American Academy of Political and Social Science

The Third World: Changing Attitudes Toward Environmental Protection

Author(s): Whitman Bassow
Source: The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 444, The
Environment and the Quality of Life: A World View (Jul., 1979), pp. 112-120
Published by: Sage Publications, Inc. in association with the American Academy of
Political and Social Science
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 ANNALS, AAPSS, 444, July 1979

The Third World: Changing Attitudes Toward

Environmental Protection

By WHITMAN BASSOW

ABSTRACT: A revolution in Third World attitudes toward

environmental protection has occurred since the 1972 United
Nations Conference on the Human Environment held in
Stockholm. Before then, most Third World leaders were
convinced that their countries had no environmental
problems-problems which they associated with industr
ization and "pollution." But the Conference accelerated
change in attitude already under way as the result of a
pioneering report on environment and economic develop-
ment prepared especially for the meeting. Subsequently,
the growing involvement of the U.N. Environment Program
with their concerns has helped change perceptions of
environmental problems in developing countries. Political
leaders now see that industrial and agricultural develop-
ment, the unplanned growth of cities, and burgeoning
populations can have an adverse effect on the environ-
ment and the quality of life. Many developing countries are
now implementing national environmental policies. Protec-
tion of the planet's environment is no longer the exclusive
concern of the industrialized countries alone.

Whitman Bassow has been Executive Director of the U.N. Association's Center
for International Environment Information since 1974 and was the Senior Public
Affairs Officer for the UN Environment Program and the UN Conference on the
Human Environment. He was formerly a foreign correspondent for Newsweek,
CBS News, and United Press International, and a Writer/Editor for the Ford
Foundation.
112

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 THE THIRD WORLD 113

W EBSTER'S dictionary defines

REASONS FOR THE CHANGE
revolution as a "sudden, rad-
ical or complete change." It gives This
as paper describes the three
principal reasons for this change in
an example a revolution in thought.
There is a current revolution in attitude and presents an environ-
thought that many people aremental not overview of the developing
world. In 1971 the Conference sec-
aware of and which may not precisely
fit the dictionary definition.retariat
It is, in Stockholm faced a difficult
and complicated political task: to
however, a revolution, fairly sudden
in terms of time, fairly radical persuade
in the developing countries
terms of concept, but not yetofcom- the world to participate in the
plete. And it has vast implications Conference. At that time, most of
for the entire world. them had their own perceptions of
This revolution can be simply the environmental issue. They as-
stated: the countries of the Third sociated environmental problems
World have changed their attitudes with industrial pollution, which was
toward environmental protection. regarded primarily as a problem of
They are now increasingly awarethe ofindustrialized countries. It was
the harsh economic and human con- the United States, Japan, Great
Britain, and West Germany which
sequences that can result from failing
to take into account the environ- had the giant smokestacks spewing
mental impact of industrial develop-fumes skyward. These countries had
ment. They are equally concerned the millions of automobiles polluting
about the environmental problems cities with lead and carbon monox-
created by the lack of economic ide; their rivers and lakes were
development. As a result, many of saturated with mercury, phosphates,
these countries have not only formu- and cadmium. These were the coun-
lated national environmental poli- tries-the big energy users-that
cies, but also created institutions were dumping oil at sea and con-
to implement these policies. Fur- taminating the oceans.
thermore, they are incorporating What, asked the developing coun-
elements of environmental planning tries, did this have to do with them?
in their development process and These countries were still largely
allocating scarce funds and man- agricultural; they still faced a long
road to industrialization and were
power to carry out environmental
projects. desperately seeking to increase liv-
Wherever one looks today, in Asia, ing standards for burgeoning popula-
tions. Leaders in these countries said
Africa, Latin America, and the Mid-
they would welcome pollution caused
east, there is ample evidence that en-
by smoking chimneys. They saw a
vironmental protection is no longer profound and irreconcilable conflict
the exclusive concern of the world's
between environmental protection
industrialized countries. What makes
and economic development.
this change even more striking is that "If pollution means jobs for my
it has occurred in less than ten years,people, we welcome it," was how
beginning in the early seventies withone Third World UN delegate sum-
the United Nations Conference on med up the attitudes of many others.
the Human Environment in Stock- However, the Third World was well
holm and with the preparations forrepresented at the UN Conference
that historic meeting. when it opened in a gala ceremony

