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The Potential of Biotechnology in the Mining Industry

a b c d
R.W. LAWRENCE , R. POULIN , M. KALIN & G. BÉCHARD
a
Dept. of Mining and Mineral Process Engineering , University of British Columbia ,
Vancouver, B.C, V6T1Z4
b
Dept. mines et metallurgie , Universite Laval , Quebec, Quebec, G1K 7P4
c
Boojum Research , 400-468 Queen Street E, Toronto, Ontario, M5A1T7
d
CANMET Biotechnology , 555 Booth Street, Ottawa, Ontario, K1A 0G1
Published online: 28 Nov 2010.

To cite this article: R.W. LAWRENCE , R. POULIN , M. KALIN & G. BÉCHARD (1998) The Potential of Biotechnology in
the Mining Industry, Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy Review: An International Journal, 19:1, 5-23, DOI:
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The Potential of Biotechnology

in the Mining Industry
M. KALINCand G. BECHARO~
R. W. LAWRENCE~,R. POULIN~,
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'Dept. of Mining and Mineral Process Engineering,

University of British Columbia,Vancouver.B.C.V6T 124;
b ~ e p tmines
. et metallurgie, Universite Laval, Quebec, Quebec, G1K 7P4;
'Boojum Research, 400-468 Queen Street E.,Toronto, Ontario, M5A 177;
*CANMET ~iotechnolog~, 555 Booth Street, Ottawa, Ontario, KIA OG1

(Received in final form 15 May 1997)

Applications of biotechnology are in use o r have been proposed for almost all sectors of
the mining and minerals industries for metal extraction, metal recovery. and
environmental control. A recently completed study in Canada reviewed the status of
biotechnological process development in different sectors of the industry and by
commodity. This paper provides an overview of the findings of the study including a
discussion of the sectors of the industry in which biotechnology enjoys commercial
success and those for which future applications are indicated. Special emphasis is given
to the commercial metal extraction processes and to applications for environmental
control for which future technical and economic advantages are likely as environmental
regulations become more stringent.

Keywords: Biotechnology; mining; metal extraction; environment; economics

INTRODUCTION

The mining and minerals industries in North America has undergone

considerable change over the past decade. Following a booming
period in the 1970's, the domestic industry has seen a decline due to a
number of factors including higher energy costs, lower grade ores,
increased labour demands, competitive foreign imports of raw and
processed metal materials, lower cost operations in South America
and elsewhere in the world, and increased environmental pressures,
 6. R. W. LAWRENCE er al.

both public and regulatory. These factors have contributed to mine

closures, reduced production, and a reduced incentive to invest in
projects in many areas where the permitting process can take several
years to complete. This has resulted in the movement of many North
American company operations to other countries in the world.
An analysis of current mineral supply and demand would reveal
that many of the new technologies to treat the large tonnages of
lower grade and more complex ores to be found in many parts of the
world might not yet be necessary. Exceptions to this might be the
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adoption of technologies which can process lower grade or previous

waste rock and tailings to increase revenues at otherwise marginal
operations. However, in the future, new technologies will surely be
required to satisfy both domestic and world supply of strategic
minerals.. More pressing will be the need the develop and apply new
technologies which minimize environmental impact or control impact
at existing operations as public and regulatory scrutiny becomes more
stringent.
Biotechnological processes which might satisfy both the needs of
extraction and environmental control have been proven at large scale
in well understood and engineered systems in several countries. ,
Many more technologies are at various stages of development.
Although initial developments were aimed at metal extraction
applications, the dramatic increase in environmental awareness, the
practice of sound environmental management demanded by increas-
ingly stringent regulations over the past decade, and the need for low
cost treatment in perpetuity, has led to serious investigation of
biotechnology for environmental control. It is perhaps this area in
which biotechnology will play the most significant role of all
applications in the future.
A comprehensive study has recently been completed in Canada to
provide decision makers in the mining industry, investors, and
technology policy makers with an analysis of the current role and
future potential of biotechnology for use in mining and related
industries 111. Although the focus of the study was on the potential for
the Canadian industry, the analysis demanded a global perspective on
biotechnology applications, research and development. This paper
presents a summary of the findings of this study which have
implications for the application and demand for biotechnology in
Downloaded by [University of Alberta] at 16:00 25 October 2014
 8 R. W. LAWRENCE er a!.

