooperatives) and increase their access to markets and services.”
(2012)
“Efforts to connect smallholder farmers to markets – for example, through food
procurement operations in the context of governmental stockholding for food
security purposes or for global food assistance — contribute to farmer
productivity.” (2012)
“Interventions should be judged by the extent to which they help smallholders
move from subsistence farmers to small businesses, from being net buyers of
food to net sellers of produce.” (UCFA)
“Coordination between public and private investment is critical. Effective public
investment in rural development should lay the ground for further investments
by businesses in inputs and services to smallholders, as well as expansion of
agricultural marketing and value-adding agro-enterprises which integrate
smallholders into national and regional food supply chains." (UCFA)
“Improve rural infrastructure such as roads, irrigation, electrification, water
for irrigation, storage facilities and rural markets to remove bottlenecks in
agroprocessing and marketing, reduce transaction costs and facilitate
productivity. As mentioned above, this will help stimulate private investments. It
will also reduce post-harvest losses and help bring more food to the market at
lower costs.” (UCFA)
“Ensure sustained access to competitive, transparent and private-sector-led
markets for nutritious food produce and quality agricultural inputs, focusing on
the key food commodity chains (from producer to consumer) and their
stakeholders (producers, traders, processors, government). Links between
smallholder farmers and other actors in the food value chains (e.g. traders,
marketers, processors, consumers) are key for building a common vision,
identifying the critical public and private investments to be made, and
coordinating investments and services throughout the chains. These links should
cover research, infrastructure, finance, production, storage, transportation,

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 processing, services and marketing. Strengthen functional linkages between
farmers, food traders and processors (for instance, through enforceable contract
farming systems) and ensure that smallholder farmer and small-scale producer
organizations can participate in relevant decision-making processes.” (UCFA)
“Remove constraints to domestic trade throughout the food chain in order to
link smallholder farmers to markets, including bureaucratic barriers to
transporting and trading inputs and food, and “informal” taxation. Such
interventions could address quality of production, reliability of supply, local
capacity-building, linkages to markets, efficiency improvements, waste
reduction, collective marketing, investments in small-scale market infrastructure,
and value addition activities such as rural processing and facilitation of
contractual arrangements between smallholders and companies. Supporting the
development of producers’ organizations and the adoption of appropriate and
climate-smart technologies can help reduce smallholders’ expenses, enhance
their bargaining power and strengthen the value-chain linkages.” (UCFA)
UN SCN “Collective action by small food producers can also help to orient and shape
markets to better capture and increase the availability of nutritious local foods,
and can increase the availability of affordable fruits and vegetables for urban
consumers.”
World Bank “Marketing projects to support smallholders’ participation in the value
chain of nutritious foods (e.g. vegetables, fruits, dairy, livestock and fish):
Support to strengthen the marketing or post-harvest aspects of nutritious foods
can increase the change that farmers will grow and consume them, particularly if
combined with some nutrition education. Improving market access for nutritious
foods provides farmers additional incentive to produce the foods, and may
involve partnerships with actors along the value chain such as traders and
supermarkets. These interventions can include removing bottlenecks along the
value chain such as reducing post-harvest loss, improving auxiliary
infrastructure such as roads, storage facilities, and wholesale markets, improving
the availability of market information or other risk management tools, and
strengthening the framework of food safety standards (e.g. reducing aflatoxins).”
“Projects that increase the likelihood that women are able to control resources
accruing from their labor (through inclusion of training and market opportunities
for crops and animal products women sell, for example), improve gender equity
and are likely to improve nutrition as well.”
“Promoting the production, marketing and consumption of nutritious
indigenous foods, e.g. development of an indigenous knowledge
system…Good practice examples:
 A horticulture project in Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi, and Rwanda,
implemented by a Kenyan CSO (Farm Concern International) and supported
by BMGF, has supported smallholders’ participation in the
commercialization of nutritious traditional African vegetables. Farm
Concern International earlier had won a World Bank CGAP award for its
approach of nutrition-focused marketing of African leafy vegetables, driving
up the value of these horticultural products 213 percent in five years – and
substantially increasing incomes and interest among farmers interested in

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 growing them. A “commercial village model” allows smallholder groups to
market their vegetables to partnering supermarket chains and other urban
markets, includes nutrition education for both farmers and consumers, and
has successfully increased farmer incomes as well as consumption.
 A small company in Botswana has received international recognition for its
approach of harvesting and drying wild fruits rich in vitamin C and dietary
fiber, and processing them under HACCP standards for retail to buyers such
as Air Botswana, providing income to local farmers and pastoralists who
harvest the fruit.”
“Potential trade-off: Markets for indigenous foods may be limited therefore
limiting commercial potential.”
World Vision “Poverty is a major driver of poor nutrition so addressing household livelihood
concerns is critical. Promotion of nutritious and marketable foods helps to
meet both economic as well as dietary needs of households.”

Reduce seasonality
Organization Indicative quotes from guidance papers
ACF “Address seasonality to ensure food and nutrition security all year round
Seasonality is a major-contributing factor to undernutrition. It is also one of
the leveraging points to reduce hunger. In the report ‘Seasons of Hunger:
Fighting Cycles of Quiet Starvation Among the World’s Rural Poor’, ACF
shows how the majority of programmes fail to address seasonality, and result in
inadequate answers to meet the household needs during critical periods of the
year.”
“The report advocates for the systematic adoption of three priority measures in
countries badly affected by the lean season:
 Pre-positioning of nutritional and health resources in the months before
and during the annual hunger period to reduce mortality and morbidity (e.g.
nutrient-rich therapeutic foods or food aid to prevent increase in acute
moderate malnutrition).
 Provision of predictable transfers of cash, food or employment during
the hunger season (e.g. income generating activities or cash transfers).
 Indexing cash transfers to price trends to buffer poor households against
the impacts of volatile markets.”
Bioversity “Basic principles in designing a successful intervention: …Recommend a
International system that will meet nutritional needs year round. Seasonality and improved
storage techniques and capacity can add longevity, improving food security.”
EC
FANTA “Close seasonal gaps in food access through production diversification,
improved storage, and agro-processing.”
“Small-scale agro-processing. Agro-processing can improve the storability of a
product by preserving the quality and making it available over a longer portion
of the year, e.g., solar-drying fruits and vegetables, pressing sunflower oil or
processing palm oil. By processing and storing a commodity for later resale, the
producer can sell in smaller quantities over a longer period of time, achieving a

Page 155
 steadier flow of income and capturing a higher price later in the marketing
season.” (2001)
“Improved storage and inventory credit schemes. Inventory credit programs
(ICP) increase access. Through participation in an ICP, farmers reduce storage
losses, capture higher prices later in the marketing season when supplies are
low, and guard against family members consuming reserved seed and
emergency food stocks. Even when the profit from hungry-season sales is small,
farmers still derive benefits from the more consistent flow of income over the
agricultural year.” (2001)
FAO “The food and agriculture sector therefore has a major role to play in:
ensuring year round availability at local level of the combination of safe and
affordable foods needed for a healthy and sustainable diet.” (2010)
“address the problem of seasonality through diversification in food production,
including fruits and vegetables, livestock, fishery and aquaculture;” (2004)
“application of advanced food production technologies often can reduce
fluctuations in seasonal food availability, food prices and income.” (2001)
“Vegetable gardens should be designed such that they provide the necessary
micronutrients and there is continuity of supply throughout all seasons.” (2001)
“Assist farmers and growers in planning and producing crops that offer
continuity of supply, with emphasis on a wider range of crops species and
varieties that can provide improved and balanced diets.” (2001)
IFPRI
IYCN
Save the
Children UK
UN HLTF “policies and investments for food and nutrition security should have the
following characteristics: Enabling all people to secure year- round access to the
varieties of food required for good nutrition, including through stable, open,
well-functioning markets and food supply systems…”
UN SCN
World Bank One of four main messages: “Increase access to and year round availability
of high nutrient content food.”
“Seasonality of nutrient-dense food production can be important, as they are
typically much more perishable than staple grains. Low-stock seasons affect
child growth and cyclical malnutrition rates through both caloric and
micronutrient deprivation.”
“Food preservation technologies such as solar drying can reduce seasonality of
fruits and vegetables.”
“Addressing seasonal food shortages can serve as an entry point to the goal of
increasing year-round production of nutritious food.”
World Vision “Appropriate agriculture/livelihoods interventions should:
Be designed to smooth consumption in poor households throughout the year.
… This is particularly important for nutritionally vulnerable groups such as
children under 5, who have a very small window of time before reductions in
quantity and quality of food can cause severe and often irreversible health and
cognitive impacts… use of locally-adapted seed and livestock varieties,

Page 156
 improved farm management techniques (e.g. conservation farming, improved
post-harvest management, including preservation techniques such as solar
drying) and small-scale irrigation systems (such as drip irrigation) and on and
off- farm livelihoods diversification are all key to building resilience in
smallholder systems…”

Women’s empowerment
Organization Indicative quotes from guidance papers
ACF GUIDANCE 7 – EMPOWER WOMEN
“Women should directly benefit from the intervention as much as possible
because i) they already have less access to resources and opportunities than
men, and ii) they play a key role as the gatekeeper of household food
security, health and nutrition. Studies show that increases in women’s income
are more strongly associated with improvement in the health and nutritional
status of their children than increases in men’s income… It is however crucial
to avoid increasing the already heavy work burden of women. Manual work
in agro-sylvo-pastoral or in for-work activities is usually time consuming and
physically demanding, which may put strain on their nutritional status and the
time dedicated to childcare… dynamics in the household may manifest in
women reaping smaller benefits from the programme than intended. However,
pay particular attention to do no harm, by e.g. forcing a gender perspective
that is not accepted by the community or preventing women fulfilling their
social role…A project focusing on women does not alone empower women. It is
necessary to educate and empower men and boys to become more
supportive of women as they often are the decision makers in the communities
and within the households.”
7.1 Give women the means to empower themselves : …the intervention
should advocate for women’s access to land, livestock, education, childcare,
financial services, extension services, technology, markets and
employment.”
7.2 Evaluate time and labour resources required from the project
beneficiaries : …Keep in mind that individuals who are suffering from
undernutrition or micronutrient deficiencies (especially iron) will encounter
greater difficulties to do physical labour because they are weaker than
individuals in good health.”
7.3 Protect the nutritional status of women : [consider providing extra food
rations or vouchers, vouchers for services, multiple micronutrient sachets, low-
input gardening]
7.4 Encourage safe childcare initiatives : [Think about childcare during
training for women, breastfeeding spaces, engage fathers and mothers-in-law
and other authority figures, support day care centers or the like for working
women (especially urban women)]
Bioversity “Our Most Vital Asset: Women. Women are the keepers of food culture in
International their communities, and play a vital role in conserving and using biodiversity in

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 their farming systems … Non-staple minor crops as well as animal husbandry
offer opportunities for value addition and can increase income security for
women.”
EC “Entry points for [improving nutrition through food security] are relevant in
emergency and development contexts and include:
empowerment of women as key agents to improve household food security,
health and nutrition outcomes”
“Possible entry points for [improving nutrition through agriculture] include:
empowering women, strengthening their roles as economic actors and creating
an enabling environment for childcare”
FANTA “Interventions that aim to increase household income as a means of improving
household food security should target women, since women are the providers of
food, childcare, and health services.” (1999)
“Since gardening is predominantly a woman’s activity in Africa, a portion of the
incremental income tends to go toward household food consumption.” (1999)
“Evidence shows that additional agricultural income in the form of one’s own
production or cash earnings from crop or livestock sales is more likely to be
spent on food if …The incremental income is earned or controlled by
women…[and] training in health and nutrition is provided.” (2001)
“…labor saving post-harvest technologies grant women more time to fulfill
production and care-giving responsibilities.” (2001)
“RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPROVING ACCESS AND
CONSUMPTION IMPACTS
1. Target women, accounting for their specific objectives and constraints.”
“Historically, innovations in agricultural practices have centered on land
preparation and improved input application, both of which are men’s
responsibilities. Little emphasis has been placed on weeding and harvesting,
which are women’s responsibilities. Moreover, advances in processing,
preserving, and storing produce have been limited, especially for traditional
indigenous food crops – also, traditionally women’s responsibility.
Experience has shown that bringing women in at the design stage or working
directly with them on implementation issues greatly increases their active
participation and ultimately the achievement of program objectives. Women can
identify appropriate mechanisms for addressing labor and other time constraints.
Since women are an important source of agricultural labor as well as the
dominant primary care providers, it is important to account for women’s time so
that projects are not detrimental to food crop production or family care
responsibilities.” (2001)
“Constraints female farmers confront:
Since women account for a significant and growing proportion of Africa’s
farmers, agricultural program designs should take into consideration women’s
specific constraints. If programs are not designed to directly reduce or eliminate
these constraints, they need to operate effectively within them.
 Unclear or weak land rights.
 Limited access to common property resources.
 Limited access to cash for input purchases.

