Lecture Notes - 18ec36 - Power Electronics - Module 2 - Raja GV

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POWER ELECTRONICS AND

INSTRUMENTATION –
18EC36
Module 2
Regulation – 2018 (CBCS Scheme) Power Electronics & Instrumentation - 18EC36
MODULE 2- POWER CONVERTERS AND CHOPPERS
SYLLABUS
 Phase Controlled Converter:
o Control techniques,
o Single phase half wave with resistive and inductive loads
o full wave controlled rectifier with resistive and inductive loads,
o effect of freewheeling diode
(refer Chapter 6 of Text 1 upto6.4.1 without derivations).
 Choppers:
o Chopper Classification,
o Basic Chopper operation:
o step-down,
o step-up and
o step-up/down choppers.
(refer Chapter 8 of Text 1upto 8.3.3)
TEXT BOOK:
1. M.D Singh and K B Khanchandani, Power Electronics, 2nd Edition, Tata Mc-Graw Hill,
2009, ISBN: 0070583897
Prepared by RAJA G V – Dept. of ECE, Sri Sairam College of Engineering, Anekal Page 1
Phase Controlled Converter

o Rectification – Converting Alternating current or voltage in to Direct current or voltage
o 3 categories – Uncontrolled Rectifier – Half Controlled Rectifier – Fully controlled
Rectifier
o Uncontrolled Rectifier – use only diodes & DC output voltage fixed in amplitude
o Fully Controlled Rectifier – use thyristors & rectifying Element & DC output voltage is
a function of the amplitude of AC supply voltage
o Half Controlled Rectifier – mixture of diodes & thyristors
o Uni-Controlled Rectifier and Half Controlled Rectifier – Unidirectional converters
o FCR – firing angle – Bi-Directional converters
o Phase controller converter to provide first, second and fourth quadrant operation @
its DC terminals
o First quadrant converter – controlled and uncontrolled rectifier in different circuit
positions
o One quadrant converter – only one polarity of voltage and current o2 DC terminal is
possible
o First quadrant converter – controlled and uncontrolled rectifier in different circuit
positions
o One quadrant converter – only one polarity of voltage and current o2 DC terminal is
possible
o Second quadrant converter – controlled rectifier in a circuit positions

o Two quadrant converter – power can be made to flow either from AC to DC or DC to
AC
o Four quadrant converter – two Quadrant converters connected back to back with one
another – providing – Bi-directional Current flow through the load
o Pulse number – no. of discrete switching operations involving load transfer btw
individual diodes thyristors during one cycle of the AC supply waveform
o Converter type Depends upon –
 Power to be handled –
 voltage ripple to be tolerated
o Low powers: 20KW single phase
o High power ; above 20KW, 3 phase
o The output voltage of DC in all configuration is controlled b delaying the firing angle of
the thyristor
Control Techniques
o Below diagram shows the technique of controlled conversion from AC to DC for A half
wave circuit which uses unidirectional switch
o When this switch S is turned – on, it conducts current in the direction of the arrow
o The output voltage waveform depends on the switch control waveform and pulse
triggered switch.
o Half wave controlled converter – AC to DC – Unidirectional switch
o Output DC voltage waveform is depends upon Switching Control waveform and Pulse
– triggered switch (SCR GTO & MCT) or level triggered switch (BJT MOSFET & IGBT)
o Current Pulses are required for triggering SCR and GTO
o Source has an inductive – line inductance or leakage inductance of transformer –
analysis purpose – neglected
Phase angle control Techniques

o AC circuit – SCR can be turned – on by the GATE @ any angle wrt to applied voltage
o Firing Angle measured wrt a given reference @ which the application of the gate pulse
results in the maximum mean positive DC terminal voltage of which the converter is
capable
o α symbol for Firing Angle- most efficient method to control the turning on of a
thyristors is achieved by varying the Firing Angle called Phase angle control
o this Phase angle control is A highly efficient means of controlling the average power to
loads such as lamps, heaters, motors, DC suppliers etc..
o those converters which work on the principal of natural commutation are called Line
commutated converters – natural commutation
o there are many forms of phase control possible with Thyristor
o In pulse triggered switch, the falling edge of the control pulse Vc lies at an angle @+δ
o Where δ is A short angle
o Once the switch is turned –on, it remains On even if the triggering pulse has subsided
o It can be turned –off only when the current through it is reduced below the holding
current (in case of SCR)
o In the level triggered switch, the falling edge lies at an angle π
Extinction Angle Control

