GENERAL SECIENCE AND ABILITY

NOTES

CONTANTS PAGE NO
 The Universe and its Composition
NTRODUNTION
In simple terms, the Universe can be defined as anything that can be touched, felt, measured or
detected. It is totality of all matter and energy that presently exists or has existed both in space and
time. Hence it can be said that time, space and all of contents within it, make up the universe.
The study of objects and matter outside the Earth's atmosphere and of their physical and chemical
properties is called Astronomy.
NASA defines astronomy as simple "the study of stars, planets and space."
The branch of science that deals with the study of the Universe-the study of how the universe began,
what it is made of and how it continues to evolve and change-is known as cosmology.
The universe is thought to consist of three types of substances: normal matter, dark matter and dark
energy. Normal matter is believed to account for the smallest proportion of the universe. This is
astonishing because it is normal matter that makes up the galaxies, stars, planets and other
astronomical bodies. The universe is extremely huge, and is thought to contain over 100 billion galaxies.
The size of the universe can also be imagined from the fact that its diameter is measured in terms of
light years.

Composition
According to the latest observational evidence ordinary matter, including stars, planets, dust and gas,
only make up a tiny fraction of the universe (5%). The rest is the elusive dark matter, which is about
23%, and about 72% is the dark energy.
Dark energy: A mysterious (and as yet hypothetical) form of energy which is spread out uniformly
throughout space (and time) and gravitational properties: it is one of the possible explanations for the
current accelerating rate of expansion of the universe.
Dark matter: Matter not visible to us because it emits no radiation that we can observe, but it is
detectable gravitationally.
Ordinary matter
Hydrogen & helium gas: Hydrogen and Helium are the most abundant elements in the universe this
element is found in great abundance in stars and gas giant planets.
Star: A ball of mostly hydrogen and helium gas that shines extremely brightly, Sun is a star.

Theories about origins of Universe

Scientists have defined different theories about origins of universe in which some of them are below.
1. Creation theory
It states that the Universe is created by God. Religion and mythology have long proposed this
Creation refers to the act or acts by which the world came into existence out of nothing. Generally
all stories of creation emphasize the power of a Creator. According to these, it is this power that has
 brought the universe or cosmos into existence. As such, it is the power within and behind
everything.
1. Big bang theory
It is the most widely accepted. This theory states that the Universe started as a big ball in which
the entire energy, forces of nature, matter and space were wrapped up. 15 to 20 billion years
ago, this ball exploded with a gigantic explosion known as big bang. Since then, the Universe is
expanding.

2. Oscillating theory
In this theory it is assumed that there is continuous expansion and contraction in universe. The
Universe continues to expand and collapse. Pulsating theory states that it is the possibility that
after some passage of time the expansion in the universe may stop. Then there may be the
possibility of contraction. When this contraction approaches to a particular size, the explosion
will take place. As a result of this explosion the expansion of universe will start again.

3. Steady State theory

The theory was proposed by Sir Fred Hoyle. It opposes the Big Bang theory. It states that
Universe had been infinite in time and it had been in same condition before and now. It states
that the counting of the galaxies in our Universe is constant and new galaxies which are forming
continuously are filling the empty spaces which are created by those heavenly bodies which
have crossed the boundary lines of observable Universe. Though it had been in the same
condition over time, theory proposes that the Universe is expanding. However, it says that there
are no new galaxies are being formed between the existing galaxies. Therefore, density of
Universe is same. However this theory has many loopholes in it. For example evidences
gathered prove that new stars are being born.

a. Red shift: It states that stars are moving away from the earth and their light becomes dimmer.
b. Blue shift: It states that stars move towards the earth and their light becomes brighter.

LIGHT YEAR
Light year is a distance light can travel in vacuum in one year. Light year is one of the units of distance
used for astronomical objects. More precisely, one light-year is equal to 9,500,000,000,000 kilometers.
Andromeda galaxy is 2.5 million light years away from Milky Way.
It is pertinent to mention the need for such a big unit of distance. On Earth, a kilometer may be just fine.
It is a few hundred kilometers from New York City to Washington, DC; it is a few thousand kilometers
from California to Maine. In the universe, the kilometer is just too small to be useful. For example, the
distance to the next nearest big galaxy, the Andromeda Galaxy, is 21 quintillion km. That is
21,000,000,000,000,000,000 km.
This is a number so large that it becomes hard to write and hard to interpret. So astronomers use other
units of distance. For distances to other parts of the Milky Way Galaxy (or even further), astronomers
use units of the light-year or the parsec. The parsec is equal to 3.3 light-years.
Using the light-year, we can say that:
1. The Crab supernova remnant is about 4,000 light-years away.
2. The Milky Way Galaxy is about 100,000 light-years across.
3. The Andromeda Galaxy is about 2.5 million light-years away.

GALAXY
INTRODUNTION
Galaxy is grouping of millions and billions of stars kept together by gravity. It consists of thousands of
stars together with interstellar gas and dust. Galaxies are formed by group of stars, gases, and dust
particles all held together by strong gravitational forces. There are 3 categories of galaxies: spiral
galaxies, elliptical galaxies and irregular galaxies.
1. Spiral Galaxies
They often appear bluish because they contain many young stars (young middle age stars give
blue light). These are disk shaped with spiral arms of dust and gas. Our galaxy is spiral and
contains 100 billion planets and between 200 and 400 billion stars within diameter of 10 light
years and it is called Milky Way. Andromeda Galaxy is the nearest spiral galaxy to the Milky Way;
it is 2.5 million light years away from us.

2. Elliptical Galaxies
They often appear reddish because they contain many old stars (old stars give red light). These
are most common type. These are spherical and egg shaped. These have no spiral arms, and
have little dust and gas.

3. Irregular Galaxies
These are least common type. These have no well-defined shape or structure. Some have little
dust or gas, and some have lots of dust and gas.
Cluster
It is a collection of galaxies bound together by gravity and Super cluster is a large
collection of galaxies. Milky Way and Andromeda galaxies are in a cluster of ~45 galaxies called
the "Local Group".

Milky Way
The Milky Way is the galaxy in which we live. It is a fast, flat, disc-shaped collection of
gas, dust and stars. It is a spiral shaped galaxy that contains about 200 to 400 billion stars,
including our Sun. It is about 100,000 light-years across and about 10,000 light-years thick. If you
are at a place which has a very dark night sky, you can sometimes see the Milky Way as a thick
band of stars in the sky.
Location: A region in the space where Milky Way located is called galactic plane.
Major Arms: Pursues arm, Sagittarius arm, Centaurs arm, Cygnus arm.
Minor Arm: Orion is a minor arm where our solar system exists.
 SOLAR SYSTEM

INTRUDUCTION
The solar system is the only part of universe which we can explore with the space craft of the kind we
have. It is made up of one star (Sun), eight planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus, and Neptune) and various lesser bodies, such as satellites, asteroids, comets and meteoroids.
The sun is a normal star, but it is the supreme controller of the solar system. The age of earth is known
to be 4.6 billion years, and the solar system must be older than this. It is very noticeable that the solar
system is divided into two parts. First, there are four small solid (rocky) or terrestrial planets: Mercury,
Venus, Earth and Mars. Then comes a wide gap, in which move thousands of widgets and minor planets.
Then there are four giants: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. Pluto is too small and lightweight to be
classed as bona- fide planet.
Solar system

Sun planets Dwarf planets Asteroids Meteoroids comets

satellites

Sun
The Sun is the central and most important part of the solar system. It is the largest and heaviest body in
the entire system, and this allows it to have a gravitational force that keeps all the objects in orbit
around it. Scientists estimate that it is 4.5 billion years old. The planets around the sun can be divided
into two categories: inner planets and outer planets.
 Planets
As aforementioned, our solar system comprises 8 planets. 'Planet' here refers to all bodies revolving
around the Sun.

Planets

Inner planets Outer planets

Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune

Inner Planets
First, there are four small solid (rocky) or terrestrial planets nearest to the sun: Mercury, Venus, Earth
and Mars. These are Inner planets. These are mostly made of rocks. They are much smaller in size as
compared to outer planets.
1. Mercury
Mercury is the smallest and the fastest revolving planet. It is closest to the sun. It is a dead planet
since it cannot hold onto its atmosphere, so no life is possible there. The volcanic and seismic
activities appear to have ceased more than 3 billion years ago. It is not the hottest of the planets. It
spins and rotates on its axis approximately once every 59 days and completes its revolution around
the sun every 88 days.
2. Venus
Venus is the hottest, brightest, and the slowest rotating planet. It is often called as earth's twin
because the two planets have much closeness in size and mass. It is the hottest of all planets
because of dense atmosphere. Rapidly spinning clouds of CO2 covers its surface; that is why the
Venus gets so hot.
These clouds reflect sunlight, making Venus the brightest. Venus has always been the third brightest
object in the sky after the sun and the moon. Violent volcanism is wide spread and there are highly
varied landforms across the planet's flat surface. It is the only planet to rotate in the direction
opposite to that of its orbital revolution-it rotates East-to-West (all other planets rotate West-to-
East).
3. Earth
Earth is the third planet from the Sun, and the densest and fifth-largest of the eight planets in the
Solar System. It is the only planet in the Sun's solar system where life is known to exist.
4. Mars
Mars is also known as the Red Planet due to presence of red dust. It is the only planet that gives
some encouragement about the idea of life on other planets as well. Although the Earthly life is not
possible at this time, its surface almost certainly possessed substantial supplies of water in the past.
The Outer Planets
There are four outer planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. These are much larger in size.
These are also known as gaseous planets since these are mostly made of gases.
5. Jupiter
Jupiter is the biggest and the fastest rotating planet. It is two and half times more massive than all
the other planets in the solar system combined. It is made primarily of gases and is therefore known
as a Gas giant it is made mostly of hydrogen and helium. It is also the most rapidly spinning planet,
and requires less than 10 hours to complete its rotation. It has 67 moons.
6. Saturn
Saturn is the 2nd largest planet and sometimes known as the ring planet. It is the lightest planet. Its
atmosphere is also of Hydrogen and helium. It has 62 moons and largest of them is known as Titan.
Titan is the only moon which has its own atmosphere.
7. Uranus
Uranus is also known as the green planet. The atmosphere of Uranus is composed of Hydrogen.
Helium and Methane. It has 27 moons. Temperature in the Uranus is very cold because it is the 2d
farthest planet of the solar system.
8. Neptune
Neptune is the coldest, and the slowest revolving planet. Neptune and Uranus are often called as
twins, because they share many characteristics. It has 13 moons. Its biggest moon, Triton, is the 6th
largest in solar system.

SUN
INTRUDUCTION
The sun is the central and dominant part of the solar system. It accounts for 99.8% of the mass of
the entire solar system. The sun's diameter is 1.3914 million km, which is 109 times that of earth. It
weighs about 333,000 times as much as Earth. This enables the sun to extend its gravitational field
far out into the space, and it holds the other objects together.
The energy in the sun is due to nuclear fusion composed mainly of superheated hydrogen and
helium gasses mixed in ratio of 3:1, its surface temperature is about 5500°C. Our planet earth is
about 150 million km from the sun. The sun has a 27 day solar rotation period, and its speed of
revolution is 18km/sec.

Composition of Sun
Sun is the biggest object in our solar system and contains more than 99% of the solar system's mass.
The sun is mainly composed of Hydrogen (91.2%), Helium (8.7%) and others (0.1%).

Physical Constants of Sun

1. Mass 2x1030 kg (330,000 times that of Earth)
2. Diameters 1.3914 Million Km
3. Mean Distance from earth 150 million km
4. Temperature 5500°C.
5. Average density 1.4g/cm
1. The Core
The temperature is tremendously high in the core of the sun. Here, the temperature is roughly 15
million Centigrade. At such a high temperature nuclear fusion reaction occurs. Hydrogen nuclei fuse
to form helium nucleus and tremendous amount of energy is released.
2. The Photosphere
Photosphere is known as lower atmosphere of the sun. Its thickness is about 300 miles.
Temperature in the photosphere is 5500 C. Photosphere lies between chromospheres and the
central core.
3. The Chromo sphere
Chromo sphere is the reddish layer of the sun which lies outside the photosphere. Here the
temperature ranges from 6000°C to 50,000°C. Its thickness is few thousand miles. Reddish
appearance of chromospheres is due to excited state of hydrogen atoms. It is visible during solar
eclipse (as moon obscures the photosphere.
4. The Corona
The outer layer of the sun's atmosphere is known as corona. It extends millions of miles from sun's
surface. Temperature in this region is one million centigrade.