Copper and gold are, by far, the most successful applications of

biotechnology for metal extraction and both will be discussed in some
detail. In the case of copper, bioleaching has been widely applied due
to the ease and favourable economics of metal recovery from solution
using conventional iron cementation or solvent extraction-electrowin-
ning (SX-EW). For gold, it is the high value of the metal that has
provided the incentive for technology development. Continued and
expanded use in the future is certain for these two metals. Uranium
bioleaching has been applied commercially in the past but with current
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low metal prices and the demise of the nuclear power industry, less
opportunity is foreseen for this application. Processes that can be
applied for the extraction of metals such as zinc, nickel, cobalt and
uranium have not been competitive to date based on actual prices of
these metals and the level of technology development. Unless markets
experience some imbalance relative to these metals, a price change
important enough to lead to the scale of application seen for copper
and gold is not foreseen. Recent developments indicate that
commercial application for nickel [3] and cobalt [4] might be
imminent, although details of the processes and associated costs are
not yet forthcoming.

Extraction of Copper
The biooxidation of copper ores and concentrates has been recently
reviewed [5]. Process choice for copper is influenced by copper
mineralogy. The single largest application of biotechnology in the
mining industry has been the bioleaching of low-grade ores and wastes
ores in dump leaching. Although the secondary copper sulfides,
chalcocite and covellite, are more readily leached, even the relatively
refractory chalcopyrite has been a very significant source of the metal
by this leaching method. Currently, thin-layer bioleaching of ores
containing chalcocite and other readily oxidized sulfides and oxide
minerals is increasing in popularity as a primary treatment method for
copper recovery. The recent success of stirred tank biooxidation ,

processes for the treatment of refractory gold concentrates and the

subsequent availability of operating data is leading to a renewal in the
interest of stirred tank applications for copper and other base metals.
To date, stirred tank biooxidation of chalcopyrite ores and concen-
 BIOTECHNOLOGY IN MINING INDUSTRY 9

trates has not progressed beyond the laboratory or small pilot scale
due to low recoveries. Commercial application of stirred tank
processing of chalcocite concentrate is, however, predicted to the
imminent,
The biooxidation processes for copper have in common that they
produce copper directly and avoid the release of SOz. The environ-
mental benefit of avoiding the conventional processing route and the
associated release of SO2 would be seen to be significant if all smelter
environmental costs were to be accounted for. An extensive list of the
direct and indirect environmental impacts of SO2 emissions have been
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provided in a recent analysis of copper smelting operations 161. Some

discharge from smelters is permitted, but if society chooses to
internalize all costs, the advantages of biohydrometallurgy could
become very attractive, providing a niche for this type of process.
Copper markets and price are, however, currently greatly influenced
by the mining production of Chile. Copper prices are predicted to
remain firm at actual levels until 1996- 1997 when over-capacity and a
flatter production cost curve will bring price down by 2002 [7]. This
indicates that emerging processes to produce copper cannot rely on
increasing prices and need to be economic at current values.
Dump bioleaching. Dump leaching of copper, in which large
tonnages of waste or marginal ore which would otherwise be
uneconomic to treat, are put under leach has provided a very
significant contribution to the total copper produced in the western
United States [8]. Today, dump bioleaching is used throughout the
world, with significant developments in Chile. Operating costs are low
and are limited to the cost of SX-EW, since mining and infrastructure
costs are absorbed by the mining and milling operation.
Thin layer bioleaching. Originally developed for oxide ores, the thin
layer method involves the crushing and bioleaching secondary copper
sulfide ores in low heaps in a planned load-unload sequence [9]. The
recently commissioned large tonnage operations of Quebrada Blanca
and Cerro Colorado in Chile use this technology for the sulfide
(primarily chalcocite) ores. Additional operations, including Zaldivar,
are under development. The Quebrada Blanca plant will treat 17,300 t/
day and projected recoveries will be 80-90% from sulfide ores to
produce 75,000 t Cu per year. Cash costs at Quebrada Blanca indicate
that copper can be produced for less than 50411b, including mining [lo].
 10 R. W. LAWRENCE el at.