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  Limited access to credit or microfinance.
 Limited access to extension and technology.
 Limited access to education.
 Triple burden (production, chores and childcare).” (2001)
FAO “food-based interventions include…time and labour-saving interventions to
allow women carry out both their productive and reproductive tasks.” (2010)
“These interventions all represent excellent investment options and have the
capacity to increase women’s roles in managing productive assets and their
access to services, technology and income generating opportunities. As shown
by the World Bank (2007), the resources and income flows that women control
wield disproportionately positive impacts on household health and nutrition.”
(2009)
“develop and disseminate technologies that respond to women’s needs and ease
the workload of women;”
“Generally, in developing countries, the agriculture sector employs a large
percentage of women as labourers (FAO, 1996d). Therefore:
■ When designing policies, caution should be exercised not to deprive people of
income-earning opportunities: while some degree of mechanization will increase
production and free women’s time for family care activities, income earned from
providing farm labour may be more important for vulnerable households.
■ A policy that is sensitive to women’s role as caregivers could enhance
nutritional status. For example, a policy that compels employers to allow
“breastfeeding breaks” would have a positive impact on young child nutritional
status and decrease morbidity and mortality rates.
“Women are more likely than men to spend their income on food for feeding
their families. Hence, if women have control over some income, nutritional
status is likely to be improved.” (2004)
“Recognize the enormous productive role of women in agriculture, especially in
food production. Women’s contributions to food production are most evident in
the labour they provide in planting, crop management (e.g. weeding, stalking),
post-harvest activities, processing, storage and marketing. About 50 percent of
food crops in Asia are produced by women (FAO 1988). In many parts of
Africa, women provide about 60 percent of the agricultural labour force and up
to 80 percent of total food production labour force. In addition, women in many
developing countries are responsible for producing food consumed by their
families.
 Acknowledge and promote the importance of food crops that are normally
grown by women. The focus of research and extension on male-dominated
cash crops sometimes marginalizes women’s work. Crops such as
groundnuts, cowpeas and other vegetables and fruit that are commonly
grown by women need to be promoted. Such crops, especially vegetables,
are normally consumed by household members and therefore, should be
considered, first, as important sources of food and valuable nutrients and
only second as sources of income.
 Include women’s agricultural activities in extension programmes. This is an
important consideration for extension services in particular … studies show

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 that extension is cost effective and has a significant impact on farmers’
knowledge and successful adoption of new technologies, resulting in
increased productivity and rural incomes. This in turn impacts positively on
household food security and nutritional status. FAO estimates that women
receive only about one-twentieth (5 percent) of the extension services
received by men (1998).” (2001)
“Differences in physical capacities of women and men and their respective
social responsibilities should be considered when designing or introducing new
technologies.” (2001)
“Involve women in Participatory Rural Appraisals (PRA) at the village level, to
ensure that their needs and concerns are considered in any planning, and that
adoption of technologies does not become a burden to them.” (2001)
“In the developing world, women have significant roles in food production and
processing, and in providing for the nutritional needs of the family. It is
important therefore, that advanced technology is available and suitable for use
by women.
 Be aware of household/family dynamics in order to ensure relevant
targeting of technologies.
 Involve women’s groups that are concerned with food processing and
other post-harvest activities in the design and implementation of research
experiments.
 Evaluate the potential gender impact of technology, ascertaining that
new technologies do not shift extra farm responsibilities to women, and
thus interfere with their childcare and family responsibilities. When
possible, tasks of women should be reduced to allow more time for
childcare.
 Include women extension officers in advisory teams, especially in areas
where women farmers play a role in crop production.
 Expand the extension coverage of women farmers by developing a
deliberate policy to target women farmers. Commonly, crops grown by
women are used for home consumption and, therefore, have a direct
impact on household food security and nutrition.
 Design extension programmes for women farmers that are relevant to
their production activities. Target youths in all gender-related training to
help change cultural stereotypes of gender roles. ” (2001)

IFPRI “Gender-sensitive programs that consider the synergies and trade-offs between
women’s roles in agricultural production and childcare can promote positive
nutrition and health outcomes.”
“Governance levers could include incentives and institutional arrangements, as
well as inclusion of marginalized and excluded groups—especially women, who
are at the nexus of the agriculture, nutrition, and health sectors.”
IYCN “Involve women. Improvements in women’s income are more likely to
translate into improved food security than are improvements in men’s income—
as long as women have adequate time for child and family care.”

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 “Incorporate home gardens. Women are usually responsible for home
gardens, and therefore, have greater control over household food consumption
decisions than their husbands.”
“Support agricultural tasks performed by women. These tasks include
weeding, harvesting, processing, and preservation. In general, nutritional
benefits increase when women can strike a balance between the time they give
to agricultural tasks and the time they give to child and family care.” (fact sheet)
Save the “SUPPORTING WOMEN FARMERS
Children UK Given their central role in food production, it is critical that any attempts to
improve nutrition through agriculture include women, and must improve their
access to key resources and inputs. Agricultural programmes must be designed
to take into account the different roles men and women play in agriculture, the
household and the community. Barriers for women farmers created by any
gender inequalities (eg, access to land, credit, agriculture extension services,
inputs, transportation) should be identified and overcome. For example, women
receive only 5% of agriculture extension services worldwide. Putting income in
the hands of women has been proven to yield beneficial results for child
nutrition, health and education. Investment in women farmers that increases
their income and decision-making power will therefore generate returns for the
women themselves and their children, as well as for the wider community.
In addition to being producers of food, women are predominantly responsible
for buying food, preparing meals and feeding children. These joint
responsibilities mean women are key to unlocking better nutrition. Programmes
must 161ecognize the dual role that women play as food producers and food
providers. Targeting women through a combination of nutrition education and
agricultural support is an effective strategy for reducing malnutrition in the most
vulnerable communities, with the impact most pronounced among the lowest
income groups. These programmes should also target men, so both men and
women know the importance of nutrition, especially for pregnant women and
young children.
However, it is important not to overlook the impact that an increasing role in
agriculture can have on women’s other roles as care-givers. Strategies should be
identified that will increase opportunities for women to participate in agriculture
and that reduce burdens on their time. Time-saving investments – such as
processing equipment, access to water, or transportation – can be essential to
enable women to increase their incomes and serve as care-givers. Supporting
men to increase their participation in care-giving can also ease time pressures on
women, and transform unequal gender relations.” (2012)
“Support women farmers: Donors and governments must 161ecognize the key
role of women as food producers and providers and ensure that they have equal
access to vital resources, knowledge and income. The wider community should
understand the value of producing and preparing nutritious food and the value in
using the income they have generated to purchase the right kinds of food.
Critical to success is that programmes are combined with other programmes,
that have a proven impact on nutrition outcomes.” (2012)
“Policies must take specific account of the fact that the majority of small-scale

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 farmers are women, who are balancing childcare responsibilities and farming.
Agricultural policies that take women away from their children for long periods
may be detrimental to improvements in nutrition in the population.” (2009)
UN HLTF “It [any intervention to promote food and nutrition security] should incorporate
support that is sensitive to the specific needs of women, acknowledging the roles
they play in the agricultural workforce as main food producers and in the
household as caretakers. Closing the gender gap in agricultural production is
vital for reducing poverty, hunger and malnutrition.” (UCFA)
“Priority should also be given to technologies that …reduce manual labour and
save energy (particularly the demand for women’s labour on the farm)” (UCFA)
“Smallholders – especially women – need to have secure, affordable and
sustainable access to well-managed natural resources (land, water and
biodiversity), energy, agricultural credit and loans, market facilities, market
information, infrastructure, appropriate technology, training, education,
extension and advisory services." (UCFA)
“Special care needs to be given to ensuring women’s access to productive
resources...Technical advice should be adapted to reach women farmers, ethnic
minorities and other vulnerable groups.” (UCFA)
“Address basic energy needs of smallholders and rural households through low-
carbon energy options, and develop the measures to make these options
accessible, addressing women’s specific fuel and energy needs.” (UCFA)
“Invest in agricultural research on food crops, animal production, aquaculture
and inland fisheries in ways that reflect the interests of women and are sensitive
to the challenge of improving nutrition.” (UCFA)
“Support development of, and strengthen, producer organizations in which
women participate on an equal footing.” (UCFA)
UN SCN “Reducing gender inequity is an important part of the solution to global hunger.
Close associations exist between improved household welfare and empowering
women in terms of asset control, education and political participation. Within
the agricultural sector, marginalization of female farmers inhibits their economic
and political empowerment and is a serious constraint to improved food and
nutrition security.”
World Bank One of four main messages: “Invest in women: safeguard and strengthen the
capacity of women to provide for the food security, health and nutrition of
their families.”
“A large percentage of rural women are employed in the formal or informal
agriculture sector, with women contributing over 50 percent of the
agriculture labor force in many developing countries. Impacting on their
lives through ARD investments through increased incomes, reduced workloads,
or greater control over incomes will have a large direct impact on nutrition
outcomes for both the women, and the entire household.”
“There is strong evidence from improvement of women’s status,
particularly when combined with nutrition education, on nutrition impact.
A multi-country analysis found that improvements in women’s status and
education were responsible for over half of the reductions in child underweight
from 1970-1995 (Smith and Haddad 2000). Women’s low status and decision-

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making power in South Asia is a large part of the explanation for the “Asian
enigma” of higher undernutrition rates than sub-Saharan Africa despite greater
economic growth. Since gender, like nutrition, is not a sector, the chance of
improving women’s status and gender equity in practice rests with other sectors.
Among all aspects of women empowerment, the most relevant for nutrition are:
(i) increasing women’s access to and control over resources (primarily incomes),
and (ii) reducing time constraints.
Increasing women’s discretionary incomes: A large body of evidence across
many regions consistently finds that income controlled by women has a
significantly greater positive effect on child nutrition and household food
security than income controlled by men. Projects that increase the likelihood that
women are able to control resources accruing from their labor (through inclusion
of training and market opportunities for crops and animal products women sell,
for example), improve gender equity and are likely to improve nutrition as well.
Reducing time and labor constraints: There is a careful balance that needs to
be struck between nutritional gains from improved incomes and potential losses
from increased time burden. Agriculture projects that increase time or labor
required from women can have unintended negative consequences. When
affordable child care services are unavailable, care of babies may be relegated to
child siblings (usually older girls), children may be breastfed less often, time for
food preparation may be limited resulting in less nutritious diets, family
members may be less likely to access health services, other agricultural
production may suffer and women may avoid off-farm income-earning
opportunities. Excessive maternal activity during pregnancy may also result in
increased risk of poor birth outcomes. Time-intensive projects can also come at
the expense of other income-generating activities that would result in women’s
control of income, the importance of which is addressed above. This points to a
need for time-saving and productivity-enhancing technologies for gender-
specific tasks carried out by women (e.g. weeding, food processing).”
“Promotion of time saving technologies: Promotion of technologies that
improve productivity and time savings for productive and domestic tasks
performed by women. WDR 2012 shows that for reasons that remain
unexplained, even when women contribute a substantial fraction (or in some
cases, all) of earned household income, they continue to be largely responsible
for housework and care work. Therefore, realizing women’s dominant role in
this area, any technology that would save time on tasks performed by women
would result in more time for women to dedicate to domestic tasks or income
generating activities.
Good practice examples:
 Easier to use and lighter farming tools for tasks typically carried out by
women, e.g. planting, weeding, grinding.
 Plastic drum seeders for direct seeding instead of broadcasting or
transplanting rice seedlings, allowing for mechanized weeding as seeds are
deposited in straight lines.
 Mechanized mills to replace hand pounding or grating (e.g. in Botswana
sorghum mills have reduced the time needed to process 20 kg of sorghum

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 from 2-4 hours to 2-4 minutes).
 Water and fuel wood collection is a time consuming task primarily carried
out by women and children. As such, rainwater harvesting, protected
springs, wheelbarrows, donkey carts, treadle pumps to significantly shorten
time that women spend on these activities.”
“Good practice example: The Asian Development Bank supported Community
Livestock Development project in Nepal recognized that women contribute
about 70 percent of the work in livestock rearing. To increase female
participation in technology-related training at district and regional centers far
away from their home and village, the project provided child care facilities at
training sites.”
World Vision “Women are key actors in children’s health and nutrition, as well as the
agriculture sector. Food security and other welfare gains such as improved
nutrition are strongly linked to the provision of greater economic
opportunities and increased decision-making power for women. Improving
poor women’s access to income-earning opportunities and productive assets
is vital, to strengthen the ability of women to meet their household
responsibilities for children’s health and nutrition.”
Appropriate agriculture/livelihoods interventions should:
Invest in poor women’s leadership. …Strengthening women’s access to
productive resources such as land, credit, seed, fertilizer, and information, as
well as improving market access should be part of support to agricultural
development. However, access to opportunities must be accompanied by
programs (such as PD/Hearth) that recognize and build on poor women’s
priorities and knowledge; the purpose here is to support women’s leadership and
confidence-building, so that they can translate opportunity into action.”
“Supporting poor women’s leadership: Positive Deviance
(PD) Hearth. PD Hearth is a participatory, community-based program designed
to sustainably reduce child under-nutrition. The program identifies health-
promoting 164aximize practiced by caretakers of well-nourished children from
poor families and brings communities together to discuss these positive
practices, with the objective of transferring such positive practices more widely
in the community. The PD/Hearth approach particularly recognizes the expertise
of women and strengthens their leadership role in addressing key development
challenges in their communities. [It can result in] Development of community
solidarity and leadership (particularly women’s leadership and self-confidence)
to address malnutrition; Participation of the absolute poorest families within a
community (who are often excluded), with an active role for a family members.”