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114 THE ANNALS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

in Stockholm's Opera House on was

5 another factor which helped
June 1972. There were delegates from
change Third World attitudes towards
81 developing countries among the environmental protection. Although
113 nations represented.' This was a Conference adopted the princi-
the
dramatic turnaround from the pros-ples of the Founex Report, perhaps
just as important, the preparatory
pects that so worried the Conference
secretariat. process forced the Third World
The turnaround was largely duecountries
to to examine their environ-
the tireless efforts of the Conference mental problems. This was done by
Secretary General Maurice F. Strong the simple device of inviting each
and to a meeting in Switzerland, inparticipating country to submit a na-
June 1971, at which 27 economists tional environment report. Thus, for
and scientists met for nine days and the first time, many developing coun-
produced the first conceptual basistries took inventory of their problems
for the idea that environment and de-
and sharpened their perceptions
velopment are not incompatible.2 about such issues as water as a re-
The Founex Report, which they pro- source, agriculture and soil con-
duced, emphasized that developing servation, wildlife, forestry, marine
countries do indeed have environ- pollution, and pesticide use.4 Fur-
mental problems, but they differ thermore, the need to produce such
from those of industrialized coun- reports obliged many Third World
tries, and that they, in fact, result from
governments to identify individuals
the lack of industrial development
who could gather the material and
and from the process of industrializa-
write such reports, thus creating
tion itself. a cadre for future environmental
Strong, a Canadian businessman
efforts.
and diplomat, called the Founex Re-
A third factor in changing devel-
port a "major contribution to the
oping country attitudes was the es-
preparations for the Conference and
tablishment of the United Nations
a historic turning point in the de-
Environment Program (UNEP) by
velopment-environment dialogue."3
the General Assembly in Decem-
The Report was included in the ber 1972. UNEP, "the environ-
Stockholm agenda and adopted by mental conscience of the United
the Conference. Looking back at the Nations," has since then oriented
Report and its concepts, it is aston-many of its programs directly to the
ishing to see how it has penetratedconcerns of developing countries. It
environmental and economic deci- has played a major role in three world
sionmaking in the Third World. conferences-human settlements,
The Stockholm Conference itself desertification, and water-which
were heavily attended by Third
1. United Nations Conference on the Hu- World countries.
man Environment, List of Participants, A/
CONF.48/INF.5/Rev. 1, 21 September 1972,
UNEP has a large number of on-
New York: United Nations. going projects designed to assist
2. Development and Environment, A Re- developing countries deal with prob-
port submitted by a panel of experts con-
lems relating to health, use of pesti-
vened by the Secretary General of the
United Nations Conference on the Human
cides, wildlife conservation, irriga-
Environment, Founex, Switzerland, 4-12
June 1971 (Stockholm: Kungl, Boktyckeriet,4. Summaries of National Reports on En-
P.A. Norstedt & Soner, 1971). vironmental Problems (Washington, DC:
3. Ibid., p. 5 Woodrow Wilson Center for Scholars, 1972).