Leaching of copperJrom gold ores. The presence of copper in gold

ores creates a problem in the cyanide leaching of the gold due to high
reagent consumption. For example, at the Mt. Leyshon operation in
Queensland, Australia, approximately 500,000 tonnes per year (20%
of the mine output) is bioleached in heaps to remove copper, occurring
primarily as chalcopyrite, prior to a cyanidation leach [I 11. Gold can
now be recovered economically from ores or material previously
considered as waste. Copper is recovered by cementation with iron for
additional revenue.
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Stirred tank bioleaching. Primary bioleaching of copper ores and

concentrates using stirred tank reactors to achieve faster kinetics is
technically possible but has not been considered beyond laboratory
scale due to lower recoveries from predominantly chalcopyrite feeds
and the superior economics of conventional smelting technology.
Bioleaching of chalcopyrite concentrates in the presence of catalytic
amounts of ions such as silver has produced faster kinetics and high
copper recoveries in detailed laboratory investigations [12]. Estimated
cash costs for bioleach-SX-EW are 25-30#/lb. The addition of capital
cost would drive this cost in excess of smelting costs. The use of
bacteria which oxidize sulfides at higher temperatures (40-90°C) have
also been shown in laboratory investigations to have potential for the
processing of copper concentrates [13].
Leaching of chalcocite concentrate as a supplementary process to
thin-layer leaching has been shown to be technically feasible [14].
Process economics could also be favourable since mining, SX-EW and
infrastructure costs would be absorbed by the principal process.

Gold Extraction from Refractory Ores and Concentrates

The dramatic increase in the price of gold in the early 1980's led to
consideration of the metallurgically-complex refractory gold ores as a
source of the precious metal in addition to the free-milling ores. The
sulfide-refractory gold ores contain gold in intimate association with
sulfide minerals, typically pyrite and arsenopyrite. Gold is not
liberated Tor recovery by conventional cyanide leaching even by very
tine grinding. Sulfide-oxidizing bacteria solubilize the host minerals,
releasing the gold for conventional recovery. Today, three technolo-
gies are used commercially to treat sulfide-refractory ores and
 BIOTECHNOLOGY IN MINING INDUSTRY 11

concentrates, namely roasting, pressure oxidation and biooxidation.

Although the first two have been selected as the process of choice in
the majority of projects, commercial plants are in operation utilizing
both stirred tank and heap leach processes.
Biooxidation processes have advantages and disadvantages that
influence their economic attractiveness. Advantages include the
absence of noxious off-gases or toxic effluents, simplicity of plant
operation and maintenance, safety considerations, tolerance to a wide
range of sulfur grade feed, and the production of a stable ironlarsenic
residue. Biooxidation processes are, however, sensitive to water
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quality, particularly with respect to cyanide and thiocyanate, can

entail sizable power and neutralization costs, and require lengthy
residence times measured in days (stirred tank processes) or months
(heap leach).
Srirred Tank Processes. To date there are six commercial bio-
oxidation plants in South Africa, Australia (3 plants), Brazil and
Ghana. The largest biooxidation plant at the Sansu Project in Ghana,
treats 760/tonnes/day of refractory concentrate in three parallel
reactor trains of three reactors each. Expansion of the plant to four
reactor trains (1,000 tonneslday) is planned.
Unlike the first five plants which utilize more conventional
mesophilic bacteria (predominantly Thiobacillus ferrooxidans) at
35-40°C using the BIOX@ technology of Biomin [15], the latest
plant at the Youanrni mine in Australia utilizes moderately
thermophilic bacteria at 45-50°C [16]. The SHo Bento plant in
Brazil is worthy of note in that it uses a combination biooxidation-
pressure oxidation plant to treat refractory concentrate [15].
Biooxidation is used initially to oxidize the more readily oxidizable
sulfides and to reduce the amount of C 0 2 generated in the
subsequent autoclave stage due to reaction of carbonates with acid
which would lower the oxygen overpressure.
All the commercial biooxidation plants treat concentrates, although
treatment of ores has been shown to be technically feasible. The
refractory sulfide flotation concentrates are oxidized in a multi-reactor
(STR)train to the degree required for gold liberation. An advantage of
biooxidation over the competing technologies is that for many ores,
particularly those in which gold is associated with arsenopyrite,
complete oxidation is not necessary to achieve high gold recovery.
 12 R. W.LAWRENCE el a/.