Nutrition education
Organization Indicative quotes from guidance papers
ACF “Local perception of what constitutes a healthy diet often differs
substantially from a nutritionist perspective. Better understanding of these
concepts will aid in developing nutrition promotion and behaviour change

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strategy that is more likely to succeed.”
“Systematically account for nutrition promotion and changes in behavior:
To enhance the impact of the project, always include nutrition promotion in
projects that are shorter than one year and construct a comprehensive behavior
change strategy (BCS), based on behavior change communication, for longer-
term projects. The messages for nutrition promotion will be defined in
collaboration with the nutrition and MHCP teams and delivered by project
teams. Behaviour change strategy, on the contrary, is a long-term strategy that
aims at changing deeprooted behaviour and will be designed and piloted by the
MHCP teams. This said, the country where you work may have already
developed its own nutrition agenda including national protocols for acute
malnutrition, food-based dietary guidelines, nutrition messages and IEC
material…. Changes in nutrition practices and behavior may be accounted for
through pre-post KAP surveys. It is however relatively easy to measure change
in knowledge, but it is difficult to measure sustainable change in practices and
behaviour.”
GUIDANCE 8 – INCLUDE NUTRITION PROMOTION & BEHAVIOUR
CHANGE STRATEGY
nutrition promotion = “delivering simple and key messages to encourage good
nutrition practices.”
BCS = “a much longer-term strategy that seeks to change deep-rooted
behaviours and requires time and a thorough knowledge of the context you
work in.”
8.1 Conduct formative research to gain insight into the barriers and
opportunities to change behaviour and to define an appropriate BCS
“Importantly, people have to understand and agree with the benefits of adopting
a new behaviour. It is therefore crucial to have a thorough understanding of why
people behave the way they do and what they are willing to change, if you
intend to change their behaviour.” [lists some key questions in exploring
existing behaviours and factors influencing them]
8.2 Stick to a narrow set of well-tailored, actionable nutrition messages.
…FAO supports countries in developing their own food-based dietary
guidelines (FBDG). FBDG are the practical way to reach the nutritional goals
for a population and present several advantages…Check with FAO or relevant
national body if FBDG have been issued, as they are very helpful for nutrition
behavior. Find more at
http://www.fao.org/ag/humannutrition/nutritioneducation/fbdg/en/
8.3 Add participatory cooking demonstrations to the agenda
…help households to learn how to cook nutritious meals, handle food safely
and learn about the nutritional needs of family members. Promote the
adoption of fuel-efficient stoves as traditional open-air stoves are fuel
consuming and slow in reaching appropriate cooking temperatures.
8.4 Reach out through multiple means and channels. …it is preferable to
build on local capacity and traditions, and to use multiple delivery channels and
contact points. Support home visits: CHWs, auxiliary nurses, trained birth
attendants, agricultural extension agents or nutrition volunteers who are trained

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 in nutrition behavior change can conduct home visits. Use existing, informal
groups such as women’s groups (savings groups, mother’s groups
etc.)…Organise community gatherings…Explore other opportunities to pass
your messages, e.g. market days, primary schools, religious centres etc., dramas,
storytelling and other performances…Mass media such as radio, television,
billboards, and posters also help create awareness of specific behaviours and
complement individual behaviour change programming.”
Bioversity “Basic principles in designing a successful intervention: 7. Make
International recommendations concise and actionable to improve usability and
understandability for the community. 9. Design appropriate communication
strategies. Evaluate what will make the information functionally available to the
greatest number of people.”
“The PD approach promotes behavior change that comes from within the
community, allowing it to be language and medium appropriate because it is
culturally relevant, based on preexisting strengths and assets within the
community, not expert driven, and “generative”, or having the ability to build
upon itself…”
“Awareness-based Interventions: Community based education is the basis of
these interventions where resources available are adequate, but access is
restricted functionally due to socio-cultural behavior patterns or public health
complications. Ensuring that families are not nutritionally compromised because
of unclean food handling, lack of understanding of the caloric needs of specific
individuals within the family, or other complications of understanding.”
EC “evidence shows gains in production, income, household food security, dietary
intake and fewer micronutrient deficiencies as a result of the [HFP]
interventions, especially when combined with other components — education,
maximize change and women’s empowerment.”
FANTA “When agricultural programs are combined with well-designed health and
nutrition education, significant changes in participant consumption behaviors are
reported… Increased access enables participants to purchase or stock more and
better quality food. New health and nutrition knowledge and improved practices
create an extra incentive to produce more, diversify production, and retain more
food for household consumption.” (2001)
“Evidence shows that additional agricultural income in the form of one’s own
production or cash earnings from crop or livestock sales is more likely to be
spent on food if …The incremental income is earned or controlled by
women…[and] training in health and nutrition is provided. Similarly,
agricultural interventions can strengthen the link between consumption and
nutrition, such as by incorporating well-designed health and nutrition training
into agricultural programs.” (2001)
“RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPROVING NUTRITION IMPACTS
 Take advantage of group-based activities (e.g., marketing associations,
small-scale agroprocessing plants, and microfinance clubs) to convey
nutrition messages and lessons.
 Know the audience (women, men, different age or ethnic groups, etc.) to
understand the messages that will be most effective.” (2001)

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 “Nutrition messages need to be practical, reflecting local nutrition issues and
what is manageable within the clients’ resource constraints. If more frequent
breastfeeding is being promoted, for example, the project design needs to be
flexible enough to allow extra time for women to breastfeed. Messages designed
for men should mirror their unique responsibilities in providing good nutrition
for their families. Examples include educating men on which snack foods are
nutritious and how certain agricultural practices can increase health and
environmental risks.” (2001)
“Design the agricultural intervention to facilitate, and not inhibit, the adoption
of the nutrition messages and practices being promoted.” (2001)
“Education and behavior change communications can complement
agricultural interventions aimed at improving nutritional status. While
agricultural interventions increase the potential for improved nutritional
outcomes by increasing food availability and access, only when they are
combined with well-designed nutrition education have significant changes in the
participants behaviors and nutritional status consistently been recorded.
Agricultural interventions address the food access element, while nutrition
training addresses intake and utilization. Training can introduce new behaviors
and help break down stereotypes against low-status, but nutrient-dense foods.
Such education can be geared to both men and women, sensitizing men to the
importance of daily nutrition and childcare to the health and productivity of their
children. Based on these observations, one general recommendation is to factor
in education and communication about nutrition whenever possible, either as
part of an agriculture project or through collaboration with other development
activities. Health and nutrition messages should be limited to a manageable
number and well-tailored to the beneficiary community’s needs. These messages
should relate to the agricultural intervention as well (for example, introducing
improved crop varieties and cultural practices could be combined with nutrition
education and techniques of preserving and preparing foods using the new crop).
Education is most effective with groups that meet on a regular basis. Some have
argued that attendance for nutrition education is highest when it is attached to
another mandatory (credit repayment) or financially rewarding (agricultural
cooperative) meeting, but others have found that access to training is sometimes
an incentive for participating in a group.” (1999)
FAO “The food and agriculture sector therefore has a major role to play in…
providing appropriate information to consumers and in particular to poor
households so that they can make the best use of locally available foods and
cover their nutritional requirements, particularly of small children and women.”
“Food-based interventions must be systematically combined with appropriate
nutrition education at community level and capacity building of local
institutions, in order to improve dietary habits and feeding practices, especially
of infants and young children, and ensure appropriate and safe handling and
preparation of foods. This is also essential to influence local production systems
and enhance their contribution to sustainable diets. Schools are a key entry point
for improved food and nutrition at local level.” (2010)
“In addition, to maximize the efficiency of nutrition security initiatives,

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agricultural interventions should include strategies to increase nutrition
education, empower women and optimize household use of resources.” (2009)
“Nutrition education programmes: One of the principal aims of nutrition
education is to provide people with adequate information, skills and motivation
to procure and to consume appropriate foods. Education programmes can focus
on strategies to improve family food supplies and efficient utilization of
available food and economic resources to provide well balanced diets and better
care for vulnerable groups. Nutrition education programmes should have at least
three components, which are directed at various social groups:
■ Increasing nutrition knowledge and awareness of the public and policymakers.
■ Promoting desirable healthy food choices and nutritional practices.
■ Increasing diversity and quantity of family food supplies.
Incorporating these three components into nutrition education and training
programmes in ministries of agriculture, education and health can help to
facilitate improvement in local food and nutrition conditions…Both traditional
and new methods are needed to reach large sections of the population, including
school children, youth, men and women in the workplace and at home.” (2004)
“In countries where the operation of the market as a mechanism for the
coordination of production and the consumption of food is relied upon,
[governments, in collaboration with all parties concerned and supported where
necessary by appropriate legislative measures should] develop education and
communication programmes so that nutrition objectives can be achieved through
appropriate consumer choice based on enhanced consumer awareness and
knowledge, and encourage the development of social welfare policies that will
enable the more vulnerable population groups to exercise informed dietary
choice…[and] incorporate appropriate and relevant elements of nutrition in
school curricula, starting from primary school.” (2004)
“Design farming systems with sufficient variety in the crop mix to provide a
balanced diet and meet the nutrient requirements (energy, protein, vitamins and
mineral salts) of the target group, which includes resource-poor, small farmers
and their communities…Access by farmers to coordinated advice on nutrition
and production-related issues is essential at this point.” (2001)
“Include, within extension policies, provision for disseminating research results,
information and advice to farmers. These provisions should cover all factors of
production including marketing, post harvest handling, processing, utilization
and nutritional qualities. Since many resource poor farmers may be illiterate,
wider use of mass media, such as radio and television, (where applicable) needs
to be considered.” (2001)
“Provide information and advice on appropriate food processing and utilization
methods that reduce nutrient losses, and on specific combinations of foods that
provide adequate nutrient balance…
“Provide farmers with information on reduction of post-harvest losses, handling,
and short-and long-term storage for preserving the nutritional quality of foods.
This is in addition to agronomic advice.” (2001)
“Establish local farmers’ associations that can organize educational activities for
farmers concerning various farming programmes.” (2001)