EARTH
INTRODUCTON
Earth is the third planet from the Sun, and the densest and fifth-largest of the eight planets in the
Solar System. It is also the largest of the Solar System's four terrestrial planets. Home to millions of
species, including humans, Earth is the only place in the universe where life is known to exist. It was
formed 4.54 billion years ago, and life appeared on its surface within one billion years. Earth's
biosphere has significantly altered the atmosphere and other a biotic conditions on the planet,
enabling the proliferation of aerobic organisms as well as the formation of the ozone layer which,
 together with Earth's magnetic field, blocks harmful solar radiation, permitting life on land. The
physical properties of the Earth, as well as its geological history and orbit, have allowed the life to
persist during this period. The planet is expected to continue supporting life for at least another 500
million years.
Structure of the Earth
Earth is made up of several different lavers, each with unique chemical composition and physical
properties. The 3 compositional layers are Core. Mantle and Crust. These are differentiated on the
basis of material they are made up of.
When earth was formed billions of years ago, it had a very violent birth. A lot of heat was generated,
and molten rocks and lava were found all over the surface. Since the planet was molten at time of
birth, with liquid lava at the surface, things began to settle.
The lighter material in lava began to rise and formed the Crust and denser began to sink, forming
mantle and core. Crust is richer in Silicon, which makes it less dense than the mantle. Mantle is
denser than the crust as it comprises mainly manganese and iron. Core comprises Iron and Nickel.
These 3 compositional layers can also be broken down into 5 Physical layers: Lithosphere,
Asthenosphere, mesosphere, outer core and inner core. The reason these are called physical layers
is that they differ in their strength and rigidity. Some are strong and rigid. Others are weak. One is
liquid.

The Core
The core is divided into two different zones. The inner core is solid and mostly made of iron and nickel.
The outer core is a liquid (liquid metal which conducts electricity) because the temperatures there are
adequate to melt the iron-nickel alloy. The temperature of core is too high, reaching approximately 5500
degrees. However, the inner core is a solid even though its temperature is higher than the outer core.
The pressure on the inner core is greater than the pressure on the outer core and the melting point of
iron (main constituent of the inner core) increases as the pressure goes up. As pressure effect overrides
the temperature effect, the inner core is solidified. The liquid convects, generating magnetic field.
Though the flow of liquid is very slow (about a few kilometers a year), it is what produces Earth's
magnetic field. Our North and South Poles exist because of this liquid outer core, even though it's almost
2,900 miles below us.
Mantle
It is denser than the crust as it comprises mainly manganese and iron. The mantle can also be divided
into two portions, the upper mantle and the lower mantle. The upper mantle is also known as the
asthenosphere, which flows as convection currents. The rocks in the upper mantle are cool and brittle,
while the rocks in the lower mantle are hot and soft (but not molten). Rocks in the upper mantle are
brittle enough to break under stress and produce earthquakes. However, rocks in the lower mantle are
soft and flow when subjected to forces instead of breaking.
The Crust
There are two different types of crust: thin oceanic crust that underlies the ocean basins and thicker
continental crust that underlies the continents. These two different types of crust are made up of
different types of rocks. The thin oceanic crust is composed primarily of basalt rocks and the thicker
continental crust is composed primarily of granite rocks. Crust is richer in Silicon, which makes it less
dense than the mantle.

Revolution and Rotation

Revolution
In astronomy, revolution is used when one body moves around another. For example Moon revolves
around the Earth, and the earth revolves around the Sun. Revolution refers to the movement of the
earth around the sun, the earth revolves around the sun in an elliptical path. It revolves in a counter-
clockwise direction, the revolution of the Earth is the basis of the calendar, and one complete revolution
takes 365, 25 days. To make things easy, the calendar assigns 365 days to each year. This is the reason
why every fourth year has 366 days. This is known as a leap year.
Rotation
In astronomy, Rotation is used to mean the movement of body around its own axis. For example,
rotation is the movement of the earth on its axis. The axis is an imaginary line that extends from the
North Pole to the South Pole, through the center of the Earth. The Earth rotates in a west-to-east
direction. The rotation of the Earth is the basis of the alternations of day and night. One rotation takes
approximately 24 hours, and is the basis of the time system. Alternations of days and nights; apparent
movement of stars, including the Sun; directions; sense of time; Coriolis Effect; Deflection of windy all
these effects are attributed to rotation.
 Rotation of Earth
Spinning of Earth on its axis
Completed in approximately 24 hours
Causes day and night
Causes tides, currents and winds
The direction of rotation of earth occurs from West to
East
The Earth's axis of rotation is tilted by 23.5 degrees, This
tilt causes the different seasons of the year
Solstice means unequal day length. Equinox means days and nights are of equal length.
Revolution of Earth
Movement of the Earth around the sun
Takes around 365 days to complete
Causes different seasons
Causes equinox and solstice
The direction of revolution occurs in counter clockwise
direction or from right to left.
The path of the Earth moving around the Su is called an
orbit. The Earth's orbit is elliptical.

ECLIPSES
An eclipse happens when an astronomical object is completely or partially blocked from view. This
happens when the object passes through the shadow of another object, or another body passes in front
of it. Although eclipse can happen anywhere in the Solar System, we are only interested in the eclipses
formed by the Sun, Earth and the Moon.
A. Solar Eclipse
Eclipse of Sun occurs when the moon comes between the Sun and the Earth. A solar eclipse
happens when the moon gets in the way of the suns' light and casts its shadow on the Earth. The
moon moves around the earth; the earth moves around the sun. Therefore, there must be time
when these three are in same line, with the moon in the middle. It occurs at the time of new moon.
New moon happens every month, but not solar eclipse. The reason is simple:
The Moon's orbit around Earth is not in the same plane as Earth's orbit around the Sun-it is tilted by 5
degrees. So, most of the time the Moon either passes above or below the ecliptic and is not in a position
to block the Sun. Only when the Earth, the Moon and the Sun are in a straight line, then solar eclipse
occurs.
The shadows cast by the Moon have two parts: the darker central region called the umbra, and another
one is the lighter outer region known as penumbra.
Solar eclipse is of 3 different types depending on the distance of the Sun and the Moon from Earth and
keeping in view that orbits are elliptical and not in the same plane:
1. Total solar eclipse
Occurs when the Moon completely obscures the Sun. This can happen either when the Moon is
near to Earth so it'll look bigger than the Sun or when the Sun is far from Earth so it'll look smaller
than the Moon. It happens when Umbra reaches the earth, as shown in the figure above. However,
total solar eclipse is visible only to those who are in the umbra region. In the penumbra region, only
a partial solar eclipse is visible.
2. Partial solar eclipse
It also can occur without total solar eclipse because the umbra does not reach the Earth, This
happens when the Earth, the Moon and the Sun are not exactly in line and the Moon only partially
blocks the Sun.
3. Annular solar eclipse
It occurs when the Moon is far from Earth or when the Sun is near to Earth so that the Moon's
apparent size is smaller than that of Sun. The Moon cannot completely obscure the Sun and the Sun
appears as a bright ring around the dark Moon.
B. Lunar Eclipse
It occurs when the earth comes between the sun and the moon. As a result, the Earth casts a
shadow on the Moon. In fact, there is a large conical shadow in space as shown in the figure. This
shadow is large enough to cover the whole moon. Lunar eclipses always occur at full moon and they
are less frequent than solar eclipses.
There are three types of lunar eclipses: total, partial and penumbral.

1. A total lunar eclipse

It occurs when the entire Moon passes through the Earth's umbra shadow.
 2. A partial lunar eclipse
It occurs when a portion of the Moon passes through Earth's umbral shadow.
3. Penumbral lunar eclipse
It occurs when the Moon passes through Earth's penumbral shadow. In this eclipse, none of the lunar
surface is completely shaded by Earth's umbra.

Description Solar eclipse Lunar Eclipse

Health risk gets damaged if Sun seen directly with Safe to look at moon during eclipse
a naked eye
Position of earth and Moon Moon lies between Sun and Earth Earth lies between the Sun and Moon

Types Total, Partial, Annular Total, Partial, Penumbral

Occurrence During day time At night
Frequency of occurrence A few every year, total being less Twice a year or more
frequent
Visibility Sun gets blocked by moon; eclipse completely obscured, visible partially or
visible only in some areas in an orangish hue; visible from all night
time places
Duration Usually a few (7) minutes A few hours (nearly 2hrs)

LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE

Latitude
These are the imaginary lines running horizontally around the globe. Also called parallels, latitude lines
are equidistant from each other. The Equator is the line of 0° latitude, the starting point for measuring
latitude. Each degree of latitude is about 69 miles (110 km) apart. Each degree is further divided into
smaller lines. There are 60 minutes in one degree. Zero degrees (0°) latitude is the the widest
circumference of the globe. Latitude is measured from 0° to 90° north and 0° to 90° south- the latitude
of the North Pole is 90° N, and that of the South Pole is 90° S.
Longitude
These are imaginary lines, also called meridians, running vertically around the globe. Unlike latitude
lines, longitude lines are not parallel. Meridians meet at the poles and are widest apart at the equator.
Zero degrees longitude (0°) is called the prime meridian(an imaginary line running from north to south
through Greenwich, England).The degrees of longitude run 180° east and 180° west from the prime
meridian.
Here are some of the differences between them:

Latitude
Imaginary lines running horizontally around the globe
Also called parallels (these lines are parallel to each
other)
Are equidistant from each other
The line of 0° latitude (The starting point for measuring
latitude is) is the Equator
Run East and West and Measure North and south
Longitude
Imaginary lines running vertically around the the globe
Also called Meridians; Unlike latitude lines, longitude
lines are not parallel
Are not equidistant from each other, these meet at
poles and are widest apart at the equator
Zero degrees longitude (0°) is called the prime meridian
(an imaginary line running from north to south through
Greenwich, England).
Run North and South and Measure East and west

NATURAL HAZARDS AND DISASTERS

Natural hazards are naturally occurring physical phenomena. These are a result of natural proceszes of
the Earth. In severe cases, they result in unprecedented loss of life and property. For example, the 1931
 floods in China resulted in the deaths of approximately 4 million people. Similarly, the World Bank
estimated that the 2011 Earthquake and $235 billion.
A disaster is a sudden, calamitous event that seriously disrupts the functioning of a community or
society and causes human, material, and economic or environmental-losses that exceed the
community's or society's ability to cope using its own resources. Though often caused by nature,
disasters can have human origins. The equation (VULNERABILITY+ HAZARD ) / CAPACITY = summarizes
the occurrence of a disaster. It shows that disaster occurs when a hazard impacts on vulnerable people.
The combination of hazards, vulnerability and inability to reduce the potential E negative consequences
of risk results in disaster. Natural disasters can be of different types, and their major categories are
discussed below. The events are categorized into:

Events

Hydrological Climatological Meteorological

Geophysical

Cyclones Storms
Earthquake Landslide Tsunami VA Flood Avalanches ET Droughts Wildfires
s

Others are Technological or man-made hazards (complex emergencies/conflicts, famine, displaced

populations, industrial accidents and transport accidents are events that are caused by humans and
occur in or close to human settlements. This can include environmental degradation, pollution and
accidents. Now there will be the discussion on the natural disasters and their types.

