University Grammar of English

Quirk, Greenbaum

CONTENTS

Chapter 2: Elements of Grammar .............................................................................................................. 1

Chapter 3: Verbs and Verb Phrase .............................................................................................................. 3
Chapter 4: Nouns, Pronouns, and the Basic Noun Phrase .......................................................................... 5
Chapter 5: Adjectives and Adverbs ............................................................................................................ 8
Chapter 6: Preposition and Prepositional Phrases .................................................................................... 11
Chapter 7: The Simple Sentence ............................................................................................................... 12
Chapter 8: Adjunts, Disjuncts, Conjuncts ................................................................................................. 15
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Chapter 2: Elements of Grammar

1. Parts of a sentence
- Subject + Predicate
+ Subject: What is being discussed (the theme of a sentence)
+ Predicate: Something new about the subject
→ It is a general characteristic and not a defining feature
→ The S determines concord (the relationship between words which determines whether they
should be singular or plural… and what the form of the verbal group should be)
→ The S is the part of a sentence that changes its position as we go from statement to question.
- Operator, auxiliary, and predication
Sentence = Subject + auxiliary as operator + predication
This division helps to understand:
+ How interrogative and negative sentences are formed.
+ How certain adjuncts are positioned
+ How certain types of emphasis are achieved.
- Range of operators
+ Verb expression with several auxiliaries: first auxiliary acts as operator.
+ Verb expression with no auxiliary in positive declarative sentence: “do” is used when operator
is required.
+ Verb be and have acting as operator whether it is an auxiliary or not.
- Sentence elements: S, V, C, O, A
+ S, O, A have internal constituents of sentence (= dependent clause)
+ O: - direct object (Od)
- indirect object (Oi)
+ C: - subject complement (Cs)
- object complement (Co)
2. Categories of Verb
- Types of verb corresponding closely to the different types of O and C:
+ Intensive V: V + Cs
+ extensive V: - intransitive (no O, C)
- transitive (with O): - monotransitive (Od)
- ditransitive (Od and Oi)
- complex transitive (O and Co)
- Types of verb corresponding to aspectual contrast of “progressive” and “non-progressive”
+ Stative (non-progressive)
+ Dynamic (progressive)
3. Categories of Adverbial
+ Time
+ Place
+ Process (progressive aspect)
4. Types of sentence struture (see diagram and examples in 2.10 )
5. Element realization types
+ Verb element: (always a verb phrase):
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 Finite: showing tense, mood, aspect, voice

 Non-finite: showing aspect, voice only
+ S: realised by:
 noun phrase (simplest form: pronoun)
 a clause
+ Cs, Od, Co: realised by same range of structures as S
+ Cs, Co: also realised by adjective phrases
+ Oi realised chiefly by noun phrases and not realised by “that” clauses
+ A: realised by adverb phrases, noun phrases, prepositional phrases, clauses (finite/ non-finite)
6. Parts of speech
+ Open-class items
 Noun
 Adjective
 Adverb
 Verb
+ Closed-system items
 Article
 Demonstrative
 Pronoun
 Preposition
 Conjunction
 Interjection
+ Stative and dynamic
STATIVE noun ↔ adjective
↕ ↕
DYNAMIC verb ↔ adverb
Notes: Exceptions within the class of verbs: stative Vs
Exceptions in the other directions within the class of nouns and adjectives.
7. Pro-forms
 „one‟ replaces a noun in a noun phrase
 Pronouns replace noun phrases
 Proforms for place, time, and other adverbials: there, then, so
 „so‟ replaces – along with the pro-verb „do‟ – a predication
 The pro-predication is achieved by the operator alone
8. Questions and negation
+ Wh-questions
Pro-form = we know what this item refers to, so I need not state it in full
„wh‟forms = It has not been known what this item refers to and so it needs to be stated in full
+ Negation and non-assertion
Sentence: - assertion:– possitive and declarative
- non-assertion: - nterrogative: - positive
- negative
- negative
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Chapter 3: Verbs and Verb Phrase

