Q-O
W Idea Bank
Summer 2008, Tips and Techniques for Creative Teaching
Measuring the Speed
of Sound
The following physics lab activities
are new versions of old experiments
for measuring the speed of sound—
what makes them new is their use of
electronic interfacing, which can be
exciting for students.
Experiment 1:
The "echo tube"
When I was setting up my new
physics lab a few years ago, I pur-
chased a set of 1.2 m long aluminum
tracks for dynamics experiments.
These tracks came packaged in long
cardboard tubes, and it occurred to
me that tbey wouiti make neat "echo
tubes." An echo tube can be used for
echo detection and is comprised of
a long cardboard tube, clotbespin,
sound sensor, and tbe associated
computer-interfacing equipment.
I designed a simple lab for mea-
suring tbe speed of sound in the
classroom using these echo tubes.
Students measure tbe time delay
between a snap of the fingers or
"clack" of a clothespin and the ar-
rival of its ecbo after reflecting off
the floor. To measure this delay, a
computer is programmed to begin
tbe timing sequence at tbe sound of
tbe snap and to end after one second.
Knowing the tube's length {tolal
distance) and finding tbe time delay
{total time) allows for a calculation
of tbe speed of sound in air using the
formula below:
Speed of sound = TawldisTance idownJXKLback)
Total Time (down and back)
Witb tbe help of a temperature
sensor, it is possible to check tbe
experimental resuits adjusted for
temperature.
62 The Science Teacher
The trickiest part of tbis activity
for students is getting tbe computer
to start at tbe "clack" sound of their
clotbespin. Classroom noises, as well
as competing lab stations, can cause
tbe computer to trigger prematurely.
As students experiment in closely
spaced teams of two, tbey must work
aH)perativeIy and take turns "clack-
ing" so as to trigger only tbcir own
computer. Students need practice to
identify the ecbo return point—whicb
is u-sed to calculate total time-—on the
computer display, but after a few trial
Echo tubes experiment setup.
runs, tbey quickly learn bow tofindit
on tbe screen. If teachers want to get indicate tbat the speed of sound in-
really fancy, they can also use a mo- creases witb temperature. The slope
tion sensor to measure tbe distance of tbe line sbould give the correction
from tbe sound sensor to the floor factor, 0.6 m/s/"C. Figure 2 sbows the
(the length of tbe tube); bowever, a plotted student data grapb.
meterstick works just fine. Figure 1
shows actual stutlent data gathered Experiment 2:
for tbis activity, in whicb each lab
Closed pipe resonance
group performed four trials.
A common high scbool experiment
An interesting extension oi this for measuring the speed of sound
lab would be to heat the air inside involves closed pipe resonance, wbicb
the ecbo tube with a hair dryer and occurs wben a pressure (sound) wave
then bave students repeat the ex- travels down the inside of the pipe,
periment for a new temperature. reflects off the closed end, travels
Hy plotting class data for measured back up tbe pipe, and constructively
speeds of sound versus the various interferes with another incoming
temperatures, a linear plot should wave. Wben this happens, an increase
FIGURE 1
Echo tubes: Student data.
Time Distance Temperature Speed True speed Percent
(sec) (m) rc) experimental adjusted error
(m/s) (m/s)
0,0070 2.62 19,5 374,3 343,2 9,1
0.0090 2.62 19.9 291.1 343,4 -15,2
0,0070 2.62 20,3 374,3 343.7 8.9
0,0080 2.62 20.5 3275 343.8 -4.7
Average 341.8 0.5
in energy or loudness occurs. This
increased loudness is quite noticeable,
even to tbe unaided ear, and occurs in
multiples of one-quarter wavelengths.
Typically, a closed pipe resonance
experiment involves a large cylinder
of water and a piece ot plastic pipe.
A tuning fork is sounded over one
end of tbe plastic pipe, and by rais-
ing or lowering the pipe and the fork
while the pipe is immersed in tbe
cylinder of water, a resonance can
be beard at multiples of one-^quarter
wavelengtbs. However, tbis version
of the classic experiment {loes not re-
quire water and tbe associated mess.
Instead of reflecting sound off the
surface of water, this new method
uses an empty sewing thread spool
mounted on a stick, wbich can be
slid inside the tube and acts as tbe
reflecting surface. Several science
equipment supply companies sell
nonvvater versions, but I decided to
make my own.
To conduct the experiment, attach
a spool to a 0.64 cm (0.25 in.) dowel
stick using hot glue. The spool tits
perfectly into 3.8 cm (1.5 in.), thin-
walled polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) pipe. Pipe antl FIGURE 1
spool sizes are not criti- Echo tubes: Plotted student data
cal, however—teachers graph.
can use whatever they
have on hand. (Note:
One setup is created for
each student group.)
In this version of tbe
experiment, I replace
the tuning forks with a
computer speaker that
connects to tbe signal-
generator output of tbe
computer interface. Tbe
signal generator is ca-
p a b l e of p r o d u c i n g
several waveforms at
ditferent frequencies and
amplitudes, and tbe tone
is continuous—in contrast to the A simple sine wave set from
tuning fork, wbicb must be struck approximately 200 Hz for longer
and restruck several times in order to pipes to 450 Hz for sborter pipes
take a measurement. I then make an works well in this activity. Shorter
adapter for the speaker plug from an pipes seem to bave a sharper, nar-
old 35 mm film canister and a mini- rower resonant point and, there-
pbone jack, along with two banana fore, show bigher errors than lon-
plugs purcbased at a local electronics ger pipes (Figure 3). Once again,
store. accommodations for classroom