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 THE THIRD WORLD 115

tion, conservation of arid lands and

nitude of environmental problems.
fragile ecosystems, water quality,
Second, in many countries, govern-
deforestation, and erosion.5 It has
ments have established national en-
also been helpful in providing vironmental policies and official
environmental management training
agencies to deal with these problems.
for developing countries and as- In Asia it is clear that the Founex
sistance in drafting environmental analysis was only too true. Even a
legislation; it educates Third World brief survey shows that in almost
officials on standards for industry every country on that continent, the
through its Industry Program, and environment suffers from the results
directs a steady stream of informa- of underdevelopment and, at the
tion about environmental problems same time, from the adverse effects
at decisionmakers in developingof rapid industrialization.
country governments. In India, for example, millions of
UNEP also educates and sensitizes people must use firewood for cook-
policymakers through their attend- ing, even in the large cities such as
ance at numerous conferences, New Delhi and Bombay. This results
workshops, colloquia, and throughin high levels of atmospheric pollu-
participation in the annual meetingstion with serious impact on public
of the Governing Council at UNEP health. The pollution in New Delhi
headquarters in Nairobi. There they is the worst in India, not only from
meet counterparts from other coun-the burning of coal, but also from
tries to discuss mutual concerns and factory and power plant emissions
interests as well as UNEP business. and from vehicles.6 Runoff from pes-
Thus, by its very existence, UNEP ticides and other agricultural chemi-
helps direct the attention of the Third
cals is polluting the Bay of Bengal,
World to its environmental prob- while DDT and other contaminants
lems. And the fact that UNEP head- are found in fish used for human
quarters are located in Nairobi un- consumption.7 Pollution in India's
doubtedly gives its programs a louder major rivers from human and indus-
resonance in the Third World than trial waste has reduced the fish catch
if it were located in Geneva or New to an alarming level.8
York, as had once been expected. Responding to the need for a na-
tional approach to these problems,
CURRENT ENVIRONMENTAL the Indian Government has estab-
DEVELOPMENTS lished a National Commission for
the Environment which has issued
An examination of what is happen-
guidelines for major projects that
ing now in those Third World coun-
will, it is hoped, ensure protection
tries that ten years ago refused
of to
the environment. These cover the
recognize their environmental prob-
construction of dams, railways, open
lems and were reluctant to go pit
to mines, and highways, and must
Stockholm reveals that their thinking
be cleared by a commission of scien-
about environmental protectiontists
has and technicians.9
changed dramatically and, as a result,
two trends are becoming increasingly
6. World Environment Report, vol. 3, 17
apparent. First, almost eyerywhere
January 1977 (New York: Center for Inter-
there is a new awareness of the mag-
national Environment Information), p. 5.
7. Ibid., vol. 4, 27 February 1978, p. 1
5. UNEPAnnual Review, 1975 (New York:
8. Ibid., vol 3, 9 May 1977, p. 1
United Nations, 1976). 9. Ibid., vol 4, 23 October 1978, p. 1

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116 THE ANNALS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

In Malaysia, the government has

curb sources of pollution. In addition,
established a new Division of the the government now requires an en-
Environment to tackle some of the vironmental impact statement before
country's problems, including air public and privately financed proj-
pollution in Kuala Lumpur which isects are approved. This applies to
said to be as bad as New York's.'0 dams, roads, and power stations.
Other pollution sources are petro- Turkey is afflicted with urban air
pollution that could lead to "mass
leum refineries, palm oil effluents,
and power stations. Malaysia is deaths,"
co- according to medical au-
operating with Singapore and Indo- thorities. In Ankara, sulphur dioxide
nesia in controlling traffic in levels
the are 37.5 times higher than the
Malacca Strait, the heavily traveled
permissible level suggested by WHO.
The result has been an increase in
route for oil tankers plying between
the Mideast and Japan."1 cases of bronchitis, lung disease,
In the Philippines, one of the ma-
miscarriages, and premature births.16
jor problems is erosion of forested
The emissions are due largely to the
areas. The country has 12.35 million
use of high sulphur coals.17
acres of denuded upland areas At the same time, growing indus-
stripped of original vegetation. Re- trialization and exploding popula-
forestation is very slow and onlytion are creating severe pollution
about 45,000 acres are reforested an-problems in Istanbul. The popula-
nually.'2 Much of this damage is duetion is spreading rapidly into indus-
trial areas that were once outside the
to the slash and burn agricultural
practice common in developing city. Residential and industrial build-
countries. But there are other dangerings are now intermingled, with the
signals of a totally different kind:result that uncontrolled factory emis-
high lead levels have been found insions are polluting residential neigh-
selected populations in the Manila borhoods.18 Turkey, however, has
area, including automobile workersdecided to act on some of these prob-
and police.'3 The coliform bacteria lems. Last year, parliament created a
count in offshore Manila Bay-which new agency to deal with environment
receives 350 tons of untreated house-
headed by an Undersecretary of
hold waste daily-is an unsurprisingState who reports directly to the
two million per 100 milliliters.l4 Pol-Prime Minister.'9
lution from the mining industry is An indication of how far one de-
adversely affecting eight major riverveloping country has moved in the
systems which receive 100,000 tonsdirection of environmental aware-
of mine tailings daily. Over 130,000ness is a provision in the new con-
hectares of agricultural land are stitution of Sri Lanka which obliges
watered by these rivers.15 the government "to protect, preserve
To deal with some of these prob- and improve the environment for the
lems, the Philippine government es- benefit of the community."20
tablished an Environment Protection While other developing countries
Council in 1977 with a mandate to have not gone as far as Sri Lanka,
the trend towards establishing gov-
10. Ibid., vol. 4, 4 December 1978, p. 8
11. Ibid., vol. 3, 31 January 1977, p. 6 16. Ibid., vol. 3, 28 February 1977, p. 6
12. Ibid., vol. 3, 11 April 1977, p. 8 17. Ibid., vol. 4, 11 September 1978, p. 7
13. Ibid., vol. 3, 10 October 1977, p. 7 18. Ibid., vol. 4, 10 April 1978, p. 5
14. Ibid., vol. 3, 10 October 1977, p. 7 19. Ibid., vol. 4, 11 September 1978, p. 5
15. Ibid., vol 3, 20 June 1977, p. 8 20. Ibid., vol. 4, 4 December 1978, p. 5