1. Types of verb
- Lexical
- Auxiliary: - Primary (do, have, be)
- Modal (can, may, shall, will, could, might, should, would, must,
ought to, used to, need, dare)
2. Verbal forms and the verb phrase
- 5 forms: base, -s form, past, -ing participle, -ed participle.
(see the table in 3.2)
3. The morphology of lexical verbs
 Regular lexical verbs
+V BASE
+ V-ing -ING PARTICIPLE
+ V-s -s FORM
+ V-ed PAST/-ED PARTICIPLE
- The -ing and -s forms
- The past and the -ed participle
 Further inflectional spelling rules
- Doubling of consonant
- Treatment of -y
- Deletion of -e
 Irregular lexical verbs (7 classes)
 The auxiliaries do, have, be
 The modal auxiliaries
4. Finite and non-finite verb phrases
- finite verb phrases have tense distinction
- finite verb phrases occur as the verb element of a clause. There is person and
number concord between the S and the finite verb
- finite verb phrases have mood
- the non-finite forms of the verb are the infinitive, the –ing participle, and the –ed
participle. Non-finite verb phrases consist of one or more such items.
5. Order in the complex verb phrase
a. MODAL
b. PERFECTIVE
c. PROGRESSIVE
d. PASSIVE
6. Contrasts expressed in the verb phrase
a. Voice, involves the active-passive relations (this is dealt with in 7.5 and 12.14-32)
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b. Questions requiring subject movement involve the use of an auxiliary as operator. (this
topic is dealt with in 7.44-57)
c. Negation makes analogous use of operators (this is dealt with in 7.33-42)
d. Emphasis, which is frequently carried by the operators is treated in 14.35
e. Imperatives are discussed in 7.58-62
7. Tense, aspect and mood
a. Tense and aspect
+ The present and past tenses in relation to the progressive and perfective aspects

Simple Complex
progressive
Present Write am writing present
was writing past
perfective
have writen present perfect
Past Wrote had writen past perfect
perfective progressive
have been writing present perfect
had been writing past perfect
+ The future
b. Mood
+ The subjunctive mood: 3 categories of subjunctive:
 The mandative subjunctive in that-clause has only one form, the base (V).
→ can be used with any verb in subordinate that-clauses when the main verb contains an
expression of recommendation, resolution, demand, and so on
→ occurs chiefly in formal style (in less formal contexts should or to-infinitive is used)
 The formulaic subjunctive: consists of the base (V) but is only used in clauses in
certain expressions which have to be learnt as whole,
 The subjunctive were: hypothetical in meaning; used in conditional and
concessive clauses and in subordinate clauses after optative verbs like wish
+ Modal past
+ The uses of the modal auxiliaries: (see 3.48-53)
+ The modal and aspect
When the modal expresses „ability‟ or „permission‟ and when shall or will express
„volition‟ → the perfective and progressive aspects are excluded but are used with other modal
meanings (possibility, necessity, prediction).
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Chapter 4: Nouns, Pronouns, and the Basic Noun Phrase

1. The concept of the basic noun phrase:
Nouns with articles or other closed-system items that can occur before the noun head,
such as predeterminers like all
2. Proper nouns and common nouns
3. Types of N:
- non-count N
- singular (count) N
- plural (count) N
4. Determiners
A determiner is a word used before a noun to select which instance of the N you are talking
about or to identify it.
With respect to their co-occurrence with the noun classes, there are 6 classes of
determiners:
a. Co-occurring with 3 classes:
„the‟, „possessive: my, our…‟, „whose‟, „which‟, „what‟, „some‟, „any‟ (stressed), „no‟
b. with plural and non-coun N:
zero article, „some‟, „any‟ (unstressed), enough
c. with singular and non-count N:
„this‟, „that‟ (demonstrative)
d. with plural N: „these‟, „those‟
e. with singular N:
„a(n)‟, „every‟, „each‟, „either‟, „neither‟
f. with non-count N: „much‟
5. Predeterminers:
a. all, both, half
- singular N: half, all
- plural N: half, all, both
- non-count N: half, all
 Can occur only before articles or demonstratives but since they are quantifiers, they
do not occur with such quantitative determiners as „every‟, „(n)either‟,
„each‟, „some‟, „any‟, „no‟, „enough‟
 Have „of‟ constructions, which are optional with Ns and obligatory with personal
pronouns
 Can be used pronominally.
 „all‟ and „both‟ can occur after the head, either immediately or within the
predication
 „both‟, „either‟, „neither‟ refer to 2 (both is emphatic compared with 2)
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 „all‟ is rare with singular concrete Ns though less rare with contrastive stress
 Before certain singular temporal Ns, esp in adjunct phrases, „all‟ is used with zero
article
 There is also an adverbial „half‟ which occurs in familiar emphatic negation and can
precede „enough‟
b. ‘double’, ‘twice’, ‘three/four… times’
Occur with non-count and plural Ns, and with singular Ns denoting number, amount, etc…
Three, four, … times and once + a, every, each, per (less commonly) to form „distributive‟
expressions with a temporal N as head
Fractions (1/3, 2/5 …) can occur with all types of N and have „of‟ construction.
6. Postdeterminers
+ Numerals: - cardinal numbers
- ordinal numbers
+ Ordinals usually precede cardinal numbers
+ General ordinals (next, last …) may be used freely before or after cardinals according to the
meaning required.
7. Quantifiers
+ with plural count Ns: „many‟, „(a) few‟, „several‟
+ with non-count Ns: „much‟, „(a) little‟
+ Phrasal quantifiers
- „plenty of‟, „a lot of‟, „lots of‟ + plural and non-count Ns
- „a great deal/good deal of‟, „a large/small quantity/amount of‟ + non-count Ns
- a great/large/good number of + plural Ns
+ Phrasal quantifiers provide a means of imposing countability on non-count Ns:
a. general partitives