FIGURE I
Closed pipe resonance: Pipe error.
(inside diameter of pipe = 0.04 m; temperature = 22.0 °C.)

Trial Resonant length Frequency Corrected length I Speed of sound Percent

(m) (HI) (m) (m) (m/s) error
experimental accepted
1 0,395 200 0.411 1.644 328,8 344.7 4.6
2 0.280 300 0.296 1.184 355.2 344.7 3.0
3 0.185 330 0.201 0.904 265,3 344,7 23.0
4 0.155 450 0.171 0.684 307.8 344,7 10,7
5 0.145 450 0.161 0.644 289,8 344,7 15.9
Average 11.5

Summer 2008 63
CXD

f Idea Bank
FIGURE 4 is the point of FIGURE I
maximum energy
Closed pipe resonance: or loudness, seen
Closed pipe resonance: Student data.
Wavelength equation. as an enlarged Pipe Pipe Pipe Pipe
>. = 4 (0.4c/ + L) sine wave on the #1 #2 #3 #4
v^n oscilloscope and
Frequency (Hz) 250 300 350 400
where: X = wavelength heard as an in-
d = inside diameter of pipe
crease in "volume Temperature fC) 22.0 22.0 22.0 22.0
l e v e l " c o m i n g Speed of sound (m/s) 344.7 344.7 344.7 344.7
L = resonant length
from the tube.
f = frequency Wavelength (m) 1.379 1.149 0.985 0.862
V = speed of sound
If teachers do
not have computer Resonant length (m) x 1 0.395 0.280 0.185 0.156
interfacing with Resonant length (m) x 2 0.790 0.560 0.370 0.312
noises and competing resonance signal generator
setups must be made. I have found capabilities or a Resonant length (m) x 4 1580 1.120 0.740 0.624
that setting the sound sensor near conventional signal
the open end of the pipe allows generator, they can still do the experi- A variation of this activity in-
tor viewing the signal on the com- ment in the traditional manner, only volves experimentally determin-
puter's oscilloscope. As students without the water. "The Soundry Inter- ing the relationship between the
slide the spool-stick into the pipe, active Sound Lab," available online (see resonant length and the wavelength
they can hear and see (on the oscil- "On the web" at the end of this article), of the sound. Once again, students
loscope) when the amplitude of the can be used as a sound source that is locate the resonant point by sliding
sound hits its resonant point, which played through a computer's speakers. the piston (the spool attached to the

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64 The Science Teacher

dowel) back and forth in the pipe,
listening for the loudest point, and
looking for maximum displace-
ment of the oscilloscope pattern, if
used. This time, however, students
calculate the sound's wavelength
using the familiar wave equation, v
= fX., and compare this value to the
measured resonant length (Figure
4). Then, students multiply by 1, 2,
and 4 to determine which multiple
is closest to the actual wavelength
(Figure 5). If students perform these
calculations successfully, they should
see that resonant length x 4 is the clos-
est value to tbe actual wavelength.
Experiment 3:
generator positioned at one end of
the open pipe, students use the Fast
Fourier Transform (FFT) computer
display function to locate the reso-
nant frequency. The difficulty with
this method, however, is finding the
fundamental frequency.
Students often obtain loud points
at harmonic frequencies, so a meth-
od for identifying tbe fundamental
frequency is necessary. Harmonics
riGURE 6
Open pipe resonance: FFT display.
10 — WO MM .ct*
are multiples of the fundamental,
or base, frequency. For example, a
100 Hz tone will also sound loud
at 200 Hz (2nd barmonic), and at
300 Hz (3rd harmonic). The F F T
function solves tbis problem by
displaying a noticeable difference
in the frequency distribution at the
fundamental level versus one of the
barmonic levels (Figure 6). Students
choose five or six pipes of random
i
^4-x_-ixJwd
10-
II — Volttgt.Cf*