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 THE THIRD WORLD 117

ernmental agencies to deal with en-Even Brazil, which was one of the
vironmental problems is becoming strongest protagonists of industrial
widespread in Asia. Singapore, In-
development unhindered by environ-
donesia, Thailand, Iran, and Bangla-
mental considerations, is beginning
desh have such agencies. They vary
to modify its views in face of the
in power, resources and commitment,
enormous problems resulting from
but ten years ago not a single one
unplanned development. In Sao
existed. Paulo, for example, whose slogan
once was: "Sao Paulo Cannot Stop,"
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION IN the government has banned further
LATIN AMERICA construction of industrial plants. The
city has unacceptable levels of at-
In Latin America the trends are
mospheric and water pollution, as
similar to those in Asia. There is
well as the unenviable citation as
growing national concern with the one of the five noisiest cities in the
same issues: deforestation, erosion
world.24
of arable land, congestion in citiesOf all the Latin American coun-
with resulting strain on sanitation,
tries, oil-rich Venezuela is by far the
transportation, and water systems,
leader in environmental protection.
and increasing pollution as a result
In fact, in terms of organization, re-
of swift industrialization. The re-
sources, political support, and legis-
sponse to these problems varies from
lative mandate, it is the leader in the
country to country, from official in-
Third World, an example of what a
difference in Argentina to high level
developing country can do to carry
commitment in Venezuela, but com-
out industrialization and still protect
pared to ten years ago the changeits environment.
is impressive.
In an address to the International
Venezuela has established a full-
Environment Forum on his country's
fledged Ministry of Environment
environmental problems and poli-
and Renewable Natural Resources
cies,25 Arnoldo Jose Gabaldon, then
with broad regulatory powers.21 Co-Minister of the Environment and Re-
lombia has passed a comprehensive
newable Natural Resources, echoed
environmental protection code which the Founex Report. He labeled as
although flexibly enforced is, none-"erroneous" the belief that environ-
theless, the law of the land.22 Mexico
created an Undersecretariat for En-
mental degradation exists only in
high technology countries. As the
vironmental Improvement in 1972
industrialization process begins, he
within the Ministry of Health with said, it creates its own environmental
a staff of 500.23
problems. Underdevelopment also
produces adverse environmental im-
21. Arnoldo Jose Gabaldon, Minister of the
Environment and Renewable Natural Re-
pact due to deforestation, inappro-
sources, Venezuela (Address to International priate agricultural methods, destruc-
Environment Forum, New York City, tion of woodland, and aberrant occu-
1
December 1977, unpublished). pation of land.26 "Common sense,"
22. World Environment Report, vol. I, warned, "tells us to profit from
he
3 February 1975, p. 2
23. Humberto Romero Alvarez, Under-
secretary for Environmental Improvement,24. World Environment Report, vol. 4 24
Mexico (Address to International Environ- April 1978, p. 3
ment Forum, New York City, 15 December 25. Arnoldo Jose Gabaldon, see n. 21.
1978, unpublished). 26. Ibid.