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 “Conduct on-farm trials and demonstrations with farmers and extension
workers.” (2001)
IFPRI “Projections show rising trends in consumption of livestock, dairy, and other
foods that make intensive use of energy and cereals, with worrisome
implications for global food security and the environment. Thus it will also be
important to work with consumer, public health, and environmental groups to
find ways of encouraging people to adopt sustainable patterns of food
consumption.”
IYCN “Integrate nutrition counseling. Including nutrition counseling through
agricultural extension can be highly useful, particularly when women are
counseled.” (fact sheet)
Save the “Education about nutrition should be maximized to encourage farmers to spend
Children UK their increased income on more nutritious food.” (2012)
“NUTRITION EDUCATION
As discussed in chapter 2 and defined in the Lancet package, promoting the best
foods and best ways to feed children between the ages of 6 to 24 months is vital.
In many cases nutrition education should be provided at the same time as
agriculture projects, in order to maximize the benefits. For example, information
should be shared about the value of certain garden fruits and vegetables in
addressing vitamin A deficiency and how best to prepare food so that it is safe
and nutritious – for example, by adding green leaves to family dhal (lentils). In
developed countries, children are often taught about the value of good nutrition
both through health services and in schools, where subjects like food technology
are included on national curricula.”
“Targeting women through a combination of nutrition education and agricultural
support is an effective strategy for reducing malnutrition in the most vulnerable
communities, with the impact most pronounced among the lowest income
groups. These programmes should also target men, so both men and women
know the importance of nutrition, especially for pregnant women and young
children.” (2012)
UN HLTF “…policies and investments for food and nutrition security should have the
following characteristics: …d. Ensuring that households — and all individuals
within them — are able to purchase, access and use the food they need through
benefiting from…Knowledge and understanding on nutrition and care,
especially needs in pregnancy and childhood” (2012)
“Support the production, access to and consumption of locally produced, highly
nutritional, quality products through training of agricultural extension agents and
other service providers. Accompany these actions with the intensification of
nutrition education and consumer awareness programmes, supported by
multimedia campaigns.” (UCFA)

In the context of immediate assistance to meet needs: “Disseminate

information to all poor households, especially those led by women. National
and local media need to be mobilized to help develop and disseminate culturally
appropriate information, in local languages, to promote a healthy diet,

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 breastfeeding and food hygiene, and to dispel inappropriate food taboos and
restrictions. Knowledge and information about diet and the impact of an
inadequate diet should be communicated in a culturally sensitive way.” (UCFA)
“Support the production, access to and consumption of locally produced, highly
nutritional, quality products through training of agricultural extension agents and
other service providers. Accompany these actions with the intensification of
nutrition education and consumer awareness programmes, supported by
multimedia campaigns.” (UCFA)
UN SCN “Ways in which agriculture can sustainably contribute to improving dietary
diversity and nutrition outcomes include support for…education and social
marketing strategies that strengthen local food systems and promote cultivation
and consumption of local micronutrient rich foods…”
“Some of the most important emerging themes for nutrition-friendly agriculture,
essential as part of a broader nutrition-sensitive development framework,
include…Community-based capacity building to improve nutrition:
Strengthening local food systems and promoting education and social marketing
efforts that encourage balanced diets.”
“Promotion of gardens in schools, communities or individual households
increases awareness regarding the importance of good nutrition, building local
capacity, and increasing the physical availability of fruits and vegetables.”
“As the double burden of malnutrition increases in developing countries,
educating consumers regarding the health risks of highly processed foods low in
micronutrient content is increasingly important. This type of nutrition education
is of particular relevance for low-income urban households consuming a high
percentage of their meals outside the home, and for those populations who are
exposed to and consume excessive amounts of processed foods of low nutrient
content.”
World Bank One of four main messages: “Improve nutrition knowledge among rural
households to enhance dietary diversity.”
“Nutrition education enhances dietary consumption effects, as well as
potential for consumer demand. While increased production of nutritious foods
may have some independent impact on dietary consumption and micronutrient
status in theory, the evidence shows that nutrition education around those foods
strongly enhances the effect. A review of food-based approaches to reduce iron
and vitamin A deficiency found that only interventions with education, social
marketing, or mass media demonstrated impact on nutritional outcomes. (Note:
These studies have focused on household-level production and consumption; the
effect of price changes on consumption of nutritious foods, in the absence of
education, has not been well-studied in low-income contexts. However, nutrition
education has also been shown to affect allocation of household food budgets,
and to reduce price elasticity of demand for foods rich in micronutrients.)”

“Studies have found that complementary investments such as nutrition education

and targeting women increase the likelihood of household gardens to show

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 positive nutritional outcomes.”
World Vision “Integrate nutrition education. …Behavior change strategies should
encourage women to: a) recognize the value of producing and/or purchasing a
variety of foods; and b) teach them how to store and prepare those foods to
preserve nutrient content. More recent work points to the importance of
involving fathers…”
“Sustainability of agricultural programme interventions and the nutrition
benefits accruing from such interventions requires a sustained effort in nutrition
education and behavior change and reinforce positive nutrition practices
already existing in communities. These should be linked to existing community
and government capacity building and advocacy mechanisms.” (“Key lessons”)

Nutrition Education: Agriculture staff

Organization Indicative quotes from guidance papers
ACF “Existing evidence suggests that…interventions that include nutrition promotion
involving agricultural extension agents are the most effective.”
Bioversity
International
EC “Regardless of the specific entry point, nutrition training and awareness-
raising is necessary for agricultural workers and decision-makers to
understand the links and work towards achieving them.”
FANTA “RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPROVING NUTRITION IMPACTS
1. Develop a narrow set of well-tailored actionable nutrition messages and
lessons that extension agents can disseminate at farmer association meetings
and during the course of their regular extension activities.
2. Develop nutrition messages that are basic enough so that agricultural
extension agents can deliver them accurately and with confidence.” (2001)
“Extension agents should know more about, and provide information on,
gardening and nutrition, especially in relation to the crops, technologies,
and practices the agents are promoting. Health messages spread by extension
agents could be better focused by targeting specific health issues in the agent’s
jurisdiction. Nutrition education could be incorporated into projects that work
with traditional or nontraditional crops.” (1999)
FAO “Agriculture-based interventions to improve nutrition security : agricultural
extension services provide nutrition education at the community level” (2009)
“The extension service potentially plays the crucial role of mediator between
research institutions and farmers regarding issues of production, processing and
utilization. The involvement of extension services in incorporating nutrition into
agricultural research plans and programmes is therefore, crucial.” (2001)
“Include, within extension policies, provision for disseminating research results,
information and advice to farmers. These provisions should cover all factors of
production including marketing, post harvest handling, processing, utilization
and nutritional qualities.” (2001)
“Train extension and nutrition workers in the production and distribution of
training materials and information leaflets for nutrition education of the rural

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 poor.” (2001)
IFPRI
IYCN “Integrate nutrition counseling. Including nutrition counseling through
agricultural extension can be highly useful, particularly when women are
counseled.” (fact sheet)
Save the “…promoting the best foods and best ways to feed children between the ages of
Children UK 6 to 24 months is vital. In many cases nutrition education should be provided at
the same time as agriculture projects, in order to maximize the benefits. This
education can be provided by agriculture extension officers (who provide advice
and services to farmers), community health workers, public awareness
campaigns and nutrition education in schools.” (2012)
UN HLTF “Support the production, access to and consumption of locally produced, highly
nutritional, quality products through training of agricultural extension agents and
other service providers. Accompany these actions with the intensification of
nutrition education and consumer awareness programmes, supported by
multimedia campaigns.” (UCFA)
UN SCN “Extension advice, especially that geared towards women and school-based
nutrition services, is thus necessary to “activate” the latent nutrition aspects of
many agricultural development projects and programmes. For example,
promotion of traditional cropping systems should be accompanied by extension-
based education services stressing the importance not just of growing, but also
of consuming a diversity of foods. Extension services which encourage crop
diversification, for example via distribution of high-nutrient foods such as
orange-fleshed sweet potatoes, must be accompanied by education and social
marketing efforts to encourage increased intake of these foods (Low et al.,
2007)… Education programmes that are extension or school-based can also
promote food safety.”
World Bank “Several [other] guidance papers on linking agriculture and nutrition recommend
the delivery of simple nutrition messages around specific crops via agricultural
extension agents or other technical experts. This approach can be effective if
messages are targeted exactly to the farmers growing the crops, and packaged
together with delivery of seeds or other pertinent information about the crop. In
many contexts it is normal for such a worker to talk to farm households about
both food production and consumption decisions. Close coordination between
agriculture and health sector staff can also be effective. Challenges include the
fact that only 15 percent of extension agents globally are women, and in Africa,
a mere seven percent. Given the reality that food security and nutrition messages
are most likely to be effectively delivered by and to women, this poses a
challenge, especially in contexts where the social norm prevents women from
interacting with non-family males. Including men in nutrition education,
however, is also an important practice.”
“Potential trade-offs: Adding food security and nutrition training could overload
already overburdened extension workers or technical service providers.”
World Vision

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Manage natural resources
Organization Indicative quotes from guidance papers
ACF “Promote legumes, such as beans and lentils, as they are rich in energy and a
good source of both macro and micronutrients (especially protein and iron).
Legumes also improve soil fertility.”
6.2.3 Promote biodiversity and sustainable agricultural practices
“The conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity for food and
agriculture play a critical role in the fight against undernutrition, by
ensuring environmental sustainability while increasing food and
agricultural production. Agricultural biodiversity is one sustainable way to
cope with the coming challenges and uncertainties, including the decreased
availability of natural resources. It helps to raise the productivity of small-scale
farmers and increase resilience to climate change (see Box 19 on conservation
agriculture and Box 20 on agricultural biodiversity). Promoting diversity will
help maintain and rehabilitate productive ecosystems to supply future
generations with abundant food and agriculture. For more guidance on low-input
and sustainable agricultural practices in general, refer to ACF position paper and
user’s manuals on pesticides, fertilisers and seeds as well as the manual on low
input agriculture. Encourage integrated farming systems where livestock and
crops coexist independently from each other but interact to create a synergy,
with recycling allowing the maximum use of available resources…”
“…[insects, worms, termites] also offer particular benefits to those who want to
reduce their environmental footprint, because they are exceptionally efficient in
converting what they eat into tissue that can be consumed by others – about
twice as efficient as chickens and pigs, and more than five times as efficient as
beef cattle.”
Bioversity “Agroecological Interventions…address issues of resource accessibility, market
International flows, agronomic practice, and production decision making on both the
household and local level. Quality and quantity of products, as well as the
capacity of the local agroecosystem to meet nutritional needs can be improved
through adjustments in soil fertility, increased sharing of resources, creating new
market opportunities, promoting intensification and diversification in cropping,
and many other aspects of agroecological systems.”
EC “Environmental changes (e.g. 173inimizing173n, loss of natural resources and
biological diversity) affect key determinants of nutrition wellbeing. For instance,
climate change with its higher frequency and severity of extreme weather events
(e.g. droughts, floods) alters access to food which is 173inimizin by droughts,
water scarcity and floods; [and] health status with diarrhoeal diseases is
expected to increase and some infections likely to spread to new areas. These
changes will particularly affect those who are less able to adapt, threatening
already strained livelihoods, deepening poverty and increasing undernutrition. It
is essential that action prioritises those most affected by undernutrition: women,
young children and the poorest households.
Possible entry points for [improving nutrition through agriculture] include:
Conducive investments and services:
increasing the productivity of small-scale farming through good agricultural

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 practice (e.g. improving soil fertility, control of soil erosion, water conservation)
Conducive natural resource management:
• securing access to land (e.g. land use rights) and other productive resources
(e.g. water) for poor or marginalized groups (e.g. ethnic minorities, emergency-
affected populations, pastoralists depending on the context);
• adaptation to the effects of climate change (e.g. to the foreseen reduction in
water availability in sub-Saharan Africa);
• risk mitigation and management of climatic shocks and natural hazards (e.g.
droughts, floods, pests).
Possible entry points for [improving nutrition through the environment and
sustainable management of natural resources] include:
“restoring or enhancing natural resources (e.g. rangeland rehabilitation, re-
vegetation of stream banks)
pro-poor, efficient and integrated management of water resources including
controlling for potential negative impacts, such as an increase in water-borne
diseases.”
FANTA
FAO “...essential to influence local production systems and enhance their contribution
to sustainable diets.” (2010)
“Agriculture-based interventions to improve nutrition security: subsidy
programmes increase availability of fertilizers supplemented with
micronutrients” [– then the brief notes that this approach may be particularly
important in the warm sub-humid tropics –] “a common problem in this zone is
inability of farmers to invest in fertilizers needed to overcome soil acidity, due
to both lack of availability and purchasing power. Although fertilizer use is
typically associated with production potential and food security, enhancing the
micronutrient and trace element (iodine, zinc, iron) content of crops by applying
enriched fertilizers to the soil also may improve nutrition security. Although this
measure alone is insufficient to address dietary deficiencies, it can be used in
conjunction with other nutrition-based interventions to maximize efficacy.
Micronutrient-enriched fertilizers have particular potential where input subsidy
schemes already reach large numbers of farmers.” (2009)
“…promote environmentally sound and economically viable farming systems to
increase crop production and maintain soil quality to encourage resource
management and resource recycling; encourage intensive food production at the
farm and household levels, taking account of prevailing local conditions; and
develop more effective techniques for the traditional production of food at the
household and community levels.” (2004)
“…policies in agriculture need to encourage access to means of production such
as land, credit, improved seeds, water, extension services, inputs and appropriate
technology [for small-scale farmers].” (2004)
“Agricultural policies should be designed in such a way that they promote: cost-
effective and environmentally friendly poverty reduction programmes that
ensure increased productivity;” (2001)
“Collaborate with extension services and agents in order to ensure the adoption
of environmentally friendly crop protection methods and continued availability