two pieces news

a bit info
of
an item furniture

b. typical partitives

a slice cake
a roast meat
a few loaves of bread
a boul soup
a bottle wine
c. measures

a pint beer
a spoonful of medicine
a pound butter

8. Reference and the articles

+ Reference: - specific
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- generic
+ Article: - definite
- indefinite

+ Systems of article usage: two difference systems of article use depending on the type of
reference:
Definite Indefinite
Specific the tiger the ink a tiger some ink
the tigers some tigers
Generic the tiger ink
a tiger
tigers
→ with definite specific reference, the definite article is used for all noun classes.
→ with indefinite specific reference, singular count nouns take the indefinite article a(n),
while non-count and plural count nouns take zero article or unstressed some (any in non-
assertive contexts)
+ Generic reference
- Nationality words and adjectives as head: 2 kinds of adj acting as noun phrase head with
generic reference:
a. plural personal
b. singular non-personal abstract
(See 4.18)
- Non-count and plural count nouns:
→ Used with zero article when having generic reference
→ Postmodification by an „of‟ phrase requires the definite article with head noun, which
thus has limited generic (partitive) reference.
→ where the reference of head noun is restricted by premodification, zere article is used.
→ The zero article is also used with other plural nouns that are not unambiguously generic.
+ Specific referemce
- Definite and indefinite
- Common nouns with zero article
- Article usage with common Ns in intensive relation
+ Unique reference
- Proper Ns: main classes of proper Ns:
 Personal names
 Calendar items (festivals, months and days of the week)
 Geographical names (continents, countries, counties, states, cities, towns, lakes,
mountains …)
 Name + common Ns
9. Number
+ Invariable and variable Ns (see 4.31, Figure 4:1 Number classes)
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10. Gender (see 4.58, Figure 4:2 Gender classes)

11. Case
12. Pronouns:
+ features
a. They do not admit determiners
b. They often have an objective case
c. They often have person distinction
d. They often have overt gender contrast
e. Singular and plural forms are often not morphologically related
We can broadly distinguish items with specific reference with those with more indefinite
reference (see Figure 4:3 Pronouns and see 4.83-97)
+ Case (subjective, objective, genitive)
+ Person (1st, 2nd, 3rd)
+ Gender (masculine, feminine, non-personal)
+ Number (singular, plural)

Chapter 5: Adjectives and Adverbs

1. Characteristics of Adjectives
- can be both attributive and predicative
- is attributive only
- is predicative only
- can be premodified by the intensifiier „very‟
- can take comparative and superlative forms (by means of inflection or by the
addition of the premodifiers „more and most‟).
2. Adjective phrase: = phrase with an adjective as head
3. Syntatic functions of adjectives
+ Attributive and predicative (major syntatic functions)
- attributive when premodifying nouns (ie appearing between the determiner and the
head of the noun phrase)
- predicative adjectives can be Cs, Co
+ Postpositive (ie they can sometimes follow the iten they modify → regarded as a reduced
relative clause)
- Indefinite pronouns ending in -body, -one, -thing, -where, can be modified only
postpositively.
- Postposition is obligatory for a few adjectives, which have a different sense when
they occur attributively or predicatively
- In several compounds (mostly legal and quasilegal), the adjective is postposed
- Postposition (in preference to attributive position) is usually for a few a-adjectives
and for „absent‟, „present‟, and „concerned‟, „involved‟, which normally do not
occur in the relevant sense
- Some postposed adjectives (esp those ending in „able‟, „ible‟) retain basic meaning
in attribute position but convey the implication that what they are denoting has
only a temporary application.
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- Postposition is normally not allowed if an adj is alone or premodified by an