EARTHQUAKES
INTRODUCTION
These are by far the most unpredictable and highly destructive. They occur due to sudden release of
energy during tectonic activities within the Earth's crust; the release of energy that has slowly built up
during the stress of increasing deformation of rocks. An Earthquake is a sudden lateral or vertical
disturbance of rock along a rupture surface. It is shaking of the earth's surface caused by rapid
movement of the earth's Tocky outer layer. The released energy is transmitted to the surface of the
earth by earthquake waves. The energy released radiates in all directions from the place of movement.
These pulses of energy are known as seismic waves, and they can pass through the entire earth, or part
of it. Thus a strong earthquake in northern hemisphere can be recorded by a seismograph in southern
hemisphere.
Causes of Earthquake
1. Tectonic Plates Movement
The major cause of the earthquakes is tectonic movement of the earth crust. These earthquakes occur
due to structural adjustments inside the earth. The earth's lithosphere is divided into tectonic plates of
various sizes.
 The plates that have an area greater than 20 million km are known as major plates. The African
plate and the North American plate are examples of major plates.
 Similarly, plates that are smaller than 20 million km are known as minor plates. The Caribbean
plate and the Arabian plate are two examples of minor plates.
 Lastly, there are micro plates, which are those that have an area of less than 1million km².
The movements of the tectonic plates can be classified into three main categories:
a. Transform / Lateral movements
Are those in which plates rub against each other (san Andreas fault in California)
b. Convergent movements
Are those in which plates sink beneath each other (Peru-Chile Trench along with border of South
America)
c. Divergent movements
Are those in which plates spread apart from each other (Mid-Atlantic Ridge)

2. Volcanic Activity
Earthquakes are sometimes caused by volcanic activity but they are usually local and seldom cause any
extensive damage.
Miscellaneous Causes
Many other factors like light intensity, land sliding, mining and underground atomic explosion ete. can
also cause earthquakes.
Where do most earthquakes occur?
Some 80 percent of all the earthquakes occur along the rim of the Pacific Ocean called the "ring of fire"
because of the preponderance of volcanic activity there. Most earthquakes occur at fault zones, where
tectonic plates-giant rock slabs that make up Earth's upper layer-collide or slide against each other.
Earthquake magnitude ratings and their impacts
Richter scale is a logarithmic scale used to measure the intensity of earthquakes. Intensity of
earthquake is given in the following table:

Richter Magnitude Earthquake effects

0-2 Not felt by people
2-3 Felt little by people
3-4 Ceiling lights swing
4-5 Walls crack
5-6 Furniture moves
6-7 Some building collapse
7-8 Many building destroyed
8-up Total destruction of building, bridges and roads
A magnitude rating is assigned to earthquakes based on the strength and duration of their seismic
waves. A quake measuring 3 to 4.9 is considered minor or light; 5 to 6.9 is moderate to strong; 7 to 7.9 is
major, and 8 or more is great. On average, a magnitude 8 quake strikes somewhere every year, and
some 10,000 people die in earthquakes annually. Collapsing buildings claim by far the majority of lives,
but the destruction is often compounded by mud slides, fires, floods, or tsunamis. Smaller temblors that
usually occur in the days following a large earthquake can complicate rescue efforts and cause further
death and destruction.
Loss of life can be avoided through emergency planning, education, and the construction of buildings
that sway rather than break under the stress of an earthquake. A powerful earthquake can cause
landslides, tsunamis, flooding, and other catastrophic events. Most damage and deaths happen in
populated areas. That's because the shaking can cause windows to break, structures to collapse, fire,
and other dangers.

Deadliest Earthquakes
There have been several deadly earthquakes in over the past century. The tables below give the lists of
most destructive earthquakes in Pakistan, and the world.

PAKISTAN SINCE (1947)

Year Location Magnitude Deaths GLOBAL
(Since 1900)
Year Hunza Location
1974 6.2 Magnitude
5300 Deaths
2005 Kashmir 7.8 86000
1920
2008 Ziarat China 6.4 7.8215 273,400
1976 Balochistan
2013 China 7.7 7.81225 242,769
2004 Hindu Kush
2015 Indian7.5
Ocean 9.1-9.3
363 230,210
1908 Italy 7.1 123,000
1948 USSR 7.3 110,000
Haiti 7.0 100,000
2005 Pakistan 7.6 86,000

TSUNAMI
INTRODUCTION
Tsunami is a Japanese word meaning harbor wave. Tsunami are the waves caused by sudden movement
of the ocean due to earthquakes, landslides on the seafloor, land slumping into the ocean, large volcanic
eruptions or meteorite impact in the ocean. The events like Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions cause
the sea floor to move resulting in sudden displacement of ocean water in form of high vertical waves.
These waves created by sudden displacement of ocean floor radiate outward in all directions away from
their source, sometimes crossing entire ocean basins. Seismologists say only earthquakes measuring
greater than 7.0 on the Richter scale can produce a major tsunami. These are generated in subduction
zone.
A subduction zone is a region of the Earth's crust where tectonic plates meet. Tsunamis are sometime
impossible to perceive in Deep Ocean but when they reach shallow coastal waters they build up to
several feet in height and may crash on the coastal line with devastating effect.
Tsunamis are different from tidal waves. Unlike wind-driven waves, which only travel through the
topmost layer of the ocean, tsunamis move through the entire water column, from the ocean floor to
the ocean surface. Tsunami waves are unlike typical ocean waves generated by wind and storms, and
most tsunamis do not break like the curling, wind-generated waves popular with surfers. Tsunamis
typically consist of multiple waves that rush ashore like a fast-rising tide with powerful currents.

Causes of Tsunami
Tsunamis can be occurred by the following incidents.
1. Earthquakes
Most tsunamis are caused by large earthquakes on the sea floor when slabs of rock move past each
other suddenly, causing the overlying water to move. According to the Global Historical Global Historical
Tsunami Database, since 1900, over 80% of likely Tsunamis were generated by earthquakes. The
resulting waves move away from the source of the earthquake event.
2. Landslides
Underwater landslides can cause tsunami as can terrestrial land which slumps into the ocean.
3. Volcanic
Eruptions Less common are tsuna.ni initiated by volcanic eruptions. These occur in several ways:
a. Destructive collapse of coastal, island and underwater volcanoes which result in massive landslides.
b. Pyroclastic flows, which are dense mixtures of hot blocks, pumice, ash and gas, plunging down
volcanic slopes into the ocean and pushing water outwards.
C. A caldera volcano collapsing after an eruption causing overlying water to drop suddenly

Tsunami Formation

The diagram below summarizes the formation of a tsunami.

Once a tsunami forms, its speed depends on the depth of the ocean. In the deep ocean, a tsunami can
move as fast as a jet plane, over 500 mph, and its wavelength, the distance from crest to crest, may be
hundreds of miles. Mariners at sea will not normally notice a tsunami as it passes beneath them.
A tsunami only becomes hazardous when it approaches land. As tsunami enters shallow water near
coastal shorelines, its speed decreases. At shores, its speed is around 20 to 30 mph. The wavelength also
decreases, the height increases, and currents intensify.

Tsunami warnings
Tsunami warnings come in different forms. There are official warnings issued by tsunami warning
centers that are broadcast through local radio and television, wireless emergency alerts, NOAA
(NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION) Weather Radios, NOAA websites, and
social media. They may also come through outdoor sirens, local officials, text message alerts, and
telephone notifications. There may not be time to wait for an official warning, so it is important to be
able to recognize natural tsunami warnings. These include strong or long earthquakes, a loud roar (like
that of a train or an airplane) coming from the ocean, and a sudden rise or fall of the sea level that is not
related to the tide. Official and natural warnings are equally important. Be prepared to respond
immediately to any tsunami warnings. Move quickly to a safe place by following posted evacuation
signs. If you do not see an evacuation route, go to high ground or as far inland as possible.

Preventive Measures after Occurrence of Tsunami

The figure below summarizes the steps with visual demonstration about what to do in case of a tsunami.

FLOOD
INTRODCTION
Flood is a natural event or occurrence where a piece of land that is usually dry, suddenly gets
submerged under water. Some floods occur suddenly and recede quickly. Others take days or even
months to build and discharge. There are several types of flooding, which are listed below.
1. Overbank Flooding
The water within a river overflows its banks and spreads across the land around it. Overbank flooding
takes days to dissipate in plain areas while in mountainous areas, where water flows together through
steep valleys, the flood water tends to move faster and linger for a shorter duration.
2. Ice Jam Flooding
In cold temperatures, bodies of water are often frozen. Heavy precipitation can cause chunks of ice to
push together and create a dam in what is known as ice jam flooding. Behind the dam, water begins to
pile up, spilling over to the plains nearby. Eventually, the wall of ice breaks, and fast- moving water
rushes downstream much like a conventional flash flood, destroying objects in its path. The water
carries huge chunks of ice, which can increase damage to surrounding structures.
 3. Coastal Flooding
It occurs along the edges of oceans, and is driven predominantly by storm surges and wave damage this
is usually connected to hurricanes, tsunamis or tropical storms.

Causes of Flooding
Here are a few events that can cause flooding
1. Rain
Each time there are more rains than the drainage system can take, there can be floods. Sometimes,
there is heavy rain for a very short period that results in floods. In other times, there may be light rain
for many days and weeks and can also result in flood.
2. Rivers Overflow
Rivers can overflow their banks to cause flooding. This happens when there is more water upstream
than usual and as it flows downstream to the adjacent low-lying areas (also called a floodplain.
3. Strong Winds in Coastal Areas
Sea water can be carried by massive winds and hurricanes onto dry coastal lands and cause flooding.
Sometimes water from the sea resulting from a tsunami can flow inland to cause damage.
4. Dam Breaking
Dams are man-made blocks mounted to hold water flowing down from a highland. The power in the
water is used to turn propellers to generate electricity. Sometimes, too much water held up in the dam
can cause it to break and overflow the area. Excess water can also be intentionally released from the
dam to prevent it from breaking and that can also cause floods.
5. Ice and Snow Melts
In many cold regions, heavy snow over the winter usually stays un-melted for some time. There are also
mountains that have ice on top of them. Sometimes the ice suddenly melts when the temperature rises,
resulting in massive movement of water into places that are usually dry. This is usually called a
snowmelt flood.
6. A Lack of Vegetation or Woodland
Trees and plants intercept precipitation (i.e. they catch or drink water). If there is little vegetation in the
drainage basin, then surface run-off will be high.

Effects of Flooding
Floods can have devastating consequences and can have effects on the economy, environment and
animal and people.
1. Economic
During floods (especially flash floods), roads, bridges, farms, houses and automobiles are destroyed.
People become homeless. Additionally, the government deploys firemen, police and other emergency
apparatuses to help the affected. All these come at a heavy cost to people and the government.
It usually takes years for affected communities to be re-built and business to come back to normalcy. For
example, the 2010 floods were one of the most devastating in Pakistan's history. According to the
Economic Survey of Pakistan, the estimated damage from these floods was worth over $10 billion.
2. Environment
The environment also suffers when floods happen. Chemicals and other hazardous substances end up n
the water and eventually contaminate the water bodies that floods end up in. In 2011, a huge tsunami
hit Japan, and sea water flooded a part of the coastline. The flooding caused massive leakage in nuclear
plants and has since caused high radiation in that area. Authorities in Japan fear that Fukushima
radiation levels are 18 times higher than even thought. Additionally, flooding causes kills animals, and
others insects are introduced to affected areas, distorting the natural balance of the ecosystem.
3. People and Animals
Many people and animals die in flash floods. Many more are injured and others made homeless. Water
supply and electricity are disrupted and people struggle and suffer as a result. In addition to this,
flooding brings a lot of diseases and infections including military fever, pneumonic plague, and
dysentery. Sometimes insects and snakes make their ways to the area and cause a lot of havoc.

