PRELIM│PHARMACEUTICAL MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY

BACTERIAL MORPHOLOGY
Bacteria, which are prokaryotic, have simpler structures compared to eukaryotic organisms. In terms of
morphology, bacteria may be classified into three basic shapes:
coccus (pl. cocci),
bacillus (pl. bacilli),
and spiral-shaped or curved.

Cocci - it can be described as spherical or round-shaped organisms (e.g., Staphylococcus, Streptococcus).

They may be arranged singly, in pairs
(diplococci), in chains (streptococci), in clusters (staphylococci), in groups of four (tetrad), or in groups of eight
(octad).
Bacilli – they are rod-shaped organisms. (e.g., Escherichia coli, Salmonella). Some may be very short,
resembling elongated cocci called coccobacilli
(e.g., Haemophilus influenzae).
Curved and spiral-shaped organisms - they may show variations in their morphology.
Vibrio cholerae, the organism causing cholera, is described as comma-shaped. The causative agent of
syphilis, Treponema pallidum, is spiral in shape while the causative agent of diphtheria, Corynebacterium
diphtheriae, is club shaped.

Fundamental Shapes of Bacteria

Spheres (Cocci)
• Pneumococci
• Streptococci
• Staphylococci
• Diplococci
Rods (Bacilli)
• Pseudomonas
• Salmonella typhi
• Mycobacterium tuberculosis
• Clostridium tetani
Spirals (Spirochetes)
• Treponema
• Leptospira

Envelope Structures
Prokaryotic cells are surrounded by a complex envelope that may vary in composition. The envelope serves to
protect the bacteria from harsh environmental conditions.

Glycocalyx - this is the outermost covering of some bacteria. It is a gelatinous substance that is
located external to the cell wall, composed of polysaccharide or polypeptide, or both. It is called capsule if it is
strongly attached to the cell wall and slime layer if it is loosely attached. The presence the capsule is indicative
of the virulence of an organism, aiding the organism in the evasion of phagocytosis. It can stimulate an
antibody response from the immune system. The capsule serves to protect the organism from dehydration.
Cell Wall - it is sometimes called the murein sacculus. Its principal component is peptidoglycan, which is also
called murein or mucopeptide. It is multi-layered in gram-positive bacteria and single-layered in gram-negative
bacteria. The cell wall provides rigid support and gives shape to the bacteria. It protects the bacteria from
osmotic damage and plays an important role in cell division.
Special components of gram-positive cell walls
1. Teichoic acids - comprise major surface antigens of gram-positive organisms and can elicit antibody
response. In some gram-positive organisms such as Staphylococcus aureus, teichoic acids function for the
attachment of the organism to the host cell. These also provide tensile strength to gram-positive bacterial cell
walls.
2. Polysaccharides - polysaccharide molecules include neutral sugars such as mannose, arabinose,
rhamnose, and glucosamine. It also includes some acidic sugars such as glucuronic acid and mannuronic acid.

Special components of gram-negative cell walls

1. Outer membrane - a bi-layered structure where the inner leaflet is composed of a lipopolysaccharide (LPS).
It has special protein channels that allow the passage of small or low-molecular-weight hydrophilic substances
such as sugars and amino acids. LPS has a complex glycolipid called lipid A, responsible for its endotoxin
activity. It is located in the outer leaflet of the outer membrane. The inner core is a polysaccharide made up of
repeat units. This repeat unit is also called the O antigen, which is unique for every species of bacteria.
2. Lipoprotein - functions to anchor the outer membrane to the peptidoglycan layer and stabilizes the outer
membrane.
3. Periplasmic space - a fluid-filled space between the outer membrane and the inner plasma membrane. It
contains enzymes for the breakdown of large non-transportable molecules into transportable ones and
enzymes that serve to detoxify and inactivate antibiotics.

Acid-fast cell wall

Unlike gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, acid-fast organisms such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis
possess an outer layer that is lipid-rich. The cell wall of acid-fast
organisms is composed of large amounts of waxes that are known as mycolic acids. The inner layer of the cell
wall is also made up of peptidoglycan but because the outermost layer is lipid-rich, cell walls of acid-fast
organisms are hydrophobic. This is the in-gram staining. The hydrophobic nature of their cell wall protects
them from harsh chemicals such as strong acids and detergents.