Open pipe resonance t

lot o|

It occurred to me that I should also lot |0B

be able to resonate a pipe open at

a:
both ends by varying the frequency 03-
et

of the incoming sound, instead of

100 tooo 4 OC 500 leoo '•"'' ^
varying tbe length of the pipe. I bave FmguancvlHz]

seen one other person try sometbing

similar (Warden 2005), and my ex- Fundamental frequency = 328 Hz 2nd harmonic = 656 Hz
[)criment likewise does not require
"plumbing" or a spool glued to a
stick, but ratber an open pipe, sound
sensor, and computer speaker.
In the case of a pipe closed at
one end, the reflected sound con-
structively interferes at multiples
of one-quarter wavelengths; thus,
producing resonance at tbese points.
For a pipe open at both ends, bow-
ever, a sound wave traveling down
tbe tube also partially reflects its
energy at the ends of the pipe.
In this case, resonance occurs in
multiples of balf a wavelength. At
resonance, tbe length of a closed
pipe is one-quarter wavelength (not
including a minor correction for the
pipes interior diameter), while tbe
lengtb of an open pipe is half of a
wavelength^—so the math is very
similar. By increasing or decreasing
the frequency or pitch of the sound Closed pipe resonance materials.

Summer 2008 65
 CUD

f Idea Bank
lengths for six trials; Figure 7 illus-
trates student results.
In essence, this activity assumes
the half wavelength relationship and
then computes the speed of sound
using the wavelength equation (Fig-
ure 8). Teachers can also flip this
activity around and determine the
half wavelength resonant length by
multiplying the measured resonant
length by 1,2, and 4.
Conclusion
Typically, I do not perform all three
experiments in the same year due
to time constraints. However, I do
conduct the echo tube experiment
each year, and choose to include ei-
ther the closed pipie or the open pipe
experiment as well, depending on
the class. The open pipe version of
FIGURE 7
Open pipe resonance: Student results.
the experiment is a little trickier, and FIGURE 8
therefore is better suited to more ad-
vanced groups of students. The closed Open pipe resonance:
pipe version is straightforward and Wavelength equation.
suitable for most classes. Each activ- 'k = 2 (0.8d + L)
ity addresses the National Science v = fX
Education Standards dealing with where: X = wavelength
Content Standard B, "Interactions d = inside diameter o f pipe
of Energy and Matter" (NRC 1996, L = resoriant length
pp. 176-181), and Content Standard f = frequency
E, "Understandings About Science V ^ speed of sound
and Technology" (NRC 1996, pp.
190-193).
A noisy classroom makes either On the web
version more difficult, so I use this fact The Soundry Interactive Sound Lab: hllp:/l
to emphasize quiet in the classroom! libTary.thinficjaest.org/19537
Jeremy Brown (jeremyO87@ References
centurytel.net) is a physics teacher National Research Council (NRC). 1996. Na-
at Kettle Moraine High School in tional sdaice education standards. Wash-
Wales, Wisconsin. ington, DC': National Academy Press.
Warden, J.A. 2005. Measuring the speed of
sound without plumhing. The Physics
Teacher 43: 308.

Measured pipe length Inside diameter Temperature Measured resonant

H (m) rc) frequency (Hz)
0377 0.034 20.9 399.0
0.446 0.034 20.9 347.0
0.S08 0.039 20.9 300.9

0.154 0.034 21.0 978.1

0.350 0.034 21.0 485.7

0.627 0.041 21.0 270.2

Calculated Speed of sound True speed Percent

wavelengths experimental of sound difference Visit
(m) (m/s) (m/s)
0.808 322.6 344.0 -6.2
The Science Teacher
0.946 328.4 344.0 -4.5 Archives
1.078 324.5 344.0 -57 online at
0.362 354.5 344.1 3.0
www.nsta.org/
0.754 366.4 344.1 6.5
1.320 356.6 344.1 3.6
highschool
Average 342.1 344.0 -0.5

66 The Science Teacher