Flood Management Techniques

Flood management strategies generally involve multiple engineering projects; these projects use natural
resources and local people's knowledge of the river to reduce the risk posed by a flood. Each type of
project has its advantages and disadvantages. Some of flood techniques are the following.
a. Dam Construction
Dams are often built along the course of a river in order to control the amount of discharge, Water is
held back by the dam and released in a controlled way. This controls flooding. Water is usually stored in
a reservoir behind the dam. This water can then be used to generate hydroelectric power or for
recreation purposes. It should be noted that building a dam can be very expensive. Moreover, sediment
is often trapped behind the wall of the dam, leading to erosion further downstream. Settlements and
agricultural land may be lost when the river valley is flooded to form a reservoir.
b. River Engineering
The river channel may be widened or deepened allowing it to carry more water. A river channel may be
straightened so that water can travel faster along the course. The channel course of the river can also be
altered, diverting floodwaters away from settlements. Altering the river channel may lead to a greater
risk of flooding downstream, as the water is carried there faster.
c. A forestation
Trees are planted near to the river. This means greater interception of rainwater and lower river
discharge. This is a relatively low cost option, which enhances the environmental quality of the drainage
basin.
d. Managed Flooding
This method is also known as ecological flooding. The river is allowed to flood naturally in places, to
prevent flooding in other areas for example, near settlements.
e. Long term Planning
Local authorities and the national government introduce policies to control urban developmem close to
or on the floodplain. This reduces the chance of flooding and the risk of damage to property. There can
be resistance to development restrictions in areas where there is a shortage of housing. Enforcing
planning regulations and controls may be harder in LEDCS.

Deadliest Floods
There have been several deadly floods in recorded history. Some of the major ones are listed in the
table below.

GLOBAL (since 1500)

Year Location Name of River Deaths
1887 china Huang He 2,000,000
1931 china Yangtze and huai 4,000,000
1935 China Yangtze 145,000
1971 Vietnam Hanoi 100,000
1975 China Banqiao Dam failure 229,000

VOLCANIC ERUPTION
What is a volcano?
 A place on the earth’s surface (or any other planet) where molten rock and gases are erupted.
 A hill or mountain built up by the eruption of molten rock.
There are, however, many kinds of volcanoes. A volcano does not have to be a beautiful snowcapped
conical peak. It can be a hole in the ground, or a crack in the earth’s surface.

Magma forms when a part of the earth's upper mantle or lower crust melts. A volcano is essentially
an opening or a vent through which this magma and the dissolved gases it contains are discharged. So
volcanoes are vents in the Earth's surface that make volcanic eruptions possible. Volcanic eruption
refers to the discharge of magma, solid rock and gasses from volcanic.

Causes of Volcanic Eruption

a. Magma chamber
Although there are several factors triggering a volcanic eruption, three predominate: the buoyancy of
the magma, the pressure from the gases in the magma and the injection of a new batch of magma into
an already filled magma chamber.

b. Rock melts inside earth

As rock inside the earth melts, its mass remains the same while its volume increases, producing a melt
that is less dense than the surrounding rock. This lighter magma then rises toward the surface by virtue
of its buoyancy. If the density of the magma between the zone of its generation and the surface is less
than that of the surrounding and overlying rocks, the magma reaches the surface and erupts.

c. Injection of new magma

Another cause of volcanic eruptions is an injection of new magma into a chamber that is already filled
with magma of similar or different composition. This injection forces some of the magma in the chamber
to move up in the conduit and erupt at the surface.

Types of Eruptions
Volcanic activity and volcanic areas are commonly divided into major categories based on the intensity
of the explosion, as well as the kind of lava that is given out. The categories of explosion are listed in
ascending order.

a. Pyroclastic fragments are instant fragments that are produced by volcanic processes. These include
rocks, gases and magma.

b. Basaltic lava is characterized by its low gas content and low viscosity. The low viscosity is due to the
low silica (silicon dioxide) content.

c. Andesitic lava has high gas content and viscosity. This high viscosity is due to high levels of silicon
dioxide present in it. This also allows it to trap gas, which results in explosive eruptions.

d. Rhyolitic lava has complex silicon compounds, which give it an extremely high viscosity and allow it
to trap a lot of gas. This causes the buildup of a lot of pressure, and these eruptions are the most
catastrophic in nature.

Volcanic Eruptions
There have been several deadly volcanic eruptions in recorded history. Some of the major ones a listed
in the table below.

GLOBAL (since 1500)

Year Location Name of Volcano Deadliest
1792 Japan Mount Unzen 15,000
1815 Indonesia Mount Tambora 92,000
1883 Indonesia Mount Krakatoa 36,000
1902 Caribbean Sea Mount Pelee 29,000
1985 Columbia Mount Nevado 23,000

Avalanche
INTRODUCTION
An avalanche is any amount of snow sliding down a mountainside. It can be compared to landslide, only
with snow instead of earth. Another common term for avalanche is "snow slide". As avalanche becomes
nearer to the bottom of the slope, it gains speed and power, which can cause even the smallest of snow
slides to be a major disaster.

Types of Avalanches
Avalanches can be divided into four main categories:

1. Loose Snow Avalanches

 These avalanches are common on steep slopes and are usually seen after fresh snowfall. Since the snow
does not have time to settle down fully or has been made loose by sunlight, the snowpack is not very
solid. Such avalanches have a single point of origin from where they widened as they travel down the
slope.

2. Slab Avalanches
Loose snow avalanches in turn could cause a Slab Avalanche, which are characterized by the fall of a
large block of ice down the slope. Thin slabs fairly cause small amount of damage, while the thick ones
are responsible for many fatalities.

3. Powder Snow Avalanches

These are a mix of other form of avalanches, loose snow and Slab. The bottom half of this avalanche
consists of slab or dense concentration of snow, ice and air while above this is a cloud of powdered
snow. The speed attained by this avalanche can cross 190 miles per hour and they can cross large
distances. Natural Hazards and Disasters

4. Wet Snow Avalanches

These avalanches are quite dangerous as they travel slowly due to friction which collects debris from
path fairly easily. The avalanche comprises of water and snow at the beginning and it can pick up speed
with ease.

Deadliest Avalanches
The sudden nature of avalanches means that it very difficult to take precautionary measures. An
example of such an incident was the 2012 Siachen Glacier avalanche in Pakistan, where 140 people lost
their lives. The table below lists the deadliest avalanches .

GLOBAL (since 1500)

Year Location Deaths
1916 Italy 10,000
1951 Austria-Switzerland 1951
1962 Peru 4000
1970 Peru 20,000
2015 Afghanistan 310

DROUGHT
INTRODUCTION
Drought is an extended period of shortage of water due to lack of rainfall. It is a condition of no rains
when the standing crops, mostly rain-fed, gets dried up and is destroyed. Drought is defined as the time
period when a region gets much less than normal rainfall and is characterized by immense water
deficient and this may last for months and sometimes even years.
This drought can last for several years and even it does not, a drought that lasts for few days or weeks
can have significant effect on the local economy and cause damage. separate heading Pakistan’s
scenario An example of the devastation caused by droughts can be observed in Tharparker, Pakistan.
Drought conditions may be worsening in the country with every coming year and lesser rain, particularly
southern regions, spell trouble for cotton farmers and vulnerable populations in Balochistan and
Tharparkar. This is a danger signal for an agrarian economy. Successive droughts were a direct result of
climate change which was evident form extreme weather events in 2010, 2011 and 2012.
Some parts of the country witnessed heavy rains and even super floods while others like Thar and
Lasbela faced drought. In 2015, drought-stricken Thar people faced the fourth drought in a row. There
has been only marginal rainfall and that too in isolated areas in the desert region, which is enough
neither for producing fodder nor for seasonal crops of cluster beans, millet and sesame. Livestock face
more stress.

Causes of Drought
The situation of drought arises when there is long spell of severe water shortages. These include the
following:
 1. Scarcity of rain-fall.
 2. Lack of irrigation facilities to supplement the need for water during the period of inadequate
monsoon.
 3. Lack of properly developed Rain-water harvesting methods
 4. Lack of proper planning to deal with the situation.
 5. Widespread deforestation and cutting of trees has reduced the ability of soil to hold water.
Lack of underground water is a major cause for droughts.

Effects of Drought
Here are some of the effects that drought has:
 1. Reduces crop production.
 2. Diminishes carrying capacity of livestock.
 3. Causes famine as less water is available for irrigation.
 4. Creates damages in ecosystem that affect both plant and animal life.
 5. Causes hunger as agricultural production falls and less food remains for consumption
 6. Causes dehydration and malnutrition.
 7. Causes hunger as agricultural production falls and less food remains for
 8. Mass migration of masses to a place with sufficient water.
 9. Wild fires.
 10. Economic instability because Industry suffers a setback due to the scarcity of raw materials
produce by agriculture.

Fighting Drought
To tackle the problem of drought in our country, the following solutions are suggested:
 1. All our efforts should be made to preserve rain waters in various ways and tap ground water
source to meet unexpected drought situations. Education about how adapt in drought water
conservation and storage stop pollution.
 2. Improved rain-water harvesting methods should be deployed.
 3. The people should be educated regarding the importance of water, so that they do-not
misuse the stored water.
 4. New improved methods of irrigation should be introduced.
  5. Deforestation should be discouraged to increase the ability of the soil to hold water

WILDFIRE
INTRODUCTION
A wildfire, also known as a wild-land fire, forest fire, vegetation fire, grass fire, peat fire, bushfire (if
Australia), or hill fire is an uncontrolled fire often occurring in wild-land areas, but which can also
consume houses or agricultural resources. Wildfires often begin unnoticed, but they spread quickly
igniting brush, trees and homes. They can wipe out an entire forest and destroy almost every organic
Natural Hazards and Disasters matter in it.

Wildfire Causes classification of wild fires A B C D

Wildfires can be caused by nature-like lava or lightning- but most are caused by humans.

1. Humans and Wildfire

As many as 90 percent of wild land fires are caused by humans. Below are few of the man-made causes
of wildfires.

a. Burning Debris
It is pretty common to burn yard waste in many places. While it is legal to do so, it may cause fires at
many places when things go out of hand. Winds play a major role in wildfires. They can cause flames of
burning debris to spread into forests or farms or fields.

b. Unattended Campfires
Camping can be of great fun for both young and old age people. Unattended campfires can put things
out of control and can cause wildfires. It is therefore recommended to choose safe location for a
campfire that is away from ignitable objects and is stocked with a bucket of water and a shove.

c. Equipment Failure or Engine Sparks

A running engine can spew hot sparks when things go wrong. Car crashes have been known to start fires
quickly. Small engine sparks can give way to high flames if that vehicle is operating in a field or forests.

d. Cigarettes
Cigarettes are another common cause of wildfires. It is common for people to throw the cigarette bud
on the ground knowing that it is still burning. Smokers must understand that a small negligence on their
part can cause huge impact on the environment and surrounding areas.

e. Fireworks
Fireworks are fun to shoot off, but special care needs to be taken when they are in the hands of
amateurs. Fireworks must be avoided even when there is small chance that they could start a wildfire. If
not handled properly that may end up as flames in unwanted territory.

f. Arson
Arson is the act of setting fire to property, vehicles or any other thing with the intention to cause
damage. A person who commits this crime is called an arsonist. Arson is sometime done by people to
their own property in order to receive compensation. Arson may account for 30% of all wildfire cases.

2. Nature and Wildfire

Mother Nature is responsible for other 10% of wildfires.

a. Lightening
Lightening can cause wildfires, especially the type of lightning called "hot lightning", which can last for a
relatively long time. When it strikes, it can produce a spark which can set off a forest or a field.

b. Volcanic Eruption
Hot burning lava, from volcanic eruptions, also causes wildfires.

Effects of Wildfires
1. Wildfires take away homes, wildlife, as well as vegetation.
2. The soil in the area of the wildfire is completely destroyed. When a wildfire hits this soil it
becomes too hot and all of those nutrients are gone for good.
3. Animals lose their lives.
4. Trees and plants are gone, which increase environmental pollution.
5. Large amount of smoke is released into the air which makes it difficult to breathe and also
causes air pollution.
6. Unfortunately, some human lives are also lost in wildfires. Typically people who are fighting the
fire who lose their lives trying to save others. Ash and smoke can cause serious health problems
to humans who suffer from allergies and other medical problems. This same smoke and ash has
the ability to permanently damage the lungs and the throat.
7. Incomes and jobs are lost for workers in the agricultural field whose field crops and animals
were destroyed by the wildfire.