Projecting Structures

Capsule and slime layer – capsule-adherent, large polymer surface coat that differs in composition between
genera, usually polysaccharide in nature. Bacillus capsule is a polypeptide.

Function of capsules:
1. increase virulence (degree of organism pathogenicity) of microorganism
2. prevents phagocytosis by macrophages and neutrophils.
3. aids in adherence of the organism to host cells.

Flagella – these are proteinaceous, helically coiled organs of locomotion. They extend outward from the
cytoplasm through the cell wall into the environment. They also rotate clockwise, a series of runs and tumbles
in response to chemicals in the environment. The movement is controlled by a complex mechanism of
chemoreceptors and an intracellular cascade of methylation and phosphorylation reaction, causing bacteria to
move toward nutrient chemoattractant and away from repellants. it is composed of flagellin, a protein that is
antigenically distinct from other flagella and cell antigens termed as H antigen.

3parts of flagella
i. Basal body - attaches flagella to cell envelop (cytoplasmic membrane and cell wall). -number of rings that
makes up the basal body differ in gram-positive (2) and gram negative (4) organism
ii. Hook
iii. Filament

These are thread-like structures made up entirely of molecules of the protein sub-unit flagellin. They project
from the capsule and are organs for motility. Flagella are classified into four types, namely:
(a) monotrichous (single polar flagellum);
(b) lophotrichous (a tuft of flagella at one end of the bacterium);
(c) amphitrichous (flagella at both ends of the bacterium), and
(d) peritrichous (flagella all around the bacterium).
Bacteria without flagella are called atrichous.

Pili or Fimbriae - these are rigid surface appendages found on many gram-negative bacteria. They are
fine and short in comparison with flagella. Their structural protein sub-units are called pilins. Pili may also
function for motility. They function for adherence to cell surface (common pili) or attachment to another
bacterium during a form of bacterial gene exchange called conjugation (sex pili).
Axial Filaments – these are also called endoflagella and are found in spirochetes (e.g., Treponema pallidum
causing syphilis). These are composed of bundles of fibrils, the structures of which are similar to flagella. They
arise from the ends of the bacterial cell and spiral around the cell. The filaments rotate producing movement of
the outer sheath of the spirochetes propelling them forward.

Cytoplasmic Membrane – it is sometimes called the cell sac because it encloses the cytoplasm of the cell
The cytoplasmic membrane is a selectively permeable membrane that allows for transport of also called cell
membrane or plasma membrane, the cytoplasmic membrane is located beneath the site of ATP production. It
therefore serves the function of the mitochondria, which are not selected solutes. In aerobic organisms, it is the
site of the electron transport chain and serves a found in prokaryotic cells. The cytoplasmic membrane also
contains the enzymes needed for the biosynthesis of DNA, cell wall components, and membrane lipids.

Internal Structures

Nucleoid - Bacteria have no true nucleus that is surrounded by a nuclear membrane. Its genetic material is
packaged in a structure called the nucleoid. Bacteria possess a single, circular, double-stranded DNA.
Mesosomes - The mesosome functions for cell division. It is also involved in the secretion of
substances produced by bacteria.
Ribosomes - The ribosomes function for protein synthesis. Unlike eukaryotic ribosomes, bacterial ribosome is
smaller (70S).
Granules or Inclusion Bodies - These are found in certain bacteria and serve for storage of food and
energy (e.g., metachromatic granules of Corynebacterium diphtheriae or much granules of Mycobacterium
tuberculosis).
Endospores – these are structures produced by many bacteria when they are placed in a hostile environment.
It is composed of dipicolinic acid which confers resistance to heat, drying, chemical agents, and radiation;
making it very difficult to destroy. The process of spore production is called sporulation, and this occurs when
the environmental conditions are detrimental to the bacteria. When environmental conditions become
favourable, the endospores revert to their vegetative state through a process called germination. Some gram-
positive, but never gram-negative, bacteria form spores.