This is due to a preferential oxidation of the arsenopyrite over pyrite

[I 71. Oxidized residues are separated from the leachate for recovery of
gold by cyanidation. Solutions are treated with lime to form iron and
arsenic precipitates which have been shown to be environmentally
stable under commercial operating conditions [18].
Gold production in the 1990's has been stable in the range of 2,200-
2,400 tonnes per year. The price outlook does not point towards
change. Gold has been trading in a narrow margin and should
continue to do so for some time. Gold Fields Mineral Services
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[19]reported another primary gold supply deficit in 1994, making a

downside change of gold price improbable. To increase profit margins,
producers will therefore have to act on the cost side of the equation.
Recent studies [20,21] which have compared the costs of biooxidation,
pressure oxidation and roasting have shown that plant capacity is a
significant factor in process choice due to its influence on costs.
Whereas pressure oxidation and roasting enjoy the benefit of economy
of scale, particularly in the case of roasting, biooxidation has a niche
for lower capacity plants. Both studies indicate that a refractory gold
operation smaller than 2,000 tpd of concentrate would have a higher
NPV if a biohydrometallurgy process is employed. The plant capacity
at which biooxidation and pressure oxidation costs are equivalent is
based on inferred costs since no biooxidation plants have been built
for a throughput larger than 760 tpd. As information accumulates, the
cross-over point will be pinpointed with more precision.
Heap biooxidation. Liberation of gold from low grade refractory
ores by biological heap leaching has been extensively tested and
piloted by Newmont and others in Nevada. Newmont hold patents
covering aspects of the biooxidation heap pretreatment and leaching
processes including the inoculation and agglomeration of the ore and
subsequent gold leaching stage using thiosulfate in place of cyanide for
biooxidized carbonaceous-sulfidic ores [22]. The construction and
operation of commercial heaps is imminent by Newmont. The process
is amenable for processing sulfidic ores with sulfide grades as low as
0.2-0.4%, at a cutoff grade of 1-2.3 g/t, with economic recoveries of
50 - 60%. Operating costs of US$4 - 6/t are predicted [23]. Mining
costs and infrastructure costs are absorbed by the mining and milling
operation. There is no alternative technology that can economically
recover refractory gold from such low grade material.
 BIOTECHNOLOGY IN MINING INDUSTRY

BIOTECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL

Mining is not environmentally benign and the industry has to consider

present and future needs for effluent control using environmentally-
friendly processes in addition to the clean up required from past
operations in times when society was less environmentally-aware.
Environmental concerns in mining include cyanide in aqueous
discharges from mills and heap leach operations; the disposal of
wastes with acid rock drainage potential; the treatment of high-volume
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groundwaters and mine waters containing low concentrations of metal

and other contaminants; the disposal of iron-arsenic wastes and
precipitates; treatment of waters containing thiosalts, ammonia and
nitrate ; the settling of suspended particulates in process streams; the
degradation of organics; and general concerns related to water
management and the projected difficulties in meeting future discharge
regulations.
There are two broad groups of application of biotechnology for
environmental control: active treatment and passive treatment. In
active treatment, a biotechnological plant is engineered and operated
to maximize the rate of pollution mitigation by optimizing the activity
of the microbiological or biological species involved. Passive systems
rely on the activity of the microbiological or biological species within a
natural setting. Passive mechanisms of contaminant removal include
aerobic precipitation, anaerobic sulfide and carbonate precipitation,
filtration, metal uptake, ammonia-generated neutralization and
precipitation, and adsorption and ion-exchange. Some engineering of
these natural systems has been shown to be possible, although they are
ideally self supporting, requiring only simple control, periodic
maintenance and monitoring.
Biotechnological approaches for environmental control have been
proposed for all of the above contaminant problems and are under
various stages of development, with some commercial applications.
Many proposed processes cannot currently compete with conventional
technologies and are not likely to do so unless regulatory standards
change. Processes which have been applied commercially are: in-plant
cyanide destruction; in-situ cyanide destruction of spent heap leach
piles; metal and sulfate removal using active (in-plant) sulfate
reduction; and limited use of passive processes such as wetlands and
 14 R. W. LAWRENCE er 01.

ecological engineering for metals polishing. These applications will be

discussed in more detail.