o Control pulse for LEVEL TRIGGERED & PULSE TRIGGERED Switches
o Rising edge of the control pulse coincides with the beginning of the Input voltage
waveform
o The falling edge lies @ controllable angle (𝜋 − 𝛽 )
o Angle 𝛽 called extinction angle
o In pulse triggered switch, control pulse consists of 2 short pulses
o i) turning – ON ii) Forced Turn - OFF
Pulse width Modulation (PWM) Control

o Control pulse is symmetrically positioned wrt positive and negative peaks on the input
Voltage waveform
o Pulse width δ is the control parameter – control pulse consists of 2 short pulse in case
of pulse triggered switch
o In Multiple PWM control, Control signals consists of P-pulses / half period of the Vin
waveform
o Both PW and number of Pulse P – can be used as the control parameters

o 2 methods – uniform multiple pulse width ; sine PWM
SINGLE PHASE HALF – WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER
o In half wave controlled rectifier ONE SCR is employed – it is included in between the
AC source and the load
o The performance of the controlled rectifier depends upon the type and parameters of
the output circuit
With RESISTIVE LOAD
o The circuit is energized by the line voltage or transformer secondary voltage
o e=Em sin wt it assumed the peak supply voltage never exceeds the forward and
reverse blocking rating of the thyristors
o during the positive half cycle of the supply voltage, the SCR anode is positive wrt to its
cathode and until the SCR is triggered by A proper gate pulse, it blocks the flow of load
current in the forward direction
o when the SCR is fired at angle α , full supply voltage is applied to load
o hence the load is directly connected to the AC supply

o with zero reactance source and purely resistively load, the current waveform after the
Thyristor is triggered will be identical to the applied voltage wave and of A magnitude
dependent on the amplitude of the voltage and the value of load resistance R
o the load current will flow until it is commutated by reversal of supply voltage at wt =π
o the angle π- α = β during which the thyristors conducts is called the conduction angle
o by varying the firing angle α , the output voltage can be controlled
o during the period of conduction voltage drop across the device is of the order of one
volt
o during –negative half cycle of the supply voltage, the thyristors blocks the flow of load
current and no voltage is applied to R
o the voltage and current relations are derived as follows:
INDUCTIVE LOAD
 The operation of the circuit changes slightly
 At instant t01, when the SCR is triggered, the load current will increase in A finite time
through inductive load
 The supply voltage from this instant appears across the load.
 Due to inductive load, the increase in current is gradual

 Energy is stored in inductor during time t01 to t1
 At t1, the supply voltage reverses, but the SCR is kept conducting
 This is due to the fact that current through the inductance cannot be reduced to zero
 During –VE half cycle, the current continuous to flow till the energy stored in the
inductance is dissipated in the load – resistor and part of the energy is fed back to the
source
 Hence, the energy stored in the inductor, current continuous to flow upto instant t11,
the load current is zero, and due to the negative power supply the Thyristor turns-off
 At instant t02, when again pulse is applied the above cycle repeats. Hence the effect of
the inductive load is increased in the conduction period of the SCR
 The half wave circuit is not normally used since it produces A large output voltage ripple
and is incapable of providing continuous load current
EFFECT OF FREEWHEELING DIODE

 Many circuits, the diode across the load is commutating diode, flywheel diode or by –
pass diode
 This diode is commonly as commutating diode as its function to commutate or
transfer load current away from the rectifier whenever the load voltage goes into
reverse state
 This diode serves two main functions:
o It prevents reversal of load voltage except for small diode voltage drop
o It transfers the load current away from the main rectifier, thereby allowing all of
its Thyristor to regain their blocking states
 With diode Df, Thyristor will not be able to conduct beyond 180 degree
SINGLE PHASE FULL WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER

(TWO – QUADRANT CONVERTERS)
 There are two basic configuration of full wave controlled rectifiers. 1. Mid-point
converters 2. Bridge Converters
MID-Point Converters
 In a single phase full wave controlled – rectifier circuit 2 SCR and single phase
transformer with centre – tapped secondary windings are employed
 These converters are also called two pulse converters as two triggering pulses or two
sets of triggering pulses are to be generated during every cycle of the supply to trigger
the various SCRs
 Single phase full wave circuit with transformer used for low ratings rectifier
RESISTIVE LOAD:
 During Positive half cycle of the AC supply, when terminal A of the transformer is
Positive wrt terminal B, or the secondary – winding terminal A is Positive wrt to N
 SCR1 T1 is forward biased and SCR2 T2 is reverse biased
 Since No triggering pulses are given to the gates of the SCR, initially are in OFF- state
 When SCR1 is triggered at a firing angle alpha, current would flow from terminal A
through SCR1
 The resistive load R and back to the centre – tap of the transformer.
 This current continuous to flow up to angle π when the line voltage reverses its
polarity and SCR1 is turned –off
 Depending upon the value of α and the load circuit parameters, the conduction angle
of SCR1 may be any value between 0 and π
 During Negative half cycle of the AC supply, when terminal B of the transformer is
Positive wrt to N.
 SCR2 is forward biased. When SCR2 is triggered at an angle (π+α), current would flow
from terminal B through SCR2, the resistive load and back to centre-tap of the
transformer
 This current continues till angle 2π, then SCR2 is turned off.
 Here it is assumed that both thyristors are triggered with the same firing angle, hence
they share the load current equally
 Each half of the input wave is applied across the load.