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 of key inputs, such as fertilizers, irrigation, machinery, equipment, and
appropriate seed and planting materials, which are necessary for farmers to
adopt research findings and recommendations effectively.” (2001)
“Assist farmers with information on proper and efficient use of irrigation
systems, especially in those situations where available irrigation water is scarce.
Advise on timing of irrigation activities that will conserve the supply.” (2001)
“Promote the adoption of integrated pest and crop production management
practices for environmentally safe crop production and utilization.” (2001)
IFPRI “Stress on natural resources, especially water resources—exacerbated by climate
change—and rising costs of inputs such as fertilizers and pesticides may cause
farmers to adopt farming practices that are harmful to their own health and to the
health of consumers and that are ultimately not sustainable.”
IYCN
Save the “A global commission – featuring experts on agriculture, nutrition, climate and
Children UK economics – recently recommended: “Investment, innovation and deliberate
efforts to empower the world’s most vulnerable populations will be required to
construct a global food system that adapts to climate change and ensures food
security while minimizing greenhouse gas emissions and sustaining our natural
resource base.” (2012)
“A wide range of strategies will be needed to deal with the securing of land
rights, crop diversification, effective regulation of informal labour markets,
improved access to markets and, where necessary, economic support for
agricultural inputs.” (2009)
UN HLTF “The well-being of smallholders depends on their maintaining access to natural,
financial and technical resources. This needs to be fully protected.” (2012)
“policies and investments for food and nutrition security should have the
following characteristics: a. Encouraging the production of more food while —
at the same time — protecting natural resources and supporting inclusive rural
development…” (2012)
“Efforts to increase productivity have led, in some cases, to pressure on natural
resources (water, land, energy, biodiversity and ecosystem services) and to
environmental damage, especially in parts of the world with fragile ecosystems.
Hence the absolute need for policies that combine sustainable intensification of
food production and equitable distribution so that all people have access to
sufficient, safe and nutritious food at all times.” (2012)
“[Sustainable agriculture] also calls for the intensive application of knowledge
in making such systems function sustainably and in the best interests of
everyone, from producer to user. In practice, this means appreciating the diverse
ways in which food is produced (and the traditional knowledge involved), and
support for the testing and, if appropriate, adoption of modern science and
technologies in local settings. It means careful and limited use of inorganic
fertilizer and pesticides, making the most efficient use of water, conserving soil,
combining forestry, crops and livestock production…” (2012)
“The promotion of technology for improving food and nutrition security must
take account of climate change…Priority should also be given to technologies
that improve soil health – such as integrated soil and water management…

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Smallholders should be provided with incentives to adopt low carbon energy
mechanisms along the food chain and increase the use of bioenergy and other
types of renewable energy within agriculture.” (UCFA)
“OUTCOME 2.3: ECOSYSTEMS ARE BETTER MANAGED FOR FOOD
AND NUTRITION SECURITY” (UCFA)
“Within any society, farmers – particularly smallholders – are most likely to be
affected by changing climate, degradation of the environment and increasing
competition over natural resources. Long-term food and nutrition security
depends on the ways in which ecosystems are managed and access to natural
resources is governed. Actions of the Framework for better managed ecosystems
include:
Strengthen ecosystem monitoring and assessment …
Improve natural resource management within agricultural ecosystems to
improve their efficiency and resilience, particularly in the face of climate
change.
Improve soil management to reduce degradation and erosion, store carbon, retain
water and increase soil fertility. This in turn can yield direct benefits to
agricultural productivity and resilience, as well as indirect benefits in the form of
higher returns to capital inputs (such as fertilizer and irrigation). One approach
to improve soil management is to apply the three principles of Conservation
Agriculture: minimal soil disturbance, permanent soil cover and crop rotations.
Improve agrobiodiversity – including plant, animal, fish and associated
biodiversity (and interactions between them) – as it is important to the
maintenance of genetic resources for community and regional food production
systems; control pest and disease incidence through practices such as Integrated
Pest Management; provide greater yield stability; create opportunities for plant
breeding to develop varieties that perform better under environmental stress;
manage ecosystem services such as pollination; support ecosystem resilience
and adaptability to climate change; and promote sustainable diets in local
markets.
Improve rights to water use and water management in rainfed and irrigated
systems, including at river-basin level, to improve productivity and water use
efficiency, promote ecosystem services, and account for competing uses.
Develop programmes based on the progress of agricultural science and
knowledge… including better-referenced and validated indigenous knowledge.
Ensure that local communities (particularly women) have the capacity to be fully
involved in the development and implementation of strategies to improve natural
resource management.
Improve mechanisms to support sustainable management of agricultural
ecosystems. These include:
 policies for pricing, distribution and use of inputs (e.g. fertilizer,
pesticides, seeds) if and when they are needed (ensuring that policies are
appropriate to local conditions and are sensitive to the natural capacity
for ecosystem to recover);
 the functioning of institutions governing property rights and access to
resources (management of collective lands, pastoral systems, plant

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 genetic resources for food and agriculture, irrigation systems and
fisheries);
 capacities of farmers to manage investments and to access new
technologies (extension programmes, farmer field schools); payment of
farmers for environmental services (agricultural labelling, direct
payments for conservation/mitigation); and
 tools to manage transitional and long-term risks (e.g. community-based
early warning and disaster risk management systems and weather
insurance).”
UN SCN “Ways in which agriculture can sustainably contribute to improving dietary
diversity and nutrition outcomes include support for… integrated agro-forestry
systems that reduce deforestation and promote harvesting of nutrient-rich forest
products.”
“Some of the most important emerging themes for nutrition-friendly agriculture,
essential as part of a broader nutrition-sensitive development framework,
include…environmental sustainability: Improving agricultural production
practices to address environmental concerns such as biodiversity, sustainable use
of resources, and livestock sector reform. …Intercropping, integrated agro-
forestry systems and cultivation of locally adapted varieties are examples.”
“Increasing smallholder production to improve food and nutrition security
requires investment in the following: improving availability of seeds and other
inputs; developing water resources; strengthening and expanding agricultural
cooperatives and farmers’ organizations; measures for sustainable resource
management and conservation of biodiversity…”
“One of the primary constraints smallholders face is access to seeds and other
inputs. Subsidy schemes, programmes that promote soil fertility and sustainable
land management, input market development, and support for farm equipment
and structures can increase access to inputs for small farmers. For seeds, early
generation multiplication and strengthened distribution systems are measures
that can be taken at municipal and district level, while seed production can be
undertaken by farmers’ organizations at village level. Bangladesh, Lao People’s
Democratic Republic, Lesotho and Uganda are examples of countries working to
strengthen the capacity of farmers’ organizations for seed production (FAO,
2009j). When community seed production is working well, it can facilitate the
adoption of improved and locally adapted varieties, reduce transaction and
transport costs, and reach even the smallest and most vulnerable smallholders.”
“In Nepal, farmers are encouraged to invest in micro-irrigation, comprising low-
cost drip systems, rainwater harvesting tanks, treadle pumps, rower pumps and
dug wells, which irrigate up to 0.5 hectares of land (FAO, 2009j). These systems
suit smallholders, whose productivity and cropping intensity can be doubled if
access to irrigation is assured.”
“Strategies aimed at boosting production should include actions that protect
natural resources. Integrated pest management attempts to control pests through
the influence of natural predators and parasites, thereby reducing the need for
pesticides. Integrated soil fertility management combines the use of both
inorganic and organic fertilizers, such as composts, manures and nitrogen-fixing

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 plants, to increase yields, rebuild depleted soils, improve moisture retention and
protect the natural resource base (FAO, 2009j). In addition, promotion of
traditional cropping systems and crop diversification can protect the natural
resource base via decreased use of chemical fertilizers and improved soil
fertility.”
“In addition to country-level recommendations, regulatory frameworks and
agreements should support standard-setting initiatives that promote food and
nutrition security within a global context. Areas of focus should include…
preservation of biodiversity, and conservation, sound management and
sustainable use of natural resources, e.g. promotion of integrated agro-forestry
systems…”
World Bank “Zinc and iodine fertilizers can increase nutrient content of food in areas where
soils, and therefore the foods produced, are low in these important human
micronutrients. Applying zinc as a fertilizer to the soil can double or triple zinc
content of cereal grains, depending on the crop species and variety.”
“Rangeland management or soil carbon sequestration projects that increase
legume production for food or fodder: Legumes are an important source of
nutrition to both humans and livestock by providing protein, minerals, fiber and
vitamins. By biologically fixing nitrogen in the soil, legumes also provide a
relatively low-cost method of replacing otherwise expensive inorganic nitrogen
in the soil. Moreover, legumes also improve other soil physical properties,
provide ground cover and reduce soil erosion, increase soil organic matter,
microbial activity and lowers soil temperature and suppress weeds and pests.
Legumes are crops grown primarily by women in many settings, and women
often prefer to grow edible species of legume to meet their combined goals of
food security, fodder, and soil improvement. Potential trade-off: Increased land
management with legumes may require more labor. Increases in women’s labor
may reduce time spent on other important tasks.”
World Vision “Appropriate agriculture/livelihoods interventions should:
Be designed to smooth consumption in poor households throughout the year.
… This is particularly important for nutritionally vulnerable groups such as
children under 5, who have a very small window of time before reductions in
quantity and quality of food can cause severe and often irreversible health and
cognitive impacts… use of locally-adapted seed and livestock varieties,
improved farm management techniques (e.g. conservation farming, improved
post-harvest management, including preservation techniques such as solar
drying) and small-scale irrigation systems (such as drip irrigation) and on and
off-farm livelihoods diversification are all key to building resilience in
smallholder systems…”

Policy coherence
Organization Indicative quotes from guidance papers
ACF “The promotion of nutritionally orientated interventions is expected to achieve
greater results, especially if interventions from different sectors include an

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 indicator of undernutrition to judge overall progress … this requires increasing
policy coherence and collaboration between sectors. Although progress has been
made, countries and donors need to put nutrition on the forefront of the agenda
and make sure that policies complement each other rather than contradict.”
“Cash-based interventions are recognized as having great potential for
improving nutrition and preventing the deterioration of the nutritional
status… Various experiences show that cash transfers are consistently found to
augment household food consumption and dietary diversity, irrespective of their
main objective.”
Bioversity
International
EC “A basic starting point is having nutrition-sensitive national policies that
encourage a multi-sectoral approach to addressing chronic and acute
undernutrition.”
“Entry points for [improving nutrition through food security] are relevant in
emergency and development contexts and include:
-promoting comprehensive policy frameworks to tackle undernutrition and
hunger;…food policy reforms (subsidies, prices, trade, agriculture-sector
investments) and pro-poor policies designed to address disparities in a
sustainable manner.
-facilitating physical and/or economic access [to markets] (including
investments in rural infrastructure such as feeder roads)”
“Social transfer schemes can help reduce undernutrition in several ways.
First, they can be a tool to reduce inequalities and address economic income
poverty at household level. This is of paramount importance as undernutrition
and poverty tend to be closely interrelated. By addressing income poverty and
the economic determinants of undernutrition, social transfers can have an impact
on the three underlying causes: increasing access to food and dietary diversity,
improving quality of care for women and children, and increasing access to
healthcare.”
FANTA “Design the agricultural intervention to facilitate, and not inhibit, the adoption of
the nutrition messages and practices being promoted.” (2001)
“Become more involved in policy issues directly affecting the poor…Small-
scale rural microenterprises, traders, cooperatives, associations, and farmers
would benefit from decentralization of licensing processes. Land reform remains
a pressing issue for women in particular, and the poor in general. Legal codes
and regulations for cooperatives and marketing associations have to be drafted.”
(1999)
“Encourage complementary investments in community health service
infrastructure.” (1999)
FAO “FAO is committed to assisting countries [in]…mainstreaming nutrition
considerations into relevant policies and programmes, thus contributing to long-
term nutrition-sensitive development.” (2010)
“Policy-makers need to be aware of potential effects that various
development policies can have on the poor and nutritionally vulnerable.”
(2004)