Cyanide Destruction
Microbial degradation of cyanide and associated species such as
ammonia and thiocyanate in gold mill effluents is a natural process
and can be readily. exploited to handle large flows and cyanide
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concentrations found in commercial gold operations. Commercial

applications involving both in-pIant treatment as an alternative to
chemical plant processes and in-situ cyanide destruction of spent heap
leach piles are in use.
In-plant cyanide destruction. To date, the use of biotechnology for
cyanide destruction has found only one notable application at the
Homestake Mine in Lead, South Dakota, even though this plant has
operated successfully for over 10 years. The process continues to
improve both through operating efficiencies and through evolution of
the micro-flora [24].
The Homestake process employs mechanized removal of CN and
SCN from mine water and tailings pond decant in a 2-stage process.
In the 1st stage, CN and SCN are converted to NH3 and C 0 2 .
Metals, including ferrocyanide, are absorbed into a biofilm which is
recovered and disposed of the tailings impoundment. In the 2nd
stage, nitrification takes place, converting NH3 to NO2 and NO3.
Concerns with the process are that refractory metal-cyanide
complexes are not degraded and the long-term stability of
ferrocyanide complexes. In contrast with the competing chemical
treatments, hydrogen peroxide and SO2-air, effluent can be
discharged directly into the receiving environment without additional
treatment. Metals can be absorbed into a biofilm which is easily
recovered for disposal.
Operating costs of the biodegradation process remain quasi-
constant for C N concentrations between 0 to 50 mg/L, unlike
chemical treatment for which reagent cost is directly related to
cyanide destroyed. At the Homestake plant, CN feed concentrations
are typically around 6 mg/L so that costs per tonne CN removed
appear to be high relative to chemical treatment. Higher CN feed
concentrations would result in more competitive unit operating costs.
 BIOTECHNOLOGY IN MINING INDUSTRY 15 .

On a cost per unit volume effluent treated, the process is already very
competitive. The temperature sensitivity of the biodegradation process
would make application at some sites impractical.
In-situ cyanide destruction of spent heap leach piles. Use of
biological cyanide degradation during the decommissioning on heap
leach piles has had some success in the United States being operable
under variable physical, chemical and mineralogical conditions [25].
Cyanide degradation in heaps is relatively easy to achieve at low cost
and requires, in many cases, only the addition of phosphate to enhance
bacterial activity.
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Once it becomes no longer economic to continue to recirculate

cyanide solution to extract remaining gold values in the stacked ore
pile, it is'necessary to destroy the residual cyanide which remains in the
pile either in solution or sorbed to the ore surface. To reduce the level
of cyanide in leachate to below the discharge standard, the heap is
rinsed and the cyanide destroyed. Natural degradation or cyanide
together with the recirculation of barren or fresh water can reduce
cyanide concentrations to satisfactory levels but the process is slow
and chemical destruction methods are often required to achieve lower
concentrations in a shorter time period. Biological degradation uses
the spent one heap as a reactor and can be enhanced through the
addition of nutrients to enhance microbiological activity. Applicability
of biological degradation to a specific heap depends on geographic
location, seasonal temperatures, water balance, initial cyanide
.concentration, heap geochemistry, heap geometry and flow patterns.
A recent analysis [26] has compared costs and technical aspects of
biological degradation with conventional approaches.

Metal Removal by Active Sulfate Reduction

Sulfate-reducing bacteria reduce sulfate to sulfide under anaerobic
conditions. Metals are removed from solution by precipitation as
sulfides. Active sulfate reduction refers to processes in which reactions
are optimized and controlled in engineered reactor systems. In
contrast, sulfate reduction which takes place in wetlands and
ecologically engineered systems is termed passive.
A commercial sulfate reduction plant was commissioned at the
Budelco BV zinc refinery in the Netherlands in 1992 to treat
 16 R. W.LAWRENCE el al.

groundwater contaminated with sulfate and heavy metals. The plant

treats. 7000m3/day of groundwater producing effluent containing
<0.3 mg/L Zn and < 160 mg/L SO4 [27]). Supply and cost of
suitable substrates (electron-donor and carbon source) for the
sulfate-reducing bacteria is an important factor in process viability.
Examples of suitable substrates are lactate, pyruvate, citrate,
ethanol, starch, molasses, some organic acids and mixed substrates
such as sewage sludge and other organic wastes. Some bacteria can
grow autotrophically on gaseous substrates such as hydrogen which
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can be the preferred substrate for plants treating in excess of 10 tpd