 Thus across the load, there are two pulses of current in the same direction
 Hence the ripple frequency across the load is twice that of the input supply frequency
 The voltage and current waveforms of this configuration the load current is always
discontinuous
With INDUCTIVE LOAD:

 T1 Thyristor can be fired into the on-state at any time after e1 goes positive.
 Once T1 is turned – on, current builds up in the inductive load, maintaining T1 in the
on-state up to the period when e1 goes negative

 However once e1 goes negative, e2 becomes positive and the current, placing a
reverse voltage on T2
 The Vt SCR voltage show that it can be fired into conduction at any time when Vt is
Positive
 The peak reverse and forward voltage that appears across the Thyristor is 2Em, that
is the maximum value of the complete transformer secondary voltage
 The load current may be continuous or discontinuous, depending on the inductance
value.
 The load current is continuous if inductance value is greater than its critical value.
 It is discontinuous if inductance value is less than its critical value
 The analysis assumes that the inductance is sufficiently large, so that Thyristor
conducts for a period of 180 degree
 Also both Thyristors are triggered with the same delay angle, hence they share the
load current equally
 Due to large inductance in the circuit and continuous current conduction , the
thyristor continue to conduct even when their anode voltages are negative wrt to
cathode. The load current to be constant dc
CHOPPERS
INTRODUCTION
 Chopper is a static device that converts fixed DC input voltage to a variable DC output
voltage directly.
 DC equivalent of an AC transformer as it behaves in an identical manner.
 More efficient than AC transformers as they involve in one stage conversion.
 They offer smooth control, high – efficiency, fast response and regeneration.
 A chopper can act as a step – up or step down DC device.
 Chopper can be operated in either a continuous or continuous current conduction
mode.
 Choppers can be built with and without electrical isolation.
 They find application in trolley cars, marine hoists, forklift trucks and mine haulers.
 High speed on/off semiconductor switch.
 It connects source to load and disconnects the load from source at high speed.
 Continuous triggering ON and triggering OFF at rapid switching speed.
 By varying ON and OFF time of the SCR, the average voltage across the load can be
varied.
 Generally following techniques are available for obtaining the variable DC voltage from
a fixed DC voltage;
 Line commutated Converters: Conversion of AC supply to variable DC supply
using Controlled rectifier
 AC link Chopper (INVERTER – RECTIFIER): DC is first converted to AC by an
Inverter. Then AC is stepped up or stepped down by a transformer and then
rectified back to DC by a rectifier. Two stages of conversion is required. Costly

bulky and less efficient. The transformer provides isolation between load and
source
DC CHOPPER
 Static device or switch used to obtain variable DC voltage from source of constant DC
voltage
 Therefore, chopper may be thought of as DC equivalent AC transformer
 Saving power – greater efficiency – faster response – lower maintenance – small size –
smooth control and for many applications
 Solid state choppers are widely used in trolley cars, battery operated vehicles, traction –
motion control, control of large number of DC motors from a common DC bus with
considerable improvement of power factor, control of induction motor, marine hoists,
forklift trucks and mine haulers
METHODS OF CONTROL – Time Ratio Control

 PWM: Width of the pulse Ton of the output waveform is varied keeping chopping
frequency f and hence chopping period T is constant. Therefore, output voltage is varied
by varying the ON time Ton
 VARIABLE FREQUENCY CONTROL: Chopping frequency f is varied keeping either Ton or
Toff constant. Here to obtain full output voltage, range of frequency has to be varied over
a wide range
 The chopper is switched ON and OFF so that the current in the load is maintained
between two limits
 When the current exceeds upper limit, the chopper is switched off.
 When the current reaches lower limit, the chopper is switched on
CHOPPER CLASSIFICATION
 According To The Input / Output Voltage Levels
 Step – Up Chopper (Boost Converter)
 The Output Voltage Is Greater Than The Input Voltage
 Step – Down Chopper (Buck Converter)

