Bacterial Cell structure

Dr. Enas Abdul Sahib / 2nd stage/ Clinical and Laboratory Sciences Department/ College of pharmacy/
University of Basrah

Bacteria are single-celled microorganisms that are found nearly everywhere on

earth, and they are very diverse in their shapes and structures.

The cell wall is a protective layer that surrounds some cells and gives them shape
and rigidity. It is located outside the cell membrane and prevents osmotic lysis
(bursting due to increasing volume) and surrounds the cytoplasmic membrane,
protecting it from the environment. It also helps to anchor appendages like the pili
and flagella.

The internal osmotic pressure of most bacteria ranged from 5-20 atm as a result of
solute concentration via active transport. In most environment, this pressure would
be sufficient to burst the cell were it not for the presence of a high-tensile strength
cell wall. The bacterial cell wall owes its strength to a layer composed of a substance
variously referred to as murein, mucopeptide or peptidoglycan. Peptidoglycan a
molecule made of sugars and amino acids that gives the cell wall its structure and is
thicker.

The chemical composition of the cell walls varies between bacterial species.

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Bacteria are divided into two major groups: gram-positive and gram-negative, based
on their reaction to gram staining. The gram-staining method is named after its
inventor, Danish scientist Hans Christian Gram (1853–1938). The different bacterial
responses to the staining procedure are ultimately due to cell wall structure.

Gram-positive bacteria

Typically lack the outer membrane found in gram-negative bacteria. The Gram-
positive cell wall appears as a broad, dense wall 20-80 nm thick and consisting of
numerous interconnecting layers of peptidoglycan (60 - 90%). The peptidoglycan
in the Gram-positive cell wall prevents the hostile environments such as osmotic
lysis (extreme osmolarity), harsh chemicals and even antibiotics.
Peptidoglycan, also called murein, is a polymer that made up of sugars and amino
acids. Two alternating amino sugars make up the structure of peptidoglycan; they
are N-acetylglucosamine (NAG) and N-acetylmuramic acid (NAM). Amino sugars
are sugar molecules that have an amine group (-NH2) replacing one of their hydroxyl
groups. Each NAM molecule has an attached chain of four or five amino acids (tetra
or pentapeptide). Crosslinking between these amino acids gives peptidoglycan its
strong structure.
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Interwoven in the cell wall of Gram-positive are teichoic acids and lipoteichoic
acids. Teichoic acids extend through and beyond the rest of the cell wall and help
make the cell wall stronger. Teichoic acids covalently bound to cytoplasmic
membrane lipids are called lipoteichoic acids. Lipoteichoic acids anchor the cell
wall to the cell membrane.

The outer surface of the peptidoglycan is studded with surface proteins that differ
with the strain and species of the bacterium. Some surface proteins function as
enzymes, as adhesins to enable the bacterium to adhere intimately to host calls and
other surfaces in order to colonize those cells. The periplasm contains enzymes for
nutrient breakdown as well as periplasmic binding proteins to facilitate the transfer
of nutrients across the cytoplasmic membrane. Cytoplasm, a gel-like substance
that makes up the “filling” of the cell, and a cytoskeleton that holds components of
the cell in place.

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Gram-positive bacteria cell wall Gram-negative bacteria cell wall

Structure of Peptidoglycan

Gram-Negative bacteria
The outer membrane of the Gram-negative cell wall confers several functions. Like
the cytoplasmic membrane is semipermeable and acts as a coarse molecular sieve.
Many small molecules may pass through due to pores running through the
membrane. These pores are composed of proteins called porins. Because of its
semipermeable nature, the outer membrane helps retain certain enzymes and
prevents some toxic substances, such as penicillin G and lysozyme, from entering.

The lipopolysaccharides (LPS) from the outer membrane of the Gram-negative cell
wall is thought to add strength to the outer membrane, in a manner similar to the
glycopeptides and teichoic acids of the gram-positive cell wall.

Bacterial appendages

1. Flagella are hair like structures that help the bacterium move toward nutrients,
light; away from toxic chemicals. They can be found at one or both ends of a
bacterium or all over its surface.

A. Monotrichous: A single flagellum at one end of the organism or the other.

B. Lophotrichous: Several flagella on one end of the organism or the other.
C. Amphitrichous: A single flagellum on both ends of the organism.
D. Peritrichous: Several flagella attached all over the organism.

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2.Pili (fimbrae) are small hair like projections that help bacteria adhere to surfaces
such as teeth, intestines, and rocks and can allow DNA to be transferred between
two prokaryotic cells in a process known as conjugation. Specialized pili are used
for conjugation, during which two bacteria exchange fragments of plasmid DNA.
Without pili, many disease-causing bacteria lose their ability to infect because
they're unable to attach to host tissue.

Capsule is a is a sticky layer of carbohydrates that helps the bacterium adhere to

surfaces in its surroundings. Capsules are to protect the bacterium from drying out,
increases its resistance to our immune responses and phagocytosis (engulfing) by
larger microorganisms. The capsule is a major virulence factor in the major disease-
causing bacteria, such as Escherichia coli and Streptococcus pneumoniae.

Ribosomes are the protein builders of the cell. They are like construction guys who
connect amino acids and build long chains.

Plasmids are small, circular molecules of DNA that are capable of replicating
independently (extra-chromosomal DNA).

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Virulence factors are bacteria-associated molecules that are required for a
bacterium to cause disease while infecting eukaryotic hosts such as humans.

Types of virulence factors:

- Adherence Factors: Many pathogenic bacteria colonize mucosal sites by using

pili (fimbriae) to adhere to cells.

-Invasion Factors: Surface components that allow the bacterium to invade host
cells.
-Capsules: Many bacteria are surrounded by capsules that protect them from
phagocytosis.

-Endotoxins: The lipopolysaccharide endotoxins on Gram-negative bacteria

-Exotoxins: Exotoxins include several types of protein toxins and enzymes
produced and/or secreted from pathogenic bacteria.
-Siderophores: Siderophores are iron-binding factors that allow some bacteria to
compete with the host for iron.

Reproduction of bacteria
-Bacteria reproduce asexually by binary fission; the process whereby a cell divides
asexually (chromosome is replicated) to produce two daughter cells. Prokaryotic
cells divide through the process of binary fission. When a prokaryote grows to a
large size, the process of binary fission takes place. This process duplicates the DNA,
then separates each new strand of DNA into individual cells.

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 Sporulation

-Sporulation refers to the formation of spores from vegetative cells during

unfavorable environmental conditions such as (radiation, extreme heat, cold or pH,
lack of nutrition and antibiotics etc.).

-Spore is metabolically dormant structure (0.2 µm) and sporulation occurs during
late log phase or early stationary phase. Under favorable condition spores germinate
to give vegetative cell. Endospores are generated by the Clostridium, Bacillus and
Sporosarcina bacteria.
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-Some of the organisms that produce spores include plants, algae, protozoa, bacteria
and fungi. Sporulating bacteria are ubiquitous and can be found in soil, water, and
air among other environments in nature.

Structure of bacterial spore

1. Core: It contains core wall, cytoplasmic membrane, cytoplasm, nucleoid,
ribosomes and other cellular materials.
2. Spore wall: It contain peptidoglycan and becomes the cell wall of the
germinating vegetative cell.
3. Cortex: Is the thickest layer of the spore.
4. Coat: Is composed of keratin-like protein. The impermeability of this
layer confers on spores their relative resistance to antibacterial chemical
agents
5. Exosporium: Is composed of proteins, lipids and carbohydrates.

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