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“Macro-economic policies can directly and indirectly impact on the
socioeconomic status of all population groups, and hence nutritional status. For
example, if macro-economic policies do not support the agriculture sector, the
impact on the rural poor is negative since they depend on agriculture for their
livelihood; economic growth decreases; there are fewer employment
opportunities; and income distribution is skewed against the poor, thereby
affecting their nutritional status. In addition, macro-economic policies can
impact negatively on nutritional status if there is reduced national expenditure
on social services…Therefore, policies need to be designed such that their
negative impact on the economic and social lives of the poor is minimized.
Alternatively, population groups that are most negatively affected need to be
identified and targeted with compensatory programmes such as school or
supplementary feeding programmes; subsidies or price moderation; and
provision of health services.” (2004)
“Policies that lead to improvement of infrastructure such as roads, transportation
and communication will enhance improvement of nutritional status through
employment (particularly of unskilled labour), improved food distribution and
decreased food prices…Policies that support financing or small-scale financing
programmes also promote equity and are therefore encouraged…In low-income,
food-deficit countries, population and environmental policies are essential for
sustainable economic growth and improved nutritional status to be realized…”
(2004)
“It would…be helpful to review relevant food laws and regulations. Factors
related to import and export policies, as well as to informal border trade, can
have a great impact not only on diet and food availability, but also on the
outcome of food pricing and subsidy policies.” (2004)
“Price fluctuations of foods consumed primarily by nutritionally vulnerable
groups need to be closely monitored for affordability. When the need arises,
targeted interventions that guarantee and protect access by the vulnerable to
sufficient quantity and quality of food should be put in place.”
“Other conditions within [the agriculture] sector that affect nutrition indirectly
are marketing, pricing, non-release of buffer stocks and absence of land
reforms…Sound environmental policies are encouraged for those who live in
environmentally fragile areas to support their farming activities… Governments
are encouraged to adopt policies that promote the production and availability of
nutritionally adequate foods to all population groups. In most countries where
malnutrition is a public health problem, policy changes relating to export crops
and staples, which could improve availability of domestic food supplies, need to
be assessed.”
“Improve nutrition by directing additional investment into agricultural research
where necessary.” (2004)
“Developing a food security and nutrition policy within the agricultural sector
also requires a strategy for its implementation. The following points offer some
suggestions and supporting information that can facilitate the incorporation of
this strategy into a national development plan
 National agricultural policy needs to support and promote food security

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 of nutritionally vulnerable groups.
 National governments and international agricultural research centres can
encourage their scientists to include goals of enhanced nutrition in their
research proposal objectives at both programme and project levels. Goals
of national agricultural policies may go beyond increasing agricultural
production to include food security, income generation, equity and
improved nutritional status – particularly as pertains to resource poor
smallholder farmers.
 Include nutrition considerations in agriculture sectoral policies, as well
as in policies of other collaborating sectors such as health, education,
finance, economic planning, trade, industry and NGOs. Ultimately,
nutrition needs and considerations should be explicitly elaborated in the
development policy. This could be achieved by establishing a board to
coordinate all activities relating to nutrition.” (2001)
IFPRI “Correct market failures. Markets alone cannot achieve socially optimal
agriculture, nutrition, and health outcomes. It is increasingly clear that
agricultural and other policies have a range of benefits and costs for health,
nutrition, and the environment that market prices do not reflect, especially given
people’s lack of information and knowledge. We need to do a better job of
taking into account the true value— positive and negative—of nutritious foods,
health services, and environmentally beneficial agricultural practices.
Policymakers should use public policies— such as investments, subsidies,
education, trade, and tax policies— to help correct these market failures and
promote policy coherence at all levels.”
“Financial incentives to promote multidisciplinary research should take into
account policy relevance in more than one sector.”
“Look carefully at the downstream effects of subsidies for production or
consumption on consumers’ nutrition and health. Although policymakers
often use nutrition to justify agricultural subsidies, in some cases subsidies may
result in patterns of agricultural production and distribution that ultimately hurt
people’s nutrition and health. Across-the-board, untargeted consumer subsidies,
for example, may help hungry people to acquire more food but, over time, may
distort their consumption choices and crowd out public investments that would
do more to boost nutrition and health.”
“Price policies can be used to promote consumption of more nutritious foods.”
“safety net programs, as well as education and health services, infrastructure,
trade policies, and other factors, make up the larger context within which
advances in agriculture, nutrition, and health will take place. Changes in these
factors will also make a difference to how well the linkages among agriculture,
nutrition, and health operate.”
IYCN
Save the “Projects that support farmers to diversify or increase their production can only
Children UK simultaneously improve nutrition results if policy-makers minimizing the
myriad of factors influencing the diets of children and their families.” (2012)
“the often high cost of a locally available nutritious diet is therefore a huge
barrier to nutrition. Addressing this must be prioritized for interventions to

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 benefit the poorest. Social protection plays an important role in assisting poor
and particularly vulnerable groups to purchase more nutritious foods.” (2012)
“A global commission – featuring experts on agriculture, nutrition, climate and
economics – recently recommended: “Investment, innovation and deliberate
efforts to empower the world’s most vulnerable populations will be required to
construct a global food system that adapts to climate change and ensures food
security while minimizing greenhouse gas emissions and sustaining our natural
resource base.” (2012)
“Identify and address the threats to nutrition from climate change and non-
food land use: The global community, including the G8, the G20 and
international nutrition governance structures, must identify and address the
potential impact of climate change and increasing non-food land use on hunger
and malnutrition, and must ensure that global and national approaches to the
food system integrate nutrition.” (2012)
“Protect families from poverty: Many of the best examples of progress in
tackling malnutrition have come from countries that have invested in effective
social protection policies that reach vulnerable families. Countries should work
towards establishing systems that reach pregnant and breastfeeding women, and
children under two.” (2012)
“A wide range of strategies will be needed to deal with the securing of land
rights, crop diversification, effective regulation of informal labour markets,
improved access to markets and, where necessary, economic support for
agricultural inputs.” (2009)
UN HLTF “Ensuring that sufficient nutritious foods are available to all people, and that
they can both access these foods at all times, and pay for what they need, are
critical elements of all people’s economic and social development. Achieving
this is possible if national policies take account of the nutritional needs of all
members of society, as well as the costs of achieving them. Policies must also
take account of the challenges faced by caregivers in ensuring good nutrition for
their households. They need to be empowered with knowledge on adequate care
and feeding for infants and young children. Policies that enable all people to
enjoy good nutrition are referred to as “nutrition-sensitive.” Sustainable,
nutrition-sensitive agriculture and food security policies help improve the
availability and accessibility of nutritious food, and promote healthy and
sustainable diets and prosperity in rural areas. Access to nutritious food depends
first on the functioning of food markets at local, national, regional and global
levels and second on the extent of social protection that enables all people to
obtain sufficient nutritious food for a healthy, productive life through transfers
of income, food or other assets.” (2012)
“People’s access to the food they need depends on food markets functioning
well at local, national, regional and global levels, and on their ability to pay for
food. Open markets, together with rules and regulations that foster fair trade and
the respect of human rights all contribute to more equitable access. Recourse to
trade-distorting support policies and protectionism should be avoided. In light of
the existing intergovernmental commitments, humanitarian food purchases
should be exempted from export restrictions and extraordinary taxes.

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Sustainable food value chains – from production, through processing, transport
and trade, to consumers – increase the availability of food, generate income, and
help create and maintain decent green jobs.” (2012)
“Analysis of national and regional food systems and their governance
arrangements is critical for improving the functioning of food markets and
identifying the most effective public and private investments. It is also key to
building more coherence between the various sectors involved in food and
nutrition security, including agriculture, health, education, environment, social
services and finance.” (UCFA)
“Ensure that the macroeconomic, budget, trade and sector policy
frameworks provide incentives for sustainable increases in smallholder
production and the development of input and output markets that serve
smallholders (with a focus on meeting the needs of both women and men
farmers). Analysis of national and regional food systems and their governance
arrangements is critical for improving the functioning of food markets and
identifying the most effective public and private investments. It is also key to
building more coherence between the various sectors involved in food and
nutrition security, including agriculture, health, education, environment, social
services and finance.” (UCFA)
“Long-term food and nutrition security policies should contribute to the
resilience of livelihoods so that households can better withstand stresses – such
as extreme price volatility, economic shocks, climate variability and dramatic
weather events. This … requires responsive and accessible social protection
systems, together with policy support for smallholders through strategies for
disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation.” (UCFA)
“Open and well-functioning local, regional and international markets and trade
policies are fundamental to food and nutrition security. They should be
characterized by price predictability and transparency, function in a stable,
transparent and integrated manner and contribute to the realization of
internationally agreed human rights. Interventions which support the functioning
of international, regional and local markets should be consistent with the goal of
achieving food and nutrition security for all and of encouraging efficient and
competitive production by smallholders. … Coherence of policies within and
between nations is essential to mitigate the effects of food price volatility on
producers and consumers, and to ensure that international food markets are free
from distortions and have diversified supply lines.” (UCFA)
“New trade and taxation policies need to be implemented with care, and their
impacts assessed. They also need to ensure that there are no adverse impacts on
the incomes of rural and urban net buyers, especially among the poorest
households that traditionally allocate a large share of their income to food.
Actions of the Framework to adjust trade and tax policies to help vulnerable
people cope with shocks include:
 Immediately review trade and taxation policy options and their likely
impacts on the poor, consumers and smallholder farmers…
 Use limited strategic grain reserves in countries with existing stocks,

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 particularly where they can be channeled to food assistance programmes…

 Avoid generalized subsidies for food consumers that have high fiscal
costs and divert public resources from support to the poor...

 Encourage better-functioning food markets through improved regional

political and economic integration and better-functioning environments for
trade in general and food in particular…
Food-exporting countries
 Minimize use of export restrictions, which in food security crisis
situations may increase volatility of international prices, depress incentives
for farmers to invest in food production…
 Reduce restrictions on use of stocks to support humanitarian needs and
international trade in periods of significant market turmoil…
Food-deficit and food-importing countries
 Reduce import tariffs and other restrictions on food commodities and
agricultural inputs…
 Improve efficiency of importing critical food and agricultural inputs to
reduce costs and time needed for communities to access them…” (UCFA)
UN SCN “At the policy level, making improved nutrition outcomes central to national
development, protecting and expanding smallholder rights, increasing incentives
to produce and market micronutrient-rich foods, prioritizing the needs of poor
net consumers, and mainstreaming food and nutrition security concerns into
policy frameworks and development agendas increase programme efficacy as
well as chances for scaling-up. Regional and international policies, regulatory
frameworks and agreements should support standard-setting initiatives that
promote food and nutrition security within a global context.”
Areas of focus [in regulatory frameworks and agreements] should include:
“promotion of pro-poor food and agricultural development policies that support
low-income groups and are conducive to nutrition security and encourage
positive spillovers, e.g. responsible foreign direct investment that includes
smallholders and leads to improvements in local food processing technologies;
promotion of fair and transparent global markets, e.g. border policies that do not
restrict developing countries’ access to global markets.”
World Bank “The specific objectives of this guidance note are to support TTLs, partner
agencies, and country clients in making agriculture investments more nutrition
sensitive in the following ways: … (4) support governments and partners in
designing sustainable and coherent policies to improve nutrition outcomes for
the poor.”
“Broaden food security policy dialogue to include nutrition perspectives:
Country demand for projects to improve food security often base discussion on a
view of food security as national-level grain stocks. Abundant evidence has
shown that that approach in itself is unlikely to address household food
insecurity among the most vulnerable, reflected in the disconnect between the
MDG1 hunger target (which deals with national-level calories) and the MDG1
undernutrition target, discussed above. The World Bank has a role in engaging

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 in food security dialogues so that plans would better target food insecure
households, and would ensure that nutritional quality of food is regarded as part
of food security policies. Addressing seasonal food shortages can serve as an
entry point to the goal of increasing year-round production of nutritious food.”
World Vision “Investments in building the interest and capacity of national agricultural
systems to integrate nutrition outcomes in their planning and policy processes
would make a significant contribution to sustainable improvements in child
nutrition over the long term.”