 The Output Voltage Is Less Than The Input Voltage
 ACCORDING TO THE DIRECTION OF OUTPUT VOLTAGE AND CURRENT

 CLASS A (TYPE A ) CHOPPER (STEP DOWN CHOPPER)
 CLASS B (TYPE B ) CHOPPER (STEP – UP CHOPPER)
 CLASS C (TYPE C ) CHOPPER (TWO QUADRANT)
 CLASS D (TYPE D ) CHOPPER (TWO QUADRANT)
 CLASS E (TYPE E ) CHOPPER (FOUR QUADRANT)
 ACCORDING TO THE CIRCUIT OPERATION

 FIRST QUADRANT CHOPPER
 The output voltage and current must be positive
 TWO QUADRANT CHOPPER

 The output voltage is positive and current can be positive or negative (class C) or
the output current is positive and voltage can be positive or negative (class D)
 FOUR – QUADRANT CHOPPER

 The output voltage and current both can be positive and negative
(CLASS E)
 ACCORDING TO THE COMMUTATION METHOD

 VOLTAGE COMMUTATED CHOPPERS
 CURRENT COMMUTATED CHOPPERS
 LOAD COMMUTATED CHOPPERS
 IMPULSE – COMMUTATED CHOPPERS
BUCK CHOPPER
 DC chopper consists of power semiconductor devices, input power supply and output
load
 The average output voltage across the load is controlled by varying ON-period and OFF-
period of the switch
 Commutation circuit is required for SCR based Chopper circuit
 Variations in on- and off periods of the switch provides an output voltage with an
adjustable average value
 The power diode operates in freewheeling mode to provide a path to load current
when switch is OFF
Operation:
 During Ton period; chopper is on; supply connected to the load
 During Toff period; chopper is off; load current flows through the freewheeling diode
Df.
 Load terminals short circuited by Df and load voltage is zero
THE average load voltage E0 is given by
BOOST CHOPPER
 The chopper used to produce higher voltages at the load than the input voltage is called
step-up choppers
 When the chopper is ON, L is connected to the supply Edc and L stores energy during
on-period Ton
 When the Chopper is OFF, the Inductor Current is forced to flow through the diode and
load for period Toff
 The current tends to decrease, polarity of the emf induced in Inductor L is reversed
 The voltage across the load E0 becomes
 During the Ton, when the chopper is ON, the energy input to the inductor from the
source is given by
 Assumed that source current is free from ripples
 Now during Toff, When Chopper is OFF, energy released by the inductor to the load is
given by
 Considering he system to be lossless and in the steady –state, these two energies will be
equal
STEP UP / DOWN CHOPPER (BUCK / BOOST)

 Chopper used both in step-up and step – down modes by continuously varying its duty
cycle
 When the chopper is ON, the supply current flows through the path Edc+ - CH – L –Edc
 Inductor L stores the energy during the Ton period
 When CH is off, the L current tends to decrease and as result, the Inductance energy
discharges in the load the path L+ -Load –D –L-

Lecture Notes - 18ec36 - Power Electronics - Module 2 - Raja GV

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POWER ELECTRONICS AND

MODULE 2- POWER CONVERTERS AND CHOPPERS

Phase Controlled Converter

o Second quadrant converter – controlled rectifier in a circuit positions

Phase angle control Techniques

Extinction Angle Control

Pulse width Modulation (PWM) Control

o Both PW and number of Pulse P – can be used as the control parameters

SINGLE PHASE HALF – WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER

o hence the load is directly connected to the AC supply

 Due to inductive load, the increase in current is gradual

EFFECT OF FREEWHEELING DIODE

SINGLE PHASE FULL WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER

 Each half of the input wave is applied across the load.

With INDUCTIVE LOAD:

on-state up to the period when e1 goes negative

rectified back to DC by a rectifier. Two stages of conversion is required. Costly

METHODS OF CONTROL – Time Ratio Control

 Step – Down Chopper (Buck Converter)

 ACCORDING TO THE DIRECTION OF OUTPUT VOLTAGE AND CURRENT

 CLASS B (TYPE B ) CHOPPER (STEP – UP CHOPPER)

 CLASS C (TYPE C ) CHOPPER (TWO QUADRANT)

 CLASS D (TYPE D ) CHOPPER (TWO QUADRANT)

 CLASS E (TYPE E ) CHOPPER (FOUR QUADRANT)

 ACCORDING TO THE CIRCUIT OPERATION

 TWO QUADRANT CHOPPER

 FOUR – QUADRANT CHOPPER

 ACCORDING TO THE COMMUTATION METHOD

THE average load voltage E0 is given by

STEP UP / DOWN CHOPPER (BUCK / BOOST)

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