How to Prevent Wildfires

 1. Follow all of the local regulations and laws regarding burning fires during various times of day,
year, and what materials and substances are permitted to be burned.
 2. Keep up to date with the weather forecast so you are sure not to burn any substances while
there are high winds or other treacherous conditions.
 3. Do not burn any materials that are combustible or unusual in nature.
 4. Put your cigarette out completely before disposing of it.
 5. Teach children the rules and safety precautions of camping and being outdoors your

Deadliest Wildfires
Wildfires have the potential to cause great damage. The table below lists the deadliest wildfires in
recorded history.

GLOBAL (since 1500)

Year Location Deaths
1871 United States 2500
1881 United States 282
1894 United States 418
1918 United States 453
1936 USSR 1200

ENERGY
INTRODUCTION
Energy is an essential component of our lives. In scientific terms, it is defined as the ability or capacity to
do work, or attempt to do work. Human beings, animals, plants, and machinery, all need energy to be
able to perform their routine tasks. Energy exists in many different forms, and it can be converted from
one form to another.

FORMS OF ENERGY
Energy exists in a number of different forms, each of which has the capacity to do work. Energy has a
number of different forms. Some of the most common forms of energy are discussed below.

1. Kinetic Energy
Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by a body due to its motion. This means that any object that is
moving possesses some kinetic energy. Consider a baseball flying through the air. The ball is said to have
kinetic energy by virtue of the fact that it is in motion relative to the ground. You can see that it is has
energy because it can do "work" on an object on the ground if it collides with it (either by pushing on it
or damaging it during the collision). The kinetic energy of an object depends on two things:
a. Its velocity (how fast the body is moving)
b. Its mass (how heavy the object is)
It is given by the following formula: Kinetic Energy (1/2) x mass x velocity. OR
(Kinetic Energy: K=1/2⋅m⋅v2) this means, a bullet has a lot of kinetic energy because even
though it has a small mass, its velocity is very high. Similarly, a truck that is moving very slowly will also
have a lot of kinetic energy because it has a lot of mass.

2. Potential Energy
An object can store energy as the result of its position. For example, the heavy ball of a demolition
machine is storing energy when it is held at an elevated position. This stored energy of position is
referred to as potential energy. Similarly, a drawn bow is able to store energy as the result of its
position.
When assuming its usual position (i.e., when not drawn), there is no energy stored in the bow. Yet when
its position is altered from its usual equilibrium position, the bow is able to store energy by virtue of its
position. This stored energy of position is referred to as potential energy. Potential energy is the stored
energy of position possessed by an object.
Potential energy can be divided into different categories:
a. Gravitational Potential Energy
This is the energy possessed by an object due to its position above the surface of anybody that exerts a
gravitational force on it. The gravitational potential energy of an object depends on the following:
a. Its mass (how heavy the object is)
b. Its height above the surface
c. The gravitational force acting on the body.
The gravitational potential energy of a body is given by the following formula: Gravitational Potential
Energy = (mass) x (gravitational force) x (height above ground)

OR PEgrav = m *• g • h
b. Elastic Potential Energy
The second form of potential energy that we will discuss is elastic potential energy. Elastic potential
energy is the energy stored in elastic materials as the result of their stretching or compressing. Elastic
potential energy can be stored in rubber bands, bungee chords, trampolines, springs, an arrow drawn
into a bow, etc. The amount of elastic potential energy stored in such a device is related to the amount
of stretch of the device - the more stretch, the more stored energy.
3. Chemical Energy
Chemical energy is the energy stored in the bonds between atoms and molecules. This energy is released
when chemical reactions take place. As a result of these reactions, energy is released in the
form of heat, light, and sound. Chemical energy is extremely important because it is being used around
us all the time. The food we eat has stored chemical energy. When the body breaks down the chemical
bonds in the food molecules, energy is released. This energy is then used by our bodies to help us walk,
run and perform all our activities.
4. Heat Energy
Heat energy is due to movement of the molecules of the body. The faster the movement of molecules,
the greater is the heat energy. Consider a hot cup of coffee. The coffee is said to possess "thermal
energy", or "heat energy. The Sun is the largest source of energy.
5. Electrical Energy
Electrical energy is the energy that is derived from the kinetic energy of moving charges. It is one of the
most commonly used forms of energy, and can be easily moved from one place to another.
6. Nuclear Energy
Nuclear energy is the energy produced from nuclear reactions. The term nuclear reaction refers to the
reactions between nuclei of different atoms. There are two main kinds of nuclear reactions: nuclear
fission, when the nucleus of an atom splits into smaller parts; and nuclear fusion, when two or more
nuclei come together to form a larger nucleus. In both cases, large amount of heat energy is produced.

SOURCES OF ENERGY / PRODUCING ELECTRICITY FROM ENERGY RESOURCES

A. Renewable Energy
INTRODUCTION
Renewable resources of energy are those that can be easily recycled by using biological and chemical
processes, and sustainable practices. Renewable Energy is a clean source of energy, which is
inexhaustible and can replenish itself for years to come. The use of renewable sources is very
environmental friendly since it does not increase the amount of pollutants in the environment.
The use of renewable sources is also important because it lowers the carbon footprint and reduces the
strain on fossil fuels. Some of the most commonly used forms of renewable sources are wind energy,
tidal energy, solar energy, geothermal energy, biomass, and hydroelectric power.
1. Hydroelectric Power (HEP)
The term hydropower refers to the energy derived from falling or fast-flowing water. Hence,
hydroelectric power means electricity that is produced using hydropower. HEP is a renewable form of
energy, which makes it very sustainable.

kinetic
gravitional
energy
potential
energy (water falling electrical
down a slope energy
(water at a
and rotating
height)
turbines )

Advantages
 HEP has very low running costs since it does not require any fuels to produce electricity.
 It is also environment friendly as the process does not release any pollutants into the
environment.
  Most HEP plants have a reservoir to store water. This improves the water management, and
reduces chances of flooding downstream.
Disadvantages
 One major disadvantage of HEP plants is that they can only be built in places that have favorable
topography such as steep slopes.
 Although the running costs of HEP plants are low, its initial construction is extremely expensive.
 The construction of the reservoir needs a large area, which often forces many people to lose
their homes.
 This is also causes the destruction of the natural habitats of flora and fauna.
2. Geothermal Power Plants
Geothermal energy is a renewable source of energy that utilizes the thermal energy generated and
stored in earth. Geothermal energy uses naturally occurring high temperatures inside the ground, to
generate electric power and for direct uses such as heating and cooking.
Geothermal electric involves the drilling of well in search of high temperature rocks. Water is pumped
down this well and heated by hot rocks. It rises up a second well as steam, which can be used to run a
turbine and generate electricity or it can be used for heating or other purposes. Geothermal areas are
generally located near tectonic plate boundaries, where there are earthquakes and volcanoes. According
to international geothermal association (IGA) the global potential of geothermal sources is about 70 Giga
watts.

heat energy kinnetic

(from the energy
earth's (steam electrical
surface,used moves and energy
to boil rotates the
water) turbines)

Advantages
 Geothermal energy is a renewable resource that does not need any fuels.
 As a result, geothermal plants have a very low carbon footprint.
 Geothermal energy is a stable resource, and unlike wind and solar energy, its supply does not
fluctuate a great deal.
Disadvantages
 The biggest problem with geothermal energy is that it is location specific. This means that
geothermal plants can only be constructed in specific locations.
 Another disadvantage is that the locations where these plants are constructed are prone to
earthquakes and volcano eruptions.
 Since the power plants are usually located far away from cities, the distribution costs are high.
3. Wind Power
Wind power is a renewable form of energy that captures the energy generated by the movement of air
in the earth's atmosphere to drive electricity-generating turbines. Wind turbines consist of huge blades
that are connected to a housing that contains gears linked to a generator. When the wind blows, it
transfers some of its kinetic energy to the fan blades, which in turn drive the generator. For utilizing
wind energy, several wind turbines are located together to form a wind farm. Globally, it has the
potential to generate 5 times as much energy as it is being used today.

kinetic
kinetic
energy
energy
(wind rotates electrical
(the blades energy
the blades of
rotate the
the wind
turbine)
turbine)

Advantages
 Wind energy is a renewable resource that does not need any fuels.
 As a result, wind turbines have a very low carbon footprint.
 Wind turbines are often constructed in remote areas, which can result in development of these
locations.

Disadvantages
 The biggest drawback of wind energy is that the strength of wind is not constant at all times.
This results in an inconsistent supply of energy.
 In addition, wind turbines are extremely expensive to set up.
 Wind turbines are noisy, and can be harmful for bird populations.

4. Solar Power
Solar power refers to the utilization of the heat energy received from the Sun in order to produce
electricity. The amount of solar radiation, also known as isolation, reaching the earth's surface every
hour is more than all the energy currently consumed by all human activities each year.
However we merely use less than 0.1%. This energy is determined by a number of factors, such as
geographic location, time of day, and weather conditions. There are two commonly used methods of
producing energy from solar power: Concentrated Solar Power and Photovoltaic Cells. In Pakistan a
1000 MW Quaid-e-Azam solar park is located in Bahawalpur.

Heat energy Kinetic Electric

solar (from energy al
energy boiling (Steam energy
(From the water and moves and
Sun) turning into rotates the
steam) turbines )

a. Concentrated Solar Power

It uses mirrors and lenses to converge the sunlight into a single, narrow beam. This beam is then
concentrated on a small area, which lies over a water patch. The concentrated beam of sunlight heats
up the water and turns it into steam. This steam is then used to drive turbines that produce electricity.

b. Photovoltaic Cells
 It also known as solar cells. These are devices that directly convert solar energy into electrical energy
using the photovoltaic effect. Photovoltaic effect refers to the creation of electric current in a material
upon exposure to sunlight.

Advantages
 Solar energy is a renewable form of energy, which means it does not pollute the environment.
 It has low operational and maintenance costs, which makes the electricity produced from solar
power very cheap.
 Solar power has a lot of potential; scientists say that solar power is enough to meet the energy
needs of the entire world.

Disadvantages
 The initial cost of installing solar systems is extremely high, which discourages people from
installing solar systems.
 The energy produced is weather dependent, and needs to have sufficient backup in order to
compensate for cloudy and rainy days.
 Another problem with solar energy is that Energy Resources its storage is very expensive.

 Solar power projects need a lot of space which prevents land from being used for other
purposes.
5. LED
LEDS stand for light emitting diode. LEDS have many advantages over incandescent light sources
including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, smaller size, and faster switching. Light- emitting
diodes are now used in applications as LED Lamps Incandescent Lamps diverse as aviation lighting,
automotive headlamps, advertising, general lighting, traffic signals, camera flashes and lighted
wallpaper. As of 2015, LEDS powerful enough for room lighting remain somewhat more expensive, and
require more precise current and heat management, than compact fluorescent lamp sources of
comparable output.

B. Non Renewable

A non-renewable resource refers to a natural resource that is found beneath the earth, which when
consumed, does not replenish at the same speed at which it is used up. The resources typically take
millions of years to develop. In most cases, non-renewable resources are not very environment friendly,
and produce pollutants such as carbon dioxide. The most commonly used sources in this category are
fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, and oil) and nuclear energy.

1. Thermal Power Plants

INTRODUCTION
Thermal power plants are those that use fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas to produce
electricity. They are the most commonly used method of producing electricity. In thermal power plants,
fossil fuels are burned to produce heat. This heat is then used to boil water, and turn it into steam.
Finally, the steam is used to drive turbines, which then produce electricity.

Advantages
  Thermal power plants do not need a very large area for construction, and can be built
anywhere.
 Compared to other method of producing electricity, the functioning of thermal plants is
relatively simpler. This makes them easy to maintain.

Disadvantages
 Since thermal power stations rely on the use of fossil fuels, they are a source of CO2, which adds
to the problem of greenhouse gasses and global warming.
 Thermal power stations are not very efficient, and only convert 33% to 48% of the heat energy
into electricity.
2. Nuclear Power Plants
Nuclear Power Plants use nuclear energy to generate electricity. In these plants, nuclear reactions are
used to generate heat. This heat is used to boil water and turn it into steam. This steam is then used to
drive turbines and generate electricity.