SO4 [28]. Ethanol is used as an efficient carbon source and electron
donor at the Budelco plant treating 2.5 tpd SO4 due to the
availability of a cheap source of this substrate. Some advantages of
the active sulfate reduction processes are high metal removal, sulfate
removal to below 200 mgjl and minimal production of sludge for
disposa I.
The solution treated at Budelco represents a lightly contaminated
feed for a sulfate reduction system relative to some of the more
complex and concentrated acid drainages encountered at many North
American operations. Processes such as the BioSulfide process being
developed in Canada [29] appear to offer a realistic opportunity for the
treatment of more highly contaminated solutions. This process utilizes
two stages, with HIS generated in the reduction (2nd) stage to
selectively precipitate metal sulfides in the 1st stage. Revenues from
sale of sulfides are possible. Demonstration of active sulfate reduction
for highly contaminated waters at a significant scale is, however,
needed before the process can be accepted as a viable alternative.
Developments required are mainly related to the engineering of large
scale reactor systems.
Comparative cost analysis shows that the widely used hydroxide
precipitation process has both lower capital and operating costs
compared with sulfate reduction although credit for metal sulfide sales
would equalize operating costs to some extent. Capital costs for active
sulfate reduction might be too high for small scale application.
Superior effluent quality achieved by the biotechnological process
might not be pertinent when minimal standards are currently met by
hydroxide precipitation. This could prove to be different if more
stringent standards are imposed in the future.
 BIOTECHNOLOGY IN MINING INDUSTRY

Passive Water Treatment Systems

In contrast to the engineered and controlled plant sulfate reduction
processes, passive treatment processes rely on the activity of the
microbiological or biological species within a natural setting. A large
number of biologically-mediated reactions are responsible for metals
removal from solution, many of them associated with wetland
environments. Metal removal processes also take place in other
natural environments. Such reactions can be exploited and enhanced
in systems which have been designated as ecological engineering.
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Passive treatment systems for the mineral sector, including both

wetlands and ecological engineering approaches, have been recently
reviewed [30].
Wetlands. Plants can take up metals through incorporation into
tissue structure and surface adsorption. Sulfate reducing bacteria in
anoxic zones precipitate metals as sulfides. Wetlands can be utilized as
passive systems which reduce contaminant loading due to a number of
these metal uptake and precipitation reactions [31]. Metal uptake and
precipitation is most active in growing period and natural wetlands
are, therefore, not so effective in Northern winters. Wetlands,
particularly if they contain muskeg, can also act as a filter for
suspended solids. Although there are a number of limited successes of
wetlands in removing metals, not all solutions can be treated. Success
is more likely if flows are small and only lightly contaminated.
Retention time of water to be treated is possibly one of the most
important criteria for the application of passive systems. It should also
be noted that many wetlands are unsuitable for heavy metal removal
since they can provide critical habitat for wildlife and rare plants.
To gain benefit from wetlands, they need to be located in relation to
need. This has led to the concept and trials in the enhancement or
engineering of wetlands. A typical man-made passive treatment system
can mimic a natural wetland by employing the same geochemical
principles. The effectiveness of such systems can be enhanced through
construction methods designed to enhance plant growth and water
flow. A constructed wetland experiment was conducted at the Bell
mine in B.C. [32] although the relatively short evaluation period did
not permit conclusions regarding process potential or cost estimates
for this site. A recently initiated field-trial incorporating an engineered
 18 R. W.LAWRENCE el a/.

wetland with other passive treatment stages, is currently under

evaluation for the treatment of acidic drainage associated with
abandoned tin-mining operations in Cornwa11,'~n~land [33]. Large
land areas are, however, required to achieve successful metal removal
using a passive approach. For example, using suggested loading
factors of 3 to 10 g Fe removed per day per m2 of constructed wetland
[34], the treatment of 3 million m31year of acid rock drainage
containing 0.5 g/L metals would require an estimated 40- 100 ha of
land area.
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The benefits of wetlands reside in their passive nature. Passive