Good governance for nutrition

Organization Indicative quotes from guidance papers
ACF “Assess the level of commitment of the government in tackling
undernutrition. You will find information by looking at:
· National nutrition strategy and policy framework and the level of
current/planned budget to roll out the nutrition strategy.
· Institutional structures and capacity regarding nutrition, including local
representation and extension services.
· Poverty and social policies and legislature (e.g. signature of International Code
of Marketing of Breast Milk Substitutes).
· Involvement of civil society in nutrition issues.
· Nutrition surveillance
· Food security & livelihoods, health, MHCP & water and sanitation
interventions in the targeted areas.”
Bioversity
International
EC “Improving nutrition through governance: Regarding nutrition, the power
and voice of poor people, and the state’s accountability towards them, are
important aspects of the environment where nutrition improvements are being
sought…Poor governance is often associated with a state’s failure to meet the
fundamental rights of its citizens, including nutrition. It constitutes a major
impediment to development, as it limits the choice of aid modalities that donors
can responsibly apply…”
“Entry points for this aspect of undernutrition include:
• information and transparency — ensuring access to nutrition information in
public affairs, strengthening food and nutrition surveillance systems;
• civil society inclusion — participation of civil society in planning nutrition
strategies;
• budget — monitoring expenditure likely to yield nutrition benefits;
• national policies — including nutrition objectives and indicators in national
strategies and policies, developing national action plans on nutrition, nutrition
incorporated in national emergency plans, attention to governance, government
leadership and institutional arrangements concerning nutrition strategies/plans;
• international instruments establishing the right to adequate nutrition as a basic
human right;

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 • accountability of the state to fulfill their responsibilities and promises…”
“Key indicators for nutrition benefits through governance:
• Inclusion/prioritization of nutrition in national framework (e.g. poverty
reduction strategy papers)
• Nutrition objectives included in sector policies/strategies/plans (e.g. health,
contingency plan)
• Nutrition governance (including a system for inter-sectoral and stakeholder
coordination, existence and status of nutrition strategy/policy/plan)
• Availability of training in nutrition for government workers (beyond health)
• Violations of the code on marketing of breast-milk substitutes monitored and
reported
• Human rights indicators (e.g. Right to food included in the scope of the work
of human rights offices).”
FANTA “One approach to cross-sectoral integration at the Mission level is to draft a food
security strategy with improved nutritional status as a goal.” (2001)
“Develop nutrition strategies that can be explicitly addressed by agricultural
interventions.” (1999)
FAO “Good governance is essential to ensure policy guidance and accountability. The
reform of the Committee on World Food Security (CFS) will be essential in
strengthening its role in monitoring the global food security and nutrition
situation and progress towards achieving the MDGs, in exchanging experiences
and good practices, and in ensuring accountability.” (2010)
“Establish a flexible national mechanism with strong technical support to
promote effective intersectoral co-operation, to keep the nutrition situation in the
country under continuous review and to facilitate the development of national
nutrition policies and programmes.” (2004)
“…policies that support research programmes in addressing the food security
situation of the poor and undernourished… should be developed at both national
and international levels, the national level is more strategic since concerns and
problems of resource poor farmers can be addressed most effectively and
efficiently at the grassroots level.” (2001)
“Good progress in extension will only be achieved with strong top management
and ministerial support to encourage real commitment of front line staff.” (2001)
“Developing a food security and nutrition policy within the agricultural sector
also requires a strategy for its implementation. The following points offer some
suggestions and supporting information that can facilitate the incorporation of
this strategy into a national development plan.
 National governments should consider support for household food
security a development priority if poverty, food insecurity and
malnutrition are to be overcome in a sustainable manner.
 Available national data on poverty, food security and nutritional status
should be considered when prioritizing development programmes. In
particular, agricultural research and extension services should give
special emphasis to the needs of resource-poor farming communities.
 Consolidate information/data systems to improve information
accessibility and dissemination to researchers, extensionists and other

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 stakeholders.
 Develop action plans on the basis of policies and national development
plans in consultation with all key stakeholders in order to identify broad
priority areas and build consensus; identify human and financial
resources to implement the priority areas; and develop monitoring and
evaluation plans.
 Promote operational and problem-driven research.
 Policy-makers should review and streamline agricultural research
objectives and ensure that they are sensitive to nutrition issues.
 Consider local and/or regional cultural practices when formulating
research policies, priorities and projects.
 Establish a national multidisciplinary and multisectoral body for food
security and nutrition.
 Establish linkages between agricultural research
organizations/institutions and farmers organizations; between agriculture
and nutrition extension services and farmers’ organizations; and between
research institutions and extension services. At the same time, strengthen
existing networks within sub-regions
 Include nutrition considerations in agriculture sectoral policies, as well
as in policies of other collaborating sectors such as health, education,
finance, economic planning, trade, industry and NGOs. Ultimately,
nutrition needs and considerations should be explicitly elaborated in the
development policy. This could be achieved by establishing a board to
coordinate all activities relating to nutrition.” (2001)
IFPRI “Fill the gap in governance knowledge at the global, national, and
community levels. More remains to be learned about how to maximize the
synergies among the [agriculture, health, and nutrition] sectors using policies,
investments, regulations, and other tools of governance. In addition, it is
important to generate effective leadership to galvanize different sectors to work
together effectively and to learn more about how to prioritize and sequence
actions and investments to link the three sectors.”
“Global and regional institutions that play important roles in the governance of
the agriculture, nutrition, and health sectors may need to be reformed for greater
effectiveness and integration of efforts.”
IYCN
Save the “The strategies for integrating health, nutrition and agriculture are gaining
Children UK momentum, but more must be done at the global and national levels. Donors and
governments must prioritise nutrition to alleviate poverty and drive growth….
The US G8 and the Mexican G20 in 2012, and the UK G8 in 2013 all offer
major opportunities for progress as food, nutrition and social protection are
likely to be on the agenda. These countries should work together to ensure an
ambitious action plan that aligns institutional reform with clear delivery of new
resources. With support from the international community, countries with high
malnutrition burdens should exhibit the leadership and commitment needed to
eliminate malnutrition.” (2012)
“Support nutrition-friendly agriculture: Donors must support national

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 governments and civil society to increase the potential for famers and
communities to improve nutrition through agriculture.” (2012)
UN HLTF “National goals for reducing hunger and improving nutrition should be
grounded in [sustainable agriculture and food systems] and could also include
(a) ensuring consistent availability and accessibility of sustainably produced,
nutritious and safe food in local markets, (b) preventing deforestation, (c)
reducing, and even eliminating, losses and waste in food production, processing
and consumption, (d) universal access to safety nets, and (e) an end to chronic
malnutrition (stunting and anemia) without increasing the risk of nutrition-
related chronic disease.” (2012)
“It is essential that any dealings involving governments, smallholders and large-
scale businesses are conducted in the full respect for human rights.” (2012)
“Multi-stakeholder partnerships can be scaled up. They work best when they
function within sound regulatory frameworks, are based on agreed principles,
are operated in ways that safeguard the human rights of all groups, and are
geared towards the achievement of one overarching goal – food and nutritional
security for all through sustainable agriculture and food systems.” (2012)
“The need is for increased investments that result in sustainable improvements
in smallholder productivity and poor people’s access to nutritious food… The
primary source of increased investment will usually be a rise in the amount of
the national budget going to food and nutrition security: Official development
assistance has an important role to play in supporting the case for catalyzing and
then accelerating necessary increases in national spending.” (UCFA)
“At country level, [multistakeholder and multisectoral] partnerships are best led
by national authorities, bringing together the relevant government departments
and elements of civil society, including food producer associations and
organizations of consumers, as well as of workers and employers, women and
men farmers, youth, urban poor and people living with disabilities and chronic
disease, scientific and research bodies, regional and international organizations,
development banks and the private sector. At regional level, platforms can be set
up as a basis for dialogue and consensus building among regional institutions,
governments, donors, United Nations agencies and other stakeholders. At global
level, partnerships can facilitate convergence among initiatives on sustainable
agriculture and food and nutrition security.” (UCFA)
“Sustained political commitment and good governance
Within any country it is the state which has primary responsibility for ensuring
food and nutrition security of its own population. A whole-of-government
approach backed by sustained political commitment and by coherent and
multisectoral policies and evidence-based strategies is at the backbone of
effective national policies and of actions for warding off hunger. Effective
governance is a vital prerequisite for food and nutrition security at national level
and in both regional and global intergovernmental settings.” (UCFA)
“Country leadership with regional support
Country-led and region-supported actions are key to improving food and
nutrition security. National leadership should emphasize the need for joint
investment planning by all stakeholders, coordinated stewardship, mutual

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accountability, and predictability and trust. National authorities should take
responsibility for coordinating international organizations and taking advantage
of their policy, programme, and operational experience. This can be used by
governments and regional bodies to support national policies, strengthen
capacities and provide backing for implementation. Regional and international
organizations increasingly seek to align their assistance to national authorities
and other in-country partners, and to ensure that it is both predictable and
relevant. They should seek to contribute effectively to global food and nutrition
security in a coordinated manner – for example, through the revitalized
Committee on World Food Security.” (UCFA)
“Accountability for results
Well-functioning and participatory systems for accountability are important to
identify the magnitude of needs, degree of access and extent to which rights are
being realized or denied among different livelihood groups. They facilitate
greater effectiveness, accountability, transparency and coordination of
responses. There in a growing trend for decision makers – at all levels – to be
accountable in terms of effective use of resources, policy choices and the
discharge of their legal obligations. Accountability is multidirectional – states
and development partners are increasingly expected to deliver on their promises
and to be fully accountable for the actions they take, especially when they are
committed to reducing levels of hunger and the risk of malnutrition among poor
populations. Countries making the most progress on food and nutrition security
are those with a strong political and financial commitment and a high sense of
accountability on all interlinked areas of food and nutrition security.” (UCFA)
“National and local governance of agriculture and food systems that focuses on
the interests of smallholders will contribute to improving their access to
resources and services. The design and implementation of such policy
frameworks are more likely to succeed with the participation of smallholder
farmers’ representatives (including women and young farmers).” (UCFA)
“3. IMPROVING INFORMATION AND ACCOUNTABILITY
SYSTEMS Actions of the Framework to strengthen these systems include:
Implement systems that track and review the implementation of national
policies, strategies and legislation relevant to food and nutrition security. These
systems should cover the legal obligations of government, the responsibilities of
other stakeholders and the entitlements of beneficiaries, as well as the
institutional mechanisms for participation, coordination, monitoring and redress.
They should also cover mobilization and use of resources and should be
developed and implemented in a participatory manner. They should examine the
extent to which policies and strategies include clear and fair allocation of
responsibilities, precise time frames and benchmarks, and indicators that capture
impacts (including unexpected outcomes). They will contribute to a framework
for identifying problems with service provision (e.g. corruption, hoarding,
clientelism or exclusion of marginalized groups) and monitoring realization of
the right to food. National authorities are primarily responsible for people being
able to realize their right to food. Strong accountability systems help them to
discharge their human rights obligations. International organizations and non-

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governmental groups can assist national governments to meet their legal
obligations, including through support for monitoring systems.
Further improve the coordination of information systems on food and
nutrition security to facilitate a comprehensive analysis. There are several
initiatives under way to synchronize overlapping information systems and
provide a systematic understanding of countries at risk and their needs and
trends across the dimensions of poverty, vulnerability, production and trade.
This information needs to be updated, made comparable with other national and
international initiatives, and linked to decision makers and stakeholders such as
smallholder farmers.
Continue to carry out comprehensive food and nutrition security
assessments, monitoring and evaluation in some of the most vulnerable
countries, including an analysis of all factors, policies and trends that may
impact food price levels and transmissions, local food availability, consumption,
access and utilization. Where necessary, investment in surveillance and early
warning systems should be increased. The country’s commitment and capacity
to implement the required actions should also be assessed, while capacity
development initiatives for relevant stakeholders should be designed where
needed.
Undertake an integrated analysis and monitoring of the impacts of shocks
on food and nutrition security. The analysis should determine how many people
are affected by food and nutrition insecurity and indicate which categories (by
age, gender, livelihood and geographical area) are most affected by shocks, and
how many people are concerned. Analysis and monitoring should be based on
data collected through a variety of sources, capturing households’ incomes,
expenditures (food and non-food), food availability, food sources, food
consumption and dietary diversity patterns, and coping mechanisms. The impact
of policy responses on households’ coping strategies should also be considered,
including the expected impact of international trade measures on the diet and
health of the affected populations.
Conduct nutrition assessments and set up a nutritional surveillance system,
focusing on vulnerable groups, such as pregnant and breastfeeding women,
children under the age of 2, the elderly and those suffering from infectious
diseases. Assessments should take account of causes of nutritional deficiencies,
including: insufficient availability of, access to and consumption of quality
foods; lack of adequate care, hygiene, water and sanitation; and increased
exposure to diseases. An analysis of the implementation of essential nutrition
interventions, their quality and efficiency, is also required. Linkages between
food and nutrition security assessment and decision-making at policy and
programme levels should be strengthened.
Review contingency plans and strengthen preparedness and early warning
systems, taking into account risks, impacts, capacities and response
mechanisms, and focusing on the food-processing sector and consumer
behaviours.
Put in place recourse mechanisms – including administrative and judicial
remedies – through which individuals or groups can seek recourse if they cannot