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118 THE ANNALS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

the experience of developed coun-

planted 65 million trees during its
first three years of operation. Al-
tries and anticipate the environment
degrading situations affecting these
though Venezuela is an oil-rich coun-
industrialized nations."27 try, it plans to develop its water
In order to deal with its environ- power potential to provide 77 percent
of its electricity needs by the year
mental problems, Venezuela prom-
ulgated a Law of the Environment 2000.
in In 1977, that figure was 40
July 1976 which provided the basic
percent.30
framework for environmental pro- Venezuela's policies towards in-
tection. In December 1976, the Min-
dustrial pollution are flexible, based
on the concept of permissible pol-
istry of Environment and Renewable
Natural Resources came into exist- lution. This means that temporary
ence. One of the Ministry's mandatespollution is permissible provided
the adverse consequences do not
was to establish priorities and a plan
make irreversible changes in the
for dealing with Venezuela's most
environment.31
serious problems. This covers: re-
source management (forests, wildlife,Venezuela is attacking its environ-
mental problems in an imaginative
water); resource conservation (river
and determined way. Unlike the vast
basin conservation, forest fires); pol-
lution control (air in cities, watermajority of developing countries, it
pollution, waste disposal); develop-can carry out a serious environmental
ment projects (flood prevention, na-protection program because it has
tional parks, recreation areas); andthe financial resources, leadership,
institutional aids which support na-and political will to do so. With a
tional environmental policy withpopulation
a of 13 million, its per capita
heavy emphasis on education and income in 1975 was $1346, the
citizen participation.28 highest in Latin America. The Min-
The Ministry organized environ- istry of Environment and Renewable
mental boards composed of citizen Resources had a 1978 budget of $200
groups in each municipality. They million, a figure that could well be
greater than expenditures for all
are responsible for "ecological crime"
prevention, educational campaigns, African and Latin American coun-
and sponsorship of local cleanup tries combined.
efforts. Under a unique arrangementA significant aspect of the program
with the National Guard, specially
is that Venezuela is big enough and
trained officers enforce environmental
rich enough to play a leadership role
laws and regulations.29 in environmental protection in Latin
Venezuela has carried out a num- America. Other countries which do
ber of conservation measures in the not have the same resources are turn-
last few years designed to prevent ing to Venezuela for technical as-
depletion of tropical forests. These sistance and advice in dealing with
include suspension of logging per- their environmental problems. What
mits in national timber reserves and also makes Venezuela's approach
a large scale afforestation program noteworthy is that a government
through the National Reforestation structure was tailored to the coun-
Company (CONARE). CONARE has try's indigenous problems. After
studying government agencies and
27. Ibid.
28. Ibid. 30. Ibid.
29. Ibid. 31. Ibid.