Advantages Disadvantages

Waste is radioactive and safe disposal is very

Produces no polluting gases.
difficult and expensive.

Local thermal pollution from wastewater affects

Does not contribute to global warming.
marine life.

Very low fuel costs. Large-scale accidents can be catastrophic.

Low fuel quantity reduces mining and

Public perception of nuclear power is negative.
transportation effects on environment.

High technology research required benefits other Costs of building and safely decommissioning
industries. are very high.

Cannot react quickly to changes in electricity

Power station has very long lifetime.
demand.

ENERGY CONSERVATION
By energy conservation it is meant that energy can neither be created nor destroyed but only converted
into other forms. This principle in fact is also known as the "law of conservation of energy".
For instance a pendulum that moves to and fro with the bob changing its speed from maximum to the
lowest. In this process the kinetic energy is greatest at the lowest point of the swing and zero at the
highet. However the potential energy is maximum at the highest point and is zero at the lowest. This
shows that kinetic energy changes to another form of energy .i.e. potential energy.
Similarly in every production of work all forms of energy generate in this manner. Heat energy is
converted to light energy in some cases whereas in some the chemical energy is changed to the
potential energy.
 ATOMS
INTRODUCTION
Atoms are the smallest particles of matter, which can take part in chemical reaction. They make up
everything around us. They cannot be broken down by physical or chemical means. Things that are
made of only one kind of atom are known as elements. For example, the metal iron is made up of up
hundreds and thousands of iron atoms. Things that are made up of two or more than two kinds of atoms
are known as compounds. For example, water is a compound that is made of hydrogen atoms, and
oxygen atoms.

Structure of an Atom
All atoms are made up of particles which are known as subatomic particles. Atoms consist of a nucleus
and a cloud of electrons that move around the nucleus. The nucleus is itself a cluster of two kinds of
particles, protons and neutrons. Protons and electrons also have an electric charge. The diagrams below
highlight the main characteristics of the subatomic particles, as well as their arrangement in an atom,

Particle Mass (amu) Charge

Proton 1 unit Positive charge (+1)
Neutron 1 unit 0
1
Electron Negative charge (-1)
1860

Representation of Atoms
Atoms of elements can be represented by using a symbol, and a combination of numbers. These
numbers give us specific information about these atoms. The diagram below shows how atoms can be
represented using this model.
Consider the following example, which gives the representation of the Fluorine atom. From the
representation, we can get the following information about the Fluorine atom:
a. Number of protons = Atomic number 9
b. Number of electrons= Atomic number 9
c. Number of neutrons Mass number =atomic number 10

Isotopes
There are many instances when the atom of an element is present in more than one forms. Two
different forms of the same element are known as isotopes. Scientifically speaking, isotopes are atoms
of the same element, with same proton number, but different mass number. The diagram below
explains this by referring to isotopes of carbon.

RADIOACTIVITY
Radioactivity is a property of atoms that have an unstable nucleus. This means that the atom breaks
down naturally or decays, giving out radiation in the form of rays and particles, plus a large amount of
energy. Radioactive decay involves three different kinds of particles, all of which come from the nucleus
of atoms. The table below lists the kinds of radiation and their features.

Name Identity Mass Charge

Alpha(a) Hellum nucleus 4 +2
Beta (B) Fast moving electron
ejected from the
nucleus. Note that It is 1 -1
not an atomic orbital
electron 1860

Gamma (g) Electromagnetic wave 0 0

Properties of Radioactive Particles

Due to the difference in the features of the radioactive particles, all of them exhibit different properties.
These are as follows:
1. Alpha Particles
a. They are massive and highly charged.
b. Strongly interact with other matter, causing a lot of ionization.
c. Have a short range and are easily stopped.
2. Beta Particles
a. They are light and have a very low charge.
b. They do not interact as strongly with matter, and do not cause a lot of ionization.
c. They have a longer range and are harder to stop.
3. Gamma Rays
a. Have a negligible mass, and no charge.
b. Have very weak interactions with matter, and cause negligible ionization.
c. Have high penetrating power and very difficult to stop. d. Are extremely dangerous, and excessive
exposure can cause radiation poisoning?
Radioactive Reactions
There are two main kinds of radioactive reactions, nuclear fission and nuclear fusion. Nuclear fission is
the process that involves the breaking up of a heavy nucleus into lighter nuclei. Nuclear fusion is the
process when two lighter nuclei combine to form a heavy nucleus. The diagram below explains the
difference between nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.
Radioactive reactions are also known as nuclear reactions. The completion of both releases a large
amount of energy. There are several differences between both the reactions. These are outlined in the
table below.
Nuclear Fission
Natural occurrence of the Fission reaction does not
process occurrence of the normally occur
in nature.
Byproducts of the reaction Fission produces many highly
radioactive particles.
Conditions Critical mass of the substance
and high-speed neutrons are
required.
Energy Requirement Takes little energy to split two
atoms in a fission reaction.
Energy Released The energy released by fission is
a million times greater than that
released in chemical reactions,
but lower than the energy
released by nuclear fusion
Energy production Fission is used in nuclear power
plants.
Fuel Uranium is the primary fuel used
in power plants.
Nuclear Fusion
Fusion occurs in stars, such as
the sun.
Few radioactive particles are
produced by fusion reaction, but
if a fission "trigger" is used,
radioactive particles will result
from that.
High density, high temperature
environment is required.
Extremely high energy is
required to bring two or more
protons close enough that
nuclear forces overcome their
electrostatic repulsion.
The energy released by fusion is
three to four times greater than
the energy released by fission.
Energy Released Fusion is an
experimental technology for
producing power.
Hydrogen isotopes (Deuterium
and Tritium) are the primary fuel
used in experimental fusion
power plants.
 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATIONS
INTRODUCTION
Electromagnetic (EM) radiation is a form of energy that is all around us and takes many forms, such as
radio waves, microwaves, X-rays and gamma rays. Sunlight is also a form of EM energy, but visible light
is only a small portion of the EM spectrum, which contains a broad range of electromagnetic
wavelengths.

Creation of Electromagnetic Radiation

EM radiation is created when an atomic particle, such as an electron, is accelerated by an electric field,
causing it to move. The movement produces oscillating electric and magnetic fields, which travel at right

angles to each other in a bundle of light energy called a photon. Photons travel in harmonic waves at the
fastest speed possible in the universe: 186,282 miles per second (299,792,458 meters per second) in a
vacuum, also known as the speed of light. The waves have certain characteristics, given as frequency,
wavelength or energy.

The EM Spectrum
EM radiation spans an enormous range of wavelengths and frequencies. This range is known as the
electromagnetic spectrum. The EM spectrum is generally divided into seven regions, in order of
decreasing wavelength and increasing energy and frequency. The common designations are: radio
waves, microwaves, infrared (IR), visible light, ultraviolet (UV), X-rays and gamma rays.
Typically, lower-energy radiation, such as radio waves, are expressed as frequency; microwaves,
infrared, visible and UV light are usually expressed as wavelength; and higher-energy radiation, such as
X-rays and gamma rays, is expressed in terms of energy per photon. The diagram below shows the
different kinds of waves present in the electromagnetic spectrum.
 1. Radio waves
Radio waves are at the lowest range of the EM spectrum, with frequencies of up to about 30 billion
hertz, or 30 gigahertz (GHz). Radio is used primarily for communications including voice, data and
entertainment media.
Radio waves can be used to carry messages and simple television pictures at very large distances. Radio-
waves are grouped into bands; each band has particular nature and special set of uses. In order to reach
greater distances than line of sight, some radio waves can be made to travel towards the sky. (sky
waves) The waves are then refracted by the ionosphere (layers of air stretching from 80-550 km above
the Earth) and returned later to Earth. These wave signals are subsequently intercepted by receiving
ground stations.

2. Microwaves
(Microwaves fall in the range of the EM spectrum between radio and IR. They have frequencies from
about 3 GHz up to about 30 trillion hertz. Microwaves are used for high-bandwidth communications,
radar and as a heat source for microwave ovens and industrial applications.

Usage of Microwaves in Satellite Television and Telephone

 Microwaves are used to carry telephone calls and television channels as digital signals from
ground station to satellites and vice versa.
 They are used for communications because they pass through the atmosphere without
significant attenuation and they can be directed in beams with much less diffraction than radio-
waves. The micro-wave frequencies are of the order of 10 GHz, sufficiently high to carry much
more information than a copper cable or radio-waves. They allow thousands of telephone calls
and several television channels to be transmitted at the same time.

3. Infrared
Infrared is in the range of the EM spectrum between microwaves and visible light. IR has frequencies
from about 30 THz up to about 400 THz.

Usage of infra-red waves in household appliances, television controllers and intruder alarms
  Infra-red radiation is emitted or absorbed by every object. We feel warm under the sun as we
absorb more IR radiation than we emit (gain internal energy). We feel cool in an air-conditioned
room as we emit more IR radiation than we absorb (lose internal energy).
 IR radiation is commonly used in wireless remote control units for air-conditioners, television,
sound systems and similar devices. The remote unit emits coded IR that is detected by the
appliances.
 IR radiation can be detected using electronic sensors, as in an intruder alarm system. Modern IK
detectors are solid state detectors which act rather like TV cameras, but in the IR range.
4. Ultraviolet
Ultraviolet light is in the range of the EM spectrum between visible light and X-rays. It has frequencies of
about 8 x 10 to 3 x 1016 Hz. UV light is a component of sunlight; however, it is invisible to the human
eye. It has numerous medical and industrial applications, but it can damage living tissue.

Usage of ultra-violet in sunbeds, fluorescent tubes and sterilization

 UV radiation is energetic enough to ionize atoms and so can cause harm to living tissue. Under
excessive exposure, it will cause sunburn and skin cancers.
 It is used beneficially in the sterilization of water, by killing off harmful living organisms present
in the water for potable uses.
 Paper money is coated with invisible chemicals that only become reflective (visible) when UV
radiation is incident on the paper. The main aim is to distinguish the real money from its
counterfeits easily.
5. X-rays
X-rays are roughly classified into two types: soft X-rays and hard X-rays. Soft X-rays comprise the Tange
of the EM spectrum between UV and gamma rays. Hard X-rays occupy the same region of the EM
spectrum as gamma rays. The only difference between them is their source: X-rays are produced by
accelerating electrons, while gamma rays are produced by atomic nuclei.
 X-ray photographs are used for medical diagnosis Soft X-rays penetrate flesh more readily than
they do bone, which makes X-ray 'shadow' photographs possible.
 In industry, X-ray photographs are used to check for flaws in welded metal joints.
6. Gamma-rays
Gamma-rays are in the range of the spectrum above soft X-rays. Gamma-rays have frequencies greater
than about 10% Hz and wavelengths of less than 100 pm (4 x 10 inches). Gamma radiation causes
damage to living tissue, which makes it useful for killing cancer cells when applied in carefully measured
doses to small regions. Uncontrolled exposure, though, is extremely dangerous to humans.

Usage of gamma rays in medical treatment

 Gamma rays are ionizing radiation which can kill living cells. They are used to treat malignant
tumours in radiotherapy. For treatment deep within the body, high energy photons are sent to
reach the target tumour without affecting the surrounding tissue. Though x-rays are also
ionising radiation, because of the lower energy compared to gamma rays. they may fail to reach
sufficiently deep into the body and may cause instead damage to the surrounding tissues that
absorbed them.
 Gamma rays can also act as surgical knifes in surgery.
 MODERN MATERIALS / ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
There are three kinds of materials on the basis of their electrical conductivity, conductors, insulators and
semiconductors.

Conductors
Those materials which allow the electricity to pass through them easily without much resistance are
called conductors.
For example copper, aluminum, iron and silver etc.

Insulators
Those materials which do not allow the electricity to pass through them are called Insulators.
For example rubber, plastic, wood,etc.