systems present a 'friendly' approach and one which regulators will
probably favour in the future in contrast to the 'collect and treat'
option. ~ h disbenefit
d is the risk associated with a process which has
yet to be tested in the long term with respect to maintenance, cost and
efficiency, particularly with respect to the fate of metal sludges and
their removal. In contrast, the lime plant option is not affected by such
long term questions.
Ecological Engineering. Using an engineered approach to the
development and enhancement of natural metal-uptake phenomena is
not restricted to wetlands. Ecologically engineered systems are related
in concept and can enhance the natural water cleansing processes
mediated by microbial action in lake and wetland sediments [35].
Considerable research and development work by Boojum Research
I351 and others in Canada and elsewhere in the world has shown that
contamination in effluent streams can be reduced significantly through
the development of engineered micro-and macro-biological systems.
Boojum Research of Toronto have developed a number of systems.
In the ARUM Process (Acid Reduction Using Microbiology), sulfate
and iron->educing bacteria reduce acidity and cause metals to
precipitates under anaerobic conditions, The bacteria use cattail litter
and organic substrates as carbon sources. In the CHARA Process, a
species of algae demonstrates an affinity for 2 2 6 ~ina uranium tailings
effluents. These types of processes have been shown in large pilot
projects to be effective in reducing metal concentrations in polishing
ponds through various mechanisms including biosorption, complexa-
tion with organic matter, ion-exchange, precipitation and uptake.
Nitrogen removal using cattails is also possible with loadings of 1
tonne N/ha/year claimed.
 BIOTECHNOLOGY IN MINING INDUSTRY 19

Experience at Canadian mining sites undergoing decommissioning

indicates that passive, ecological engineering approaches to water
decontamination is feasible [36]. Microbial metal removal processes
continue in lake and wetland sediments even under harsh winter
conditions. A recent review has summarized microbial removal rates
of contaminants in both reactor and field settings [37].

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

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Mining in the future must recognize that successful economic

development depends on the rational exploitation of resources while
minimizing the adverse environmental impacts of development
projects. The development of metal extraction processes and environ-
mental processes which satisfy these requirements are two of the two
major challenges facing the mining industry. Increasing power costs,
lowering of ore grades, and decreasing commodity prices in real dollar
terms require that extractive technologies be highly efficient and
competitive. In addition, increased environmental demands require
that these technologies be environmentally superior or that mitigation
alternatives can be put forward. Our analysis (Lawrence and Poulin)
has shown that biotechnology is already meeting these needs, that the
current commercial technologies are certain to expand in application,
and that other technologies will achieve commercial application as
resource and environmental factors become more critical. In general, it
can be concluded that biohydrometallurgy can be efficient at small
scale, be more environmental friendly, and easier to operate on a
relative basis with competing technologies. Other, more technical,
factors also allow the consideration of biohydrometallurgy for niche
applications for metal extraction, such as favourable mineralogy and
the ability to recover values from marginal materials. These factors
serve to make the entry barrier into biohydrometallurgy very low and
processes are, therefore, more accessible.
A stronger trade-off than initially foreseen exists between conven-
tional processes and biotechnology processes in relation to environ-
mental friendliness. The balance of costs that currently favor
biotechnology in specific cases only, are frequently tipped in the
favour of biotechnology when a greater emphasis is put on
 20 R. W.LAWRENCE er 01.

environmental factors. In many cases, cleaner effluents would then be

achievable at lower cost using biotechnology. However, this is not
pertinent if minimum effluent standards are currently being met by
using conventional treatment. This could prove to be different if more
stringent standards are imposed in the future and would provide a
niche for the biotechnology alternatives. These higher standards will
not, however, be imposed by regulators until it is assured that a proven
or iow risk technology is available. The major developmental hurdles
for biotechnology for environmental control are related to the often
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very large volumes of solution to be treated and the associated

difficulties with developing biological processes with the rapid kinetics
required to reduce plant requirements to a practical size. In addition,
the concentration of metals and other ions in some process streams
and in many acidic drainages are inhibitory to some biotechnological
processes.
Despite the commercial successes, some sectors of the industry in
some countries retain high perceptions of risk and remain reluctant to
consider biotechnology. However, the perception of risk is evolving.
As operating experience is gained, more weight can be placed on the
measurable component of risk rather than relying on the perception of
risk as is the case when technology is new and operating experience
and costs are absent. The pace of evolution cannot be expected to be
the same in all places, responding to mineral and project opportu-
nities, tax incentives, quality and source of economic information,
acknowledgment of needs, regulations and permitting requirements, .
the degree of exposure to biotechnology, general mentality, and
climatic and geographic factors. With the commercialization of several
extractive and environmental control technologies, the overall benefits
of biotechnology in mining are becoming more apparent.

Acknowledgments
The information and analysis presented in this paper were based on
the results of a study carried out in 1995 to evaluate the potential for
biotechnology in the Canadian mining industry. The financial support
provided for that study by the Biotechnology Directorate of Industry
Canada and by CANMET, Natural Resources Canada, is gratefully
acknowledged.
 BIOTECHNOLOGY IN MINING INDUSTRY

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