intensifier but if the NP is generic and indefinite, coordinated adj or adj with a
clause element added can be postposed, though such constructions are not
frequent.
- Adj with complementation is postpositive but it‟s usual to prepose the adj and
postpose the complementation
- If adj is modified by „enough‟, „too‟, „so‟, the modified adj normally cannot be
seperated from its complementation.
+ Head of a noun phrase
- Adj can function as heads of NP → do not reflect for number or the genitive case;
must take a definite determiner; have personal reference; have generic and plural
reference.
- Adj denoting nationalities can be NP heads
- Some adj can function as NP heads when they have abstract reference → take
singular concord; a few are modifiable by adverbs (superlatives).
+ Verbless adjective clause
- Adj can function as a verbless clause → the implied subject is usually the subject
of the sentence
- If the clause contains additional clause constituents, its implied S can be other than
the S of the sentence.
- The implied S of the adj can be the whole of the superordinate clause
- An adverb may replace (with little difference in meaning) an adj functioning as a
verbless clause.
+ Exclamatory adjective sentence
An adj or an adj as head of an adj phrase can be an exclamation
4. Syntatic subclassification of adjectives
a. Attributive only
- Adj that characterize the referent of the noun directly are termed „inherent‟; those
that do not are termed „non-inherent‟
- Some non-inherent adj can occur predicatively
+ Intensifying adjectives: (= adj having a hightening or lowering effect on the noun they modify
emphasizers and amplifiers
two types: emphasizers (having a general hightening effect)
amplifiers (scaling upwards from an assumed norm, denoting the upper
extreme of the scale or a high point on the scale)
+ Limiter adjectives (= adj particularizing the reference of the noun)
+ Adj related to adverbials
- Other adj that are attributive only can be related to adverbials
- If the adj premodify agentive nouns, the latter suggests a relationship to the verb
base
- Some of these adj have a temporal meaning
+ Denominal adjectives
- some adj derived from nouns are attributive only
b. Predicative only
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- most like verbs and adverbs → tend to refer to a conditon rather than to
characterize (most common are those refering to health or lack of health)
- A large group comprises adj that can or must take complementation; many closely
resemble verbs semantically.
5. Semantic sub-classification of adjectives
a. Stative / dynamic
- Adj are characteristically stative, but many- Adj are characteristically stative, but
many can be seen as dynamic (adj that are susceptible to subjective measurement;
adj that can be used with the progressive aspect or with the imperatives)
b. Gradable / non-gradable
- Most adj are gradable (can be modified by adverbs which convey the degree of
intensity of the adj)
- Gradability includes comparison and other forms of intensification.
- All dynamic adj are gradable
c. Inherent / non-inherent
Most adj are inherent.
6. Semantic sets and adjectival order
Semantic sets have been proposed to account for the usual order of adjectives and for
their co-occurrence
a. intensifying adj
b. postdeterminers, and limiter adj
c. general adjectives susceptible to subjective measure
d. general adjectives susceptible to objective measure, including those denoting size
or shape
e. Adj denoting age
f. Adj denoting colour
g. Denominal adj denoting material, and denoting resemblance to a material
h. Denomial adj denoting provenance or style
7. Characteristics of the adverb
- most common characteristic: morphological (having suffix -y)
- Two types of syntatic function that characterize adverbs, but an adverb need have
only one of those: adverbial and modifier of adjective and adverb
8. Adverb as adverbial
- An adv may function as adverbial, a constituent distinct from S, V, O, C
- Three classes of adverbials (adjuncts, disjuncts, conjuncts) are discussed in
Chapter 8
9. Adverb as modifier
a. Modifier of adjective
- An adv may modify an adj
- Most commonly, the modifying adv is an intensifier
- Adv as premodifier of adj may also be „viewpoint‟
b. Modifier of adverb
- An adv may premodify another adv, and function as intensifier
c. Modifier of prepositional phrase
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- The few adv that premodify particles in phrasal verbs also premodify prepositions or
prepositional phrases
d. Modifier of determiner, predeterminer, postdeterminer
- Intensifying adv can premodify indefinite pronouns, predeterminers, and cardinal
numerals
e. Modifier of noun phrase
- A few intensifiers may premodify noun phrases
10. Adverb as prepositional complement (see the diagram in 5.30)
11. Comparison and intensification
a) 3 degree of comparison
b) Basis of comparison
c) Gradability
d) Unmarked term in „how‟ questions and measure phrases
e) Inflection of adj for comparison
f) Inflection of adv for comparison
g) Modification of comparatives and superlatives
12. Correspondence between Adj and Adv
13. The Adj and other word-classes
a) Adj and Adv
b) Adj and N
c) Adj and participle
14. The Adv and other word-classes
a) Conjunct and conjunction
b) Reaction signal and initiator