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 THE THIRD WORLD 119

policies in the United States, Great

periencing environmental problems
Britain, and other industrialized
associated with technologically ad-
countries, Venezuela developedvanced
its societies: oil spills and dis-
own approach suited to its particular
charges, contamination of rivers by
needs. A senior U.S. State De- untreated industrial effluents from
partment official has confided paper, that
steel, and textile mills, work-
the Venezuelans have designed a place health problems, beaches pol-
more rational and efficient system for luted by human wastes, and large
dealing with environmental issues land areas degraded by mining
than the United States. activities.33
The most dramatic impact has
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
been on Nigeria's overloaded cities,
IN AFRICA
of which Lagos is the best example.
The trends in Latin America and The capital city, with a population
that has more than tripled in the last
Asia apply to Africa where, of course,
ten years, has no sewerage system
the problems are different. Here the
resources allocated to environmental and no dependable clean water sup-
protection vary from country to coun- ply. It suffers monstrous traffic jams
try, and the political will to take ac-and high levels of air pollution due
tion ranges from indifferent to de- to vehicle emissions.
termined. But again, in almost every In 1977, Nigeria established a
country there is now in place someDivision of Environmental Planning
kind of government agency, ministry,and Protection within the powerful
department, or office charged with Ministry of Industries. Dr. Raimi 0.
environmental protection, be it wild-Ojikutu, a physical anthropologist
life, forests, water, natural resources,with international environmental
health, or sanitation. experience, was appointed as Di-
The leader in Africa is Nigeria, thevision Director. The Division was
most populous and the richest of all created, according to Ojikutu, be-
black African countries. Unlike its cause it was believed that as Ni-
geria proceeds along the road to
oil-rich counterpart in Latin America,
industrialization, it must "learn from
Nigeria is just beginning to organize
the mistakes of industrialized coun-
itself in the environment field, but
tries and not allow the activities
it is dealing with the same problems
grounded in underdevelopment and of individual production units within
swift economic growth, as predictedthe economic system to impose un-
in the Founex Report. duly heavy indirect costs on society
through their contribution to en-
Nigeria's main environmental prob-
lems include inadequate supplies vironmental of deterioration."34
clean water, poor sanitation, lack of The Nigerian government has
waste disposal facilities, deforesta- identified twelve priority areas for
tion and erosion, inadequate hous- environmental action. These in-
ing, degradation of agricultural land, clude industrial pollution control,
and encroaching deserts in the the use of pesticides and chemical
north.32 In addition, Nigeria is ex-fertilizers in agriculture, oil-related
water pollution, solid waste manage-
32. Dr. Raimi O. Ojikutu, Director, En-
vironmental Planning and Protection, Nigeria
ment, desertification control meas-
(Address to International Environment Fo-
rum, New York City, 12 June 1978, un- 33. Ibid.
published). 34. Ibid.

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120 THE ANNALS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

ures, land conservation, and public desirable technological society. De

education. Furthermore, the Di- veloping countries-for the most
vision is preparing a Report on the part-see environmental protection
State of the Environment in Nigeria as protection of the national inter-
to focus the attention of policy- est, vital to creating a decent life
makers, professionals, and the pub- for their people.
lic on major environmental prob- Of course, the understanding of
lems with recommendations for the issues and the commitment
solutions.35 varies from country to country;
The government is turning to varies with the level of political
other countries and international or- will of government leaders, with
ganizations for assistance in dealingthe expressed concern of the news
with environmental problems. Re-media and the scientific community,
cently a mission from the U.S. En- with the sophistication of public
vironmental Protection Agency spentopinion. But there can be no doubt
several weeks in Nigeria, visiting that in almost every country in the
different regions to prepare a pre-Third World there is a growing
feasibility survey of environmentalenvironmental awareness that did
action priorities. not exist ten years ago. One piece
The high-level importance givenof evidence: in 1972, at the time of
to environmental issues is indicated the Stockholm Conference, only
by the formation of an Inter- eleven developing countries had
Ministerial Advisory Committee on agencies that dealt in some fashion
Environmental Protection. The Com- with environmental issues. Today,
mittee meets monthly to consider that number is 87.37
major environmental problems and The rallying cry for the Stockholm
make recommendations for action.36 Conference on the Human Environ-
It is expected that within the veryment was simple and eloquent:
near future, Nigeria will establishOnly One Earth. But at that time it
an independent environmental pro- was feared that developing coun-
tection agency, similar to the U.S.tries, representing two-thirds of the
EPA-the first one in Africa. world's population, were not con-
cerned about protecting the planet
from environmental degradation. It
CHANGE IN THIRD WORLD
can now be said, and said with
ATTITUDES
confidence, that concern and in-
deed commitment are worldwide.
This brief description of environ-
mental developments in the Third Developing and industrialized na-
World since the Stockholm Con- tions are at last beginning to work
ference shows, without any doubt, together to ensure that our Only
that there has been a remarkable One Earth remains a viable, fruit-
ful
change in attitudes towards the en- and hospitable environment for
vironment. No longer is environ-this and future generations of
mankind.
mental protection regarded as iden-
tical with "pollution control," nor as37. Compiled from the list of participants
an unpleasant byproduct of a highly at the UN Conference on the Human En-
vironment and files of the Center for Inter-
35. Ibid. national Environment Information, New York
36. Ibid. City.

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