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 enjoy their entitlements (e.g. intended programme not reaching the most
vulnerable). Access to such recourse mechanisms, especially by the most
vulnerable and marginalized, should be facilitated and necessary assistance
provided.”
UN SCN “Poverty reduction strategy papers, United Nations development assistance
frameworks, and five- or ten-year plans are all examples of national policy
frameworks into which food and nutrition security objectives need to be
incorporated. Mainstreaming requires convincing policymakers that reduction in
income poverty and yield gaps do not guarantee proportional reductions in
malnutrition, and that specific policies and targeted interventions for improving
nutrition outcomes are therefore necessary if the Millennium Development
Goals are to be achieved. Promotion of social protection, equitable land tenure
regulations, national food fortification programmes, monitoring and evaluation
of food and nutrition situations, and capacity-building measures are some of the
most important aspects of [national policy] frameworks.”
“To lift themselves out of hunger, the food-insecure need control over resources,
access to opportunities and improved governance at the international, national
and local levels.”
World Bank Notes the importance of governance for nutrition, for supporting investments in
nutrition-sensitive agriculture: “As a financial institution that provides recipient
executed loans and credits to developing country governments, the World Bank
is especially sensitive to client demand. Because the majority of the World Bank
operations are not grant based, Governments would be reluctant to take out a
loan for an agricultural activity that cannot demonstrate a certain level of
technical and financial feasibility. Therefore, despite evidence to the contrary,
nutrition is still mainly considered to be an area that should be addressed by the
health sector and not through others, and very few of the World Bank’s clients
have sought for the inclusion of nutrition considerations in non-health sector
interventions. There may be reason to expect some greater [country client]
demand [for nutrition-sensitive agriculture] in coming years, however; some
South Asian and African countries have begun to treat nutrition as a government
wide priority, especially under the SUN movement. Increasing awareness of
food security as measured by its quality and not simply by calories may also
prompt client requests for food security programs to achieve a greater focus on
nutrition, for example through CAADP country plans.”
“Fortification can take numerous forms … whatever form it takes, proper
government regulation is necessary as part of the national food safety and public
health policies to ensure that the benefits of fortification are indeed ensured.”
World Vision “Contribute to coordinated country-led action on child under-nutrition.
…Three steps common to countries who have made substantial inroads in
addressing child undernutrition are: 1) government stock-taking of the national
nutrition situation and existing responses; 2) development of national plans of
action for scaling up nutrition; and, 3) rapid implementation of plans through
both internal and external funding. (SUN Roadmap)” (2011)

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Capacity building
Organization Indicative quotes from guidance papers
ACF “Maximising the nutrition impact of FSL interventions requires working closely
with the Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of Social Affairs, as well as
the Department of Nutrition within the Ministry of Health…and supporting and
building the national and local capacity to enhance the sustainability of the
interventions.”
“In concrete terms, fostering these linkages [with other interventions] may
include…Capacity building of the government and other relevant actors.”
Bioversity
EC
FANTA
FAO “FAO assists member states at all levels [in]…strengthening the capacity of
institutions at all levels to address food and nutrition issues.” (2010)
“Increasing nutrition knowledge and awareness of the public and policymakers
[should be a component of nutrition education programs].” (2004)
“Develop or strengthen the technical capacities of, and institutional mechanism
with, each relevant ministry and at intermediate levels of government to identify
nutritional problems and their causes, and to improve the planning, management
and evaluation of programmes and development projects that affect nutrition.
Links with appropriate research and training institutions should be strengthened
as well.” (2004)
“Encourage and support the full involvement of communities and the
participation of the people therein in the identification of their own nutritional
problems as well as in the implementation, monitoring and evaluation of
development programmes.” (2004)
“A major function of the extension service is to provide farmers with
information on all aspects of production, processing, utilization and nutrition, as
well as to foster linkages among farming communities, service providers,
extension workers and consumers. However, a general limitation of the
extension service in developing countries is that the ratio of extension workers
to farmers is very low, limiting the coverage of extension services. Resources at
the disposal of extension services are limited as well. And, because information,
technology and services are not always tailored for small, resource-poor farmers,
extension intervention is necessary to ensure that these farmers are given the
specific types of attention and assistance they need… In order to enhance their
effectiveness and efficiency, extension programmes need to be strategically
planned, needs-based (including nutritional needs) and strongly participatory,
with a bottom-up, problem-solving orientation.” (2001)
“Employ qualified nutrition/home economics officers in extension teams if the
expertise is not already available in the extension service. Nutrition experts can
collaborate with agronomists and contribute to the planning, implementation and
evaluation of community-level agricultural projects, based on the food needs and
nutritional requirements of community members. Provide agricultural and
horticultural extension officers with access to nutrition specialists if it is not
possible to employ the specialists in the extension service. Employ subject

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 matter extension officers who are specialists in the areas of marketing and post-
harvest handling, processing and utilization. Employ enough extension
personnel to cover farming communities and provide adequate resources for
staff members to perform their duties.” (2001)
“Include capacity-building for re-orientation of agricultural research workers
and nutrition researchers in institutional policy…
Introduce nutrition topics into the curricula of agricultural colleges and into non-
formal education training sessions…
Prepare suitable training materials that support research recommendations, for
use by extension officers, other rural development workers and farmers…
“Strengthen the nutrition component in home economics courses and incorporate
nutrition into all agriculture-related training programmes, so that the linkages
between nutrition and development can be understood and reinforced through
training.” (2001)
“Organize workshops and/or short-term training activities, in order to provide
research managers with information on how their agricultural research relates to
linkages between food and nutrition situations within communities. If research
managers are made aware of community nutritional needs and seasonal
fluctuations in availability of appropriate foods, they will be in a position to plan
appropriate research interventions.” (2001)
IFPRI “Donors and governments need to invest in reducing critical gaps in human and
institutional capacity while stepping up investments in projects and evaluations.”
“Invest in research, evaluation, and education systems capable of integrating
information from all three sectors (agriculture, health, and nutrition).”
IYCN
Save UK
UN HLTF “The UCFA emphasizes building on available resources and capacities and
scaling up activities that are already under way.” (UCFA)
UN SCN “Lack of technical and institutional capacity in assessing the local food and
nutrition situation, prioritizing needs, designing intervention strategies, and
providing operational and managerial support is a serious constraint to achieving
food and nutrition security in many developing countries. There is a shortage of
qualified personnel at every level – national, district, municipal and local.
Community nutrition workers are often limited or non-existent. Agricultural
extension workers and health staff receive either basic or no training in nutrition,
and have weak skills in communicating nutrition information to specific
population groups. Procuring funding for training nutrition specialists at all
levels of government should thus be a priority.”
“Strengthening national, municipal and community capacities to support local
food systems and promote nutrition education and social marketing efforts is
imperative to reducing all forms of malnutrition.”
World Bank “Incorporation of a food security and nutrition dimension into the national
agricultural innovation system: Depending on the country context, this could
imply incorporating food security and nutrition modules into extension system
curricula, or increasing access to private technical service providers specialized
in food security and nutrition.”

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 “Good practice example: The World Bank-supported Haiti RESEPAG II aims to
develop capacity building in food harvesting and storage techniques (e.g. to
reduce aflatoxin) and improve food processing techniques through capacity
building and technical assistance such as fortification and food quality control
including laboratory capacity to analyze micronutrient contents.”
“Identified interventions: Expansion of the number of home economics
specialists in extension force; Capacity training of home economics extension
workers and key extension workers (horticulture, livestock, aquaculture etc) on
nutrition related interventions; Support for [horticulture, livestock, and
aquaculture] extension workers; Enhancing capacity of national agricultural
research institutions to promote the breeding for and dissemination of developed
biofortified varieties.”
World Vision “Investments in building the interest and capacity of national agricultural
systems to integrate nutrition outcomes in their planning and policy processes
would make a significant contribution to sustainable improvements in child
nutrition over the long term.”

Advocacy and communication

Organization Indicative quotes from guidance papers
ACF “The low commitment of some countries may be the opportunity to set up and
roll out an Advocacy Plan in collaboration with other sectors/partners to raise
the nutrition agenda as the international community and donors in particular are
eager to fund nutrition-related interventions in the light of the 2015 MDGs.”
Bioversity “Design appropriate communication strategies. Evaluate what will make the
International information functionally available to the greatest number of people.”
EC “Entry points for [improving nutrition through governance] include:
coordination with civil society, international and private sector organisations
(e.g. assess the private partners’ comparative advantage and make it available to
local actors, identify effective nutrition champions in different stakeholder
groups).”
FANTA “Support efforts to broaden access to and use of data relevant to food
security monitoring and planning. This would include standard data on health
and agricultural production and prices collected by ministries, nongovernmental
organizations, and UN agencies. More in-depth and integrated analyses,
accompanied by wider dissemination of results, should be encouraged.
Information from this analyses needs to feed into policy formation and program
design. This could be achieved through distribution of paper and electronic
bulletins, regular working groups, mini-workshops, or more frequent
interagency meetings, as well as through policy dialogue.” (2001)
FAO “Increase awareness among policy-makers and planners of the extent and
severity of nutritional problems and their causes, of the economic benefits, the
activity status of interventions and of activity status of different socio-economic
groups.” (2004)
“Provide feedback on the farming community’s nutritional status for

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 consideration by policy-makers and research managers…
Open communication lines among extensionists and home economics, health
and nutrition workers regarding on-going demonstrations of research results…
Ensure that the products of research are presented in a format that will be
understandable, applicable and acceptable to the target groups…
Provide feedback of research findings relating to nutrition for research planners,
policy-makers and community workers, in order to make future research more
relevant to community needs.” (2001)
IFPRI “To have the greatest impact on policy, research results should be communicated
across sectoral boundaries.”
“Use communication and advocacy to bring about change. Although there is
wide interest in reducing undernutrition, converting good will into action can be
difficult. Communication and advocacy can play an important role in increasing
the visibility of nutrition issues, generating interest among agriculture and health
professionals, stimulating action at all levels—global, regional, national, and
local—and highlighting the important and interlinked roles played by all three
sectors.”
IYCN
Save the “Galvanise political leadership: Raising the profile of malnutrition requires a
Children UK build-up of political momentum to galvanise change. The US G8 and the
Mexican G20 in 2012, and the UK G8 in 2013 all offer major opportunities for
progress as food, nutrition and social protection are likely to be on the agenda.”
(2012)
UN HLTF “Progress demands the fullest possible sharing of knowledge and experience
between all nations and stakeholders through wider partnerships such as North-
South and South-South cooperation. Developing countries which have
succeeded in expanding food production, preserving natural resources and
fighting hunger have valuable experiences to share.”
UN SCN
World Bank “Introducing nutrition sensitive agriculture requires a behavioral change since it
requires working across silos. This requires sensitization or awareness building
among all parties: Bank clients, Country Directors and the rest of the country
management team, Bank agriculture TTLs and their managers. It requires a
change in the mindset that results in nutrition being viewed as an important
piece to improving human capital and well-being, and that agriculture has an
important role in achieving this goal.”
World Vision “Translating nutrition evaluation results for effective decision making is very
important for institutional change and learning. National policy makers, senior
organizational leadership, and field level staff (particularly non-nutrition
specialists) require information in a form they can act on to make appropriate
programming and policy changes.” (“Key lessons”)

i
FAO repository of Food-based Dietary Guidelines
http://www.fao.org/ag/humannutrition/nutritioneducation/fbdg/en/

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