Chapter 6: Preposition and Prepositional Phrases

1. Prepositional Phrase: consisting of a preposition followed by a prepositional
complement (a NP or a wh-clause or V-ing clause)
2. Postposed prep.
3. Simple and complex prep
4. Prep and prepositional adverbs
5. Syntactic functions of prepositional phrases: may function as
a) Adjunct
b) Disjunct
c) Conjunct
d) Postmodifier in a NP
e) Complementation of a verb
f) Complementation of an adj
6. Prepositional meanings: Place
a) Dimension
b) Positive position and direction
c) Negative position and direction
d) Relative position
e) Relative destination
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f) Passage
g) Direction
h) Orientation
i) Resultative meaning
j) Pervasive meaning
k) Seven senses of over
l) Verbs containing prepositional meaning
m) Metaphorical or abstract use of place prep.
7. Time
8. Prepositional phrase chiefly as adjunct
9. Prepositional phrase chiefly as postmodifier
10. Prepositional phrase chiefly as disjunct or conjunct
11. Prepositional phrase chiefly as complementation of verb or adjective
12. Modification of prepositional phrases

Chapter 7: The Simple Sentence

1. Clause pattern
a. Simple vs complex sentences
b. Clause types: SV, SVC, SVO, SVOA, SVOO, SV.
c. Transformational relations
One way of distinguishing various types is by meas of transformational relations or
relations of grammatical paraphrase.
- SVOd ↔ SVA
- SVOdCo ↔ SVCsA
- SVOdA ↔ SVAA
- SVOO ↔ SVOA
- SV ↔ SVC
- SV ↔ SCA
- SVC ↔ SVA
English prefers to avoid the plain SV pattern where alternatives are available
d. Intensive relationship
e. Multiple class membership of verbs
One V can belong to a number of different classes → can enter into a number of different
clause types
f. Clause elements syntatictically defined
- A subject
+ is normally a NP or a clause with nominal function
+ occurs before the VP in declarative clause; immediately after the operator in
questions
+ has number and person concord, where applicable, with the VP
- An object (direct and indirect)
+ like an S, is a NP or clause with nominal function
+ normally follows the S and the VP
+ by the passive transformation, assumes the status of S
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+ An Oi precedes the Od, and is semantically equivalent to a prep phrase

- A complement (S or O)
+ is a NP, an Adj phrase, or a clause with nominally function, having a co-
referential relation with the S (or O)
+ follows the S, VP, and O
- An adverbial
+ is an adverb phrase, advertial clause, NP, or prep. Phrase
+ is generally mobile
+ is generally optional.
g. Clause elements semantically considered
+ Agentive, affected, receipient, attribute

+ Agentive and instrumental S

+ Receipient S
+ Locative, temporal and eventive S
+ Empty „it‟ S
+ Locative and effected O
+ Affected indirect O
2. Concord
a) S – V concord
- most important type
- a clause/ a prepositional phrase … as S → singular
- notional concord, and proximity:
+ „Notional concord‟ is agreement of V with S according to the idea of number
+ the principle of „proximity‟ denotes agreement of V with whatever N or pronoun
closely precedes it.
- collective Ns: notionally plural but grammatically singular
+ in BrE: plural
+ in AE: singular
+ if the group is being considered as a single undivided body → singular; if as a
collection of individuals → plural
- coordinated S (S consists of 2 or more NP): distinction has to be made between
appositional and non-appositional coordination
+ non-appositional: (implied reduction of 2 clauses) → plural
+ appositional coordination → singular
- indefinite expressions of amount
b) Concord of person
c) Other types of concord
- S – C concord
- S – O concord
- Pronoun concord
3. The vocative:
- nominal element added to a sentence or clause optionally, denoting the one or
more people to whom it is addressed, and signalling the fact that it is addressed to
them.
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- In form, a vocative may be:

(1) a single name with or without a title
(2) the personal pronoun or an indefinite pronoun
(3) standard appellatives, usually N without pre or postmodification: family
relationships, endearment, titles or respect, markers of profession or status
(4) a nominal clause
(5) items under (1), (2), (3) above with the addition of modifiers or appositive
elements of various kinds
4. Negation
- the negation of a simple sentence is accomplished by inserting „not‟, „n‟t‟ between the
operator and the predication
- Abbreviated negation
- non-assertive forms
- negative intensification
- alternative negative elements
- more than one non-assertive form
- scope of negation
- focus of negation
- negation of auxiliaries
5. Statements, questions, commands, exclamations
Simple sentences may be divided into 4 major syntatic classes, whose use correlates with
different communicative functions:
a) Statements: S is always present and precedes the V
b) Questions: marked by one or more of these 3 criteria:
- the placing of the operator immediately in front of S
- the initial positioning of an interrogative or wh-element
- rising intonation
c) Commands: have no overt grammatical S, and whose V is in imperative
d) Exclamations: have an initial phrase introduced by „what‟ or „how‟, without inversion of
S and operator
Notes: 4 adjs can be used for these types: Declaratives, interrogatives, imperatives,
exclamatory.
6. Questions
3 classes of questions: Yes-no questions, Wh-questions, Alternative questions
a) Yes-no questions
- positive orientation
- negative orientation
- tag questions
- declarative questions
- yes-no questions with modal auxiliaries
b) Wh-questions
c) Alternative questions
d) Minor types of questions
7. Commands
a) commands without an S
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b) commands with an S
c) commands with „let‟
d) negative commands
e) persuasive immperatives
8. Exclamations
9. Formulae
10. Aphoristic sentences
11. Block language

Chapter 8: Adjunts, Disjuncts, Conjuncts

1. Units realizing adverbial functions
a) Adverb phrasea
b) Noun phrases (less common)
c) Prepositional phrases
d) Finite verb clauses
e) Non-finite verb clauses (-ing participle, -ed participle, infinitive)
f) Verbless clauses
2. Classes of adverbials: Adjuncts, disjuncts, conjuncts
- If intergrated into the structure of the clause → they are termed adjuncts
- If peripheral to it → they are termed disjuncts and conjuncts
- Conjuncts have a connective functions
- Some items can belong to more than one class
3. Definition of positional terms
a) Initial position (before S)
b) Medial position: M1 (before 1st auxiliary or lexical „be‟, or between 2 auxiliaries
or an auxiliary and lexical „be‟); M2 (before the lexical V, or in the case of lexical
“be”)
c) Final position (after an intransitive V or after any O or C)
4. Adjuncts
a) Syntatic features of adjuncts
- can come with the scope of predication pro-forms or predication ellipsis.
- Can be the focus of limiter adverbials such as „only‟
- Can be focus of additive adverbials such as „also‟
- Can be the focus of a cleft sentence
b) Adverb phrases as adjuncts
- can often constitute a comparative construction
- can have premodifying „however‟ to form the opening of a dependent adverbial
clause
- can have premodifying „how‟, a proform for intensifiers in questions or
exclamations
- can have premodifying „so‟ followed by S-operator inversion and a correlative
clause
c) Subclassification of Adjuncts (see figure 8 in 8.6)
d) Relative positions of adjuncts
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- where adjuncts cluster in final position, the normal order is:

process – place – time

- 3 other general principles apply to relative order whether within a class or between
classes:
+ the order can be changed to suit the desire for end-focus
+ A clause normally comes after other structure
+ longer adjuncts tend to follow shorter adjuncts
5. Disjuncts
- most disjuncts are prepositional phrases or clauses
- can be divided into 2 main classes: style and attitudinal disjuncts
- style disjuncts: the adverb phrase as style disjunct implies a verb of speaking of
which the S is the „I‟ of the speaker; normally appears initially
- attitudinal disjuncts: convey the speaker‟s comment on the content of what he is
saying: can generally appear only in declarative clauses

6. Conjuncts
- most conjuncts are adverb phrases or prepositional phrases
- classes of conjuncts:
a) enumerative (see 10.10)
b) reinforcing (10.11)
c) equative (10.11)
d) transitional (10.13)
e) summative (10.14)
f) apposition (10.15)
g) result (10.16)
h) inferential (10.17)
i) reformulatory (10.18)
j) replacive (10.19)
k) antithetic (10.20)
l) concessive (10.21)
m) temporal transition (10.5)
- positions of conjuncts
+ the normal position of conjuncts is initial
+ medial positions are rare, and final positions rarer
- conjuncts as correlatives
- conjunctions for clauses with conjuncts
-