Semiconductors
Those materials which allow electricity to pass through them only partially, they conduct electricity less
than conductors but greater than Insulators, are called semiconductors. A semiconductor is a substance,
usually a solid chemical element or compound that can conduct electricity under some conditions but
not others, making it a good medium for the control of electrical current.
Semiconductors are materials that have electrical conductivity between conductors and nonconductors
or insulators like ceramics. How much electricity a semiconductor can conduct depends on the material
and its mixture content. Semiconductors can be insulators at low temperatures and conductors at high
temperatures. The major function of electronic devices is to amplify the weak electric signal. Silicon and
Germanium are two common semiconductors.

DOPING
The process in which impurities are added into the semiconductors to boost up their conducing
properties is called Doping.
On the basis of impurities we get the two types of semiconductors, N-type and P-type semiconductors.
N-Type Semiconductor

 Mainly due to electrons

 Entirely neutral
 I = Ih and nh >> ne
 Majority – Electrons and Minority – Holes
When a pure semiconductor (Silicon or Germanium) is doped by pentavalent impurity (P, As,
Sb, Bi) then, four electrons out of five valence electrons bonds with the four electrons of Ge or
Si.
The fifth electron of the dopant is set free. Thus, the impurity atom donates a free electron for
conduction in the lattice and is called “Donar“.
Since the number of free electron increases by the addition of an impurity, the negative charge
carriers increase. Hence, it is called n-type semiconductor.
Crystal as a whole is neutral, but the donor atom becomes an immobile positive ion. As
conduction is due to a large number of free electrons, the electrons in the n-type semiconductor
are the MAJORITY CARRIERS and holes are the MINORITY CARRIERS.

P-Type Semiconductor

 Mainly due to holes

 Entirely neutral
 I = Ih and nh >> ne
 Majority – Holes and Minority – Electrons
When a pure semiconductor is doped with a trivalent impurity (B, Al, In, Ga ) then, the three valence
electrons of the impurity bonds with three of the four valence electrons of the semiconductor.
This leaves an absence of electron (hole) in the impurity. These impurity atoms which are ready to
accept bonded electrons are called “Acceptors“.
With the increase in the number of impurities, holes (the positive charge carriers) are increased. Hence,
it is called p-type semiconductor.
Crystal as a whole is neutral, but the acceptors become an immobile negative ion. As conduction is due
to a large number of holes, the holes in the p-type semiconductor are MAJORITY CARRIERS and
electrons are MINORITY CARRIERS.
Examples of semiconductors
Examples of Semiconductors Elemental semiconductors include antimony, arsenic, boron, carbon,
germanium, selenium, silicon sulfur, and tellurium. Silicon is the best-known of these, forming the basis
of most integrated circuits (ICs).

Applications of Semiconductors
The properties of semiconductor materials make possible numerous technological wonders, including
transistors, microchips, solar cells, and LED displays. Semiconductor materials are the foundation of
modern day electronics such as radio, computers and mobile phones. Semiconductor material is used in
the manufacturing of electrical components and used in electronic devices such as transistors and
diodes. Imagine a world without electronics if these materials were not discovered.

ANTIBIOTICS
The word "antibiotics" comes from the Greek anti ("against") and bios ("life"). An antibiotic is a drug that
kills or slows the growth of bacteria. Antibiotics are used to treat or prevent some types of bacterial
infection. They work by killing bacteria or preventing them from spreading.
So antibiotics are used to treat bacterial infections. Used properly, antibiotics can save lives. However,
they do not work for everything, as they show their effect depending on the immunity of the organism.
When it comes to antibiotics, take your doctor's advice on whether you need them or not. The reason is
Antibiotic resistance, which is a big problem. Taking antibiotics when you do not need them can mean
they will not work for you in the future because bacterial DNA undergoes mutation with time. Penicillin
was the first antibiotic discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1928. These are used to treat many different
bacterial infections. Antibiotics cure disease by killing or injuring bacteria.

Classes of Antibiotics:
1. Bactericidal and Bactericidal Antibiotics
Antibiotics either kill bacteria or prevent them from reproducing. Some antibiotics are bactericidal,
meaning that they work by killing bacteria. An example is penicillin. Other antibiotics are Bactericidal,
meaning that they work by stopping bacteria from multiplying. Tetracycline is an example.

2. Broad-Spectrum and Narrow-Spectrum Antibiotics

Some antibiotics can be used to treat a wide range of infections and are known as broad-spectrum
antibiotics like ampicillin. Others are only effective against a few types of bacteria and are called narrow-
spectrum antibiotics like vancomycin.

Effects of indiscriminate use of antibiotics

The indiscriminate use of Antibiotics can be dangerous. It leads to, among others, Antibiotic Resistance,
which is resistance of bacteria against the effects of antibiotics. The WHO has cautioned against the
indiscriminate usage of antibiotics as over the counter medication. Many of the seasonal illnesses that
we get are due to viruses, which are not responsive to antibiotics. For instance influenza or common
cold is viral infection, which is not treated by antibiotics. But common man relies on use of antibiotics to
cure it.
This indiscriminate use has led to the evolution of resistance against antibiotics, creating what
pathologists have termed superbugs-bacteria resistant to a wide range and a high concentration of
antibiotics. These superbugs are now on the rise; multiple drug-resistant typhoid has been making its
rounds in Punjab and Sindh as of 2019. A strain of fecal bacterium E.coli has been found to be resistant
to colistin, the last line of defense in antibiotics.
Besides antibiotic resistance, some more common side effects of antibiotics are: nausea, vomiting,
abdominal pain, diarrhea, headache, and allergic reactions. The World Health Organization has
cautioned that the current practice of indiscriminate use of antibiotics is increasingly leading to
resistance to medicines, persistence of infections and treatment failure. Antibiotics also kill useful
bacteria present in intestine. This disturbs the natural flora of intestinal bacteria fauna.

Precaution for Indiscriminate use of Antibiotics

 Indiscriminate use of antibiotics can cause harm to the individual and to the society.
 Antibiotic should be taken only when prescribed by doctors.
 The schedule, such as dose, strength and time, should be followed strictly.
 The full course should be prescribed.
 Antibiotic should not be taken by self-medication.
 In case of adverse side effect, the antibiotics should be stopped and the physician should be
consulted immediately.
 No antibiotics are required for viral and non-infectious diseases.

PLASTICS
Plastic is any synthetic or semi-synthetic organic polymer. Plastics are a subspecies of a class of materials
known as polymers. These are composed of large molecules, formed by joining many, often thousands,
of smaller molecules (monomers) together.
Other kinds of polymers are fibers, films, elastomers (rubbers), and biopolymers (i.e., cellulose, proteins,
and nucleic acids). Plastics are made from low-molecular-weight monomer precursors, organic
materials, which are mostly derived from petroleum, that are joined together by a process called
"polymerization."

Types of Plastics
There are two main types of plastics.
 Plastics

Thermoplastics Thermosets

They are softened by heat and can be
molded. Good examples are acrylic,
polypropylene, polystyrene, polythene and
PVC.
They are formed by ha heat process but are
then set (like concrete) and cannot change
shape by reheating. Good examples are
melamine (kitchen worktops), Bakelite (black
saucepan handles), polyester and epoxy
resins.

Properties of Plastics
1. Light weight , 2. Flexible , 3. Anti-corrosive, 4. Durable, 5. Strong, 6. Inexpensive

Uses of Plastics
1. Packaging, 2. Building and construction, 3. Transportation, 4. Medical and health, 5. Electrical and
electronics, 6. Agriculture, 7. Sports and leisure etc

Examples of Plastics
1. Polypropylene
It is one of the most commonly used polymers. Its chemical designation is C6H3. The properties that
make it the most commonly used option are its rigidity and resistivity to many chemicals. It is used in
manufacturing food containers, bottles and containers' hinges, car fenders and plastic pressure pipes.
2. Polystyrene
It is a polymer made from styrene. It is used in making Styrofoam for packaging and making disposable
cups. It is also a common material for CD and Cassette cases.
3. Polyester
This is probably the one we hear the most about. Polyester is mixed with cotton and other natural fibers
to make a fabric. It is also used to polish high quality wood product.

CERAMICS
Ceramic is an inorganic non-metallic solid made up of clay that have been shaped and then hardened by
heating to high temperatures."

Classification of Ceramics
Ceramics can be divided into two classes. Traditional and Advanced.

Traditional
Traditional ceramics include structure clay products, silicate glass, cement, brick and tile, whitewares
and refractories.
Advanced
Advanced ceramics consist of carbides (SiC), pure oxides (Al2O3), nitrides (Si3N4), non-silicate glasses
and many others.
There is a variety of classification systems of ceramic materials, which may be accredited to one of two
principal categories: application base system and composition base system.

1. Application Base Classification of Ceramic Material

On the basis of applicability, ceramics are classified into two types: traditional and advanced ceramics.
Following figure shows detailed classification of application based ceramics.

Uses of Ceramics
Ceramics are all around us. This category of materials includes things like tile, bricks, plates, glass, and
toilets. Ceramics can be found in products like watches (quartz tuning forks-the time keeping devices in
watches), snow skies (piezoelectric-ceramics that stress when a voltage is applied to them). automobiles
(sparkplugs and ceramic engine parts found in racecars), and phone lines. They can also be found on
space shuttles, appliances (enamel coatings), and airplanes (nose cones). Depending on their method of
formation, ceramics can be dense or lightweight.

FERTILIZERS
INTRODUCTION
The International Fertilizer Association defines fertilizers as any solid, liquid or gaseous substances
containing one or more plant nutrients. They are either applied to the soil, directly on the plant (foliage)
or added to aqueous solutions, in order to maintain soil fertility, improve crop development, yield
and/or crop quality.
A fertilizer is any material of natural or synthetic origin that is applied to soils or to plant tissues to
supply one or more plant nutrients essential to the growth of plants.
 In the same way that humans need to eat properly to stay healthy, so plants need certain
nutrients to grow properly.
 Fertilizer is a substance added to soil to improve plant's growth and yield. Basically it is a
chemical or natural substance is added to soil or land to increase its fertility.
 Fertilizers are food supplements for plants and need 16 nutrients to be healthy. 2C Rain

Classification of Fertilizers
Fertilizers can be classified into two categories: organic and inorganic (minerals). Classification of
fertilizers is based on the nature of fertilizers as well as source from where they obtained and on the
compounds present in their nutritious elements.

A. Organic fertilizers 
Refer to carbon-containing materials that are mainly derived from plants and/or animals and applied to
Soil for the purpose of providing plant nutrients. Such as human excrement, poultry manure, compost
pile, green manure, urban waste, soil inoculation, etc.

B. Inorganic fertilizer
 Fertilizer marked with nutrients in the form of inorganic salts made by extraction, physical, and/or
chemical industrial processes. Such as urea, ammonium sulfate, ammonium bicarbonate, potassium
sulfate, borax, zinc sulfate, manganese sulfate, and so on.

Problems of Overusing Fertilizers

Fertilizer is usually good for most plants given its capacity to increase the yield. However, overuse can
harm as well. The nutrients fertilizer provides to plants can also damage them if used in excess.

1. Environmental Concerns

Excessive fertilizer that washes into storm drains eventually flows into bodies of water, such as
rivers and lakes, causing pollution. Although the environmental impact is much larger from the
overuse of fertilizers on farms. The misuse of fertilizer often has negative effects on fish and
other aquatic animals. Algae feed off of the nutrients in fertilizers, using up oxygen that fish and
other animals need. Additionally, ammonia released by fertilizer is harmful to fish.

2. Root Burn

Root burn is a condition in which the roots of plants suffer damage from the overuse of
fertilizers. Low-quality fertilizers often contain Urea, which is a source of nitrogen. It is not
organic and some plant roots are sensitive to it. But over fertilizing with high-quality fertilizers
can also lead to root burn due to an overabundance of soluble salts in the soil.

3. Plant Health
While the addi.ion of nutrients found in fertilizer increases plant growth, too much fertilizer can
negatively affect their health. Over fertilizing results in lower quality fruit.

4. Pests and Diseases

Plants that produce greener, more lush leaves because of over fertilization may attract more pests. The
increased vigor of the foliage (the leaves of a plant or tree) can attract unwanted insects, such as aphids,
which feed on the leaves.

VACCINE
The term vaccine has been derived from a Latin word "vaccinus" or "vacca" which means "cow or
pertaining to cow". This word was coined by Louis Pasteur after the successful administration of the first
ever vaccine for small pox using the cowpox virus by Edward Jenner.
Vaccine typically contains an agent that resembles a disease-causing micro-organism. These are present
to activate our immune system. It is often made from weakened or killed form of the microbe, its toxins
or one of its surface proteins. It can be defined as "a suspension of whole (live or inactivated) or
fractionated bacteria or viruses that have been rendered non-pathogenic, and is given to induce an
immune response and prevent disease."

Types of Vaccines
There are several types of vaccines as mentioned below:
1. Live Attenuated Vaccines (first generation)
Such vaccines are made up of live, attenuated (weakened) microbes (a microscopic organism, especially
one that transmits a disease) that cause a limited infection in the hosts and are ample for the induction
of an immune response but insufficient to cause disease in them. The disease-causing agents (living
microbes) are weakened in the lab instead of being killed.
Our immune system activates most efficiently when these are used. These can be administered through
oral route or through injections. For example, polio vaccine, MMR vaccine, BCG vaccine, smallpox
vaccine, chicken pox vaccine, measles vaccine, mumps vaccines. Just 1 or 2 doses of most live vaccines
can give you a lifetime of protection against a germ and the disease it causes.

2. Inactivated or Killed Vaccines (second generation)

Inactivated or killed vaccines can be produced by killing the disease-causing microbes with heat,
radiation or chemicals (formaldehyde). This destroys the pathogen's ability to replicate inside the host
body, but keeps it intact so that immune system still recognizes it. However they tend to provide a
short- term protection than live vaccines.
An example is the vaccine for Rabies Virus and hepatitis A. These vaccines differ greatly in efficacy. One
of the disadvantages of this type of vaccines is that they are required in large amounts to induce
immunity.

3. DNA Vaccines (third generation)

DNA vaccines are third generation vaccines, made up of bacterial DNA, plasmids. These vaccines use the
recombinant DNA technology by taking the gene for the desired antibody and cloning it. This kind of
vaccine works by incorporating itself directly into host DNA and thereby conferring immunity to the host
against the specified antigen. Recombinant DNA vaccines make use of vectors that are much like
plasmids. Most DNA vaccines are still in their experimental stages; their most important use is against
viral diseases. DNA vaccines for the Herpes simplex virus, influenza and its various types, hepatitis B,
rotavirus have been approved by the FDA and are being commonly administered. A DNA vaccine for the
Zika virus has also been developed.

Side effects of Vaccines

Common side effects of any vaccine can include:
 Injection site reactions (pain, swelling and redness)
 Shivering
 A high temperature
 Extreme tiredness (fatigue)
 Muscle and joint pain
 A headache
 immediate allergic reaction

TEETH
The teeth are the hardest substances in the human body. Besides being essential for chewing, the teeth
play an important role in speech. There is two general categorization for teeth:

1. Primary (deciduous / milky teeth): They are 20in number.

2. Secondary (permanent teeth): They are 32 in number.
Classification of Teeth
Teeth are classified into 4 major groups:

1. Incisors (central and lateral): They are 8 in number. They function as cutting or shearing
instruments for food.

2. Canines (cuspids): They are 4 in number and the sharpest teeth and are used for ripping and tearing
food apart.

3. Premolars (bicuspids): They are 8in number and used for chewing and grinding of food.
4. Molars: They are 8 in number and also used for chewing and grinding food. Third molar are
commonly known as wisdom teeth and are 4 in number.

NOSE
Nose is the organ which gives us sense of smell / olfaction. It is also part of respiratory system. The two
openings in the nose are called nostrils. They lead to two nasal cavities that are separated by the
septum. Nasal cavities lead into throat (pharynx).From throat into voice box (larynx) and then into
trachea and finally into lungs.
Air comes into the body through the nose. As it passes over the specialized cells of the olfactory system
called the olfactory cells, the information is passed to brain via olfactory nerve. The brain recognizes and
identifies smells. Hairs in the nose clean the air of foreign particles. As air moves through the nasal
passages, it is warmed and humidified before it goes into the lungs.

Process of smell
Air –nose—olfactory cells—olfactory nerve—brain

Disorders
 Deviated nasal septum DNS---a shifting of the wall that divides the nasal cavity into halves.
 Epistaxis---nose bleed
 Rhinorrhea---Runny nose caused by allergy
 Hyposmia---Reduced ability to smell
 Anosmia---inability to smell
 Common cold---viral infection

Tongue
Tongue is the organ of taste. It is a muscular organ used for tasting, licking, swallowing, and producing
speech. The surface of the tongue contains taste buds, which detect different tastes. These are
collections of nerve-like cells that connect to nerves running into the brain.
The four common tastes are sweet, sour, bitter, and salty. A fifth taste, called umami, results from
tasting glutamate (present in fish, shellfish, meats, mushrooms, vegetables (e.g., ripe tomatoes, Chinese
cabbage, spinach etc.) or fermented and aged products (e.g., cheeses). The tongue has nerves that help
detect and transmit taste signals to the brain. Different parts of the tongue detect different tastes.
Disorder
 Glossitis ---Inflammation of the tongue
 Oral thrush--- Fungal infection of tongue
 Tongue sores--- Ulcer formation

EAR
Ear is the organ which gives us the sense of hearing. It has 2 functions: hearing and maintaining balance
of the body.
Ear has 3 parts: outer ear, middle ear and inner ear.

1. Outer Ear
It consist of pinna (the part we see), ear canal and ear drum. The function of the pinna is to collect
sound waves and pass it on to ear drum via ear canal. When sound waves strike ear drum, it vibrates.
Cerumen is the ear wax produced in ear canal.

2. Middle Ear
It consists of three bones - incus, malleus and stapes. Vibrations from ear drum are passed on to these
tiny bones. (Stapes is the smallest bone of human body.

3. Inner Ear
It consists of 3 semi-circular canals, cochlea, and vestibular and cochlear nerves. Vibrations from the
bones is transferred to the inner ear from where information is sent to the brain via cochlear(auditory)
nerve. The vestibular nerve maintains balance of the body.

Process of hearing
Sound waves—pinna—ear canal—ear drum—ear bones—cochlea—auditory nerve—brain

Disorders
 Earache—pain in ear
 Tinnitus—ringing or roaring in one or both ears
 Otitis media—inflammation or infection of meddle ear
 Otitis externa—inflammation or infection of outer ear
 Otitis interna—inflammation or infection of inner ear
 Hypoacusis—Diminished hearing

Eye
Human eye is the organ which gives us sense of vision. The eysball can be divided into 3 layers: outer,
middle, inner.

A. Outer Layer: It consists of sclera (white portion of the eye) and cornea (clear, dome-shaped
covering at the front of the eye that lets in light.
 B. Middle Layer: consists of iris (present between the cornea and the lens. The iris opens and
closes the pupil (the small central opening) to change the amount of light entering the eye),
choroid contains blood vessels and supplies nutrients to retina) and ciliary body (muscular ring
that helps eye to focus by changing the size of the lens.
C. Inner Layer: It consists of Retina (where image is formed on a point called fovea). Information
is sent from retina to brain via optic nerve. Retina contains 2 types of cells:
i. "Cones' responsible for colour vision.
ii. ii. 'Rods' for night vision, when it is dark.

Process of Vision
Light rays---cornea---lens---retina---optic nerve---brain

Disorders
 Cataract—blurred vision
 Hyperopia / farsightegness—difficulty seeing near objects.
 Colour blindness—inability to distinguish between red, blue, and green.
 Photophobia—discomfort or pain to the eyes due to light exposure.

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The reproductive system is a collection of internal and external organs, in both males and females that
work together for the purpose of producing off-springs. The major function of the reproductive system is
to ensure survival of the species. The primary reproductive organs, or gonads, consist of the ovaries and
testes. These organs are responsible for producing the egg and sperm cells, and hormones These
hormones function in the maturation of the reproductive system and regulation of the normal
physiology of the reproductive system.

1. Female Reproductive System

It consist tubes, Uterus, cervix, and vagina) and external genitalia. Eggs (female sex cells) are produced
in ovaries and are transported to uterus via fallopian tubes. Ovaries produce female hormones, estrogen
and progesterone.

Diseases of female reproductive tract

 Cancer of ovaries
 Cancer of uterus
 Cancer of cervix and vagina
2. Male Reproductive System
The male reproductive system consists of: the testes, where sperms and male (testosterone) are
produced. The penis and urethra belong to both the urinary and reproductive systems in males. The
testes are carried in an external pouch known as the scrotum, where they normally remain slightly
cooler than body temperature to facilitate sperm production.

Diseases of male reproductive tract

 Testicular cancer
 Prostate cancer
  Infertility
 Benign prostatic hyperplasia/BPH (enlargement of prostate)

IMMUNE SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION
It is the system which is involved in providing immunity to body against foreign disease causing agents.
Any foreign agent that can cause disease is recognized by body as antigen and the agent which acts
against a specific antigen is called an antibody. When functioning properly, the immune system
identifies a variety of threats, including viruses, bacteria and parasites, and distinguishes them from the
body's own healthy tissue.

Components of immune system

The immune system is made up of a network of cells, tissues, and organs that work together to protect
the body. One of the important cells involved are leukocytes or white blood cells (WBC's). which help to
destroy disease-causing organisms or substances. WBC's are produced in the body, at thymus, spleen,
and bone marrow. For this reason, they are called the lymphoid organs.
The two basic types of leukocytes are:

1. Phagocytes: cells that chew up invading organisms

2. Lymphocytes: cells that allow the body to remember and recognize previous invaders and help the
body destroy them. There are two kinds of lymphocytes, T-cells and B-cells.

a. T-cells consist of Helper T-cells (help to activate B-cells) and Cytotoxic T-cells (recognize and attack
cancer causing agents).

b. B-cells consist of Mast cells (trigger inflammatory response) and Plasma cells (make and secrete
antibodies).
T cells are like the soldiers, destroying the invaders that the intelligence system has identified ala b cells
are like the body's military intelligence system, seeking out their targets and sending defenses to lock
onto them.

Types of Immunity
Humans have three types off immunity; innate, adaptive, and passives

1. Innate Immunity
Everyone is born with innate (or natural) immunity, a type of general protection. Many of the germs that
affect other species don't harm us. Innate immunity also includes the external barriers of the body, like
the skin and mucous membranes. Which are the first line of defense in preventing diseases from
entering the body.

2. Adaptive Immunity
The second kind of protection is adaptive (or active) immunity, which develops throughout our lives.
Adaptive immunity involves the lymphocytes and develops as people are exposed to diseases.

3. Passive Immunity
Passive immunity is "borrowed" from another source and it lasts for a short time. For example,
antibodies in a mother's breast milk give a baby temporary immunity to diseases the mother has been
exposed to. This can help protect the baby against infection during the early years of childhood.

Problems of the Immune System

Disorders of the immune system fall into four main categories:

1. Immunodeficiency disorders (human immunodeficiency virus infection HIV / acquired

immunodeficiency syndrome AIIDS.)

2. Autoimmune disorders (in which the body's own immune system attacks its own tissue.
as foreign matter)

3. Allergic disorders (in which the immune system overreacts in response to an antigen) such as,
asthma, eczema and seasonal allergies.

4. Cancers of the immune system such as leukemia and lymphoma.

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
Cardiovascular system consists of heart, blood vessels and the circulatory fluid (blood). Our bodies
actually have two circulatory systems: the pulmonary circulation is a short loop from the heart to the
lungs and back again; the systemic circulation (the system we usually think of as our circulatory system)
sends blood from the heart to all the other parts of our bodies and back again.

Composition of Cardiovascular System

It consists of Heart, Blood Vessels and Circulating Fluid (Blood).

A. Heart
Structure and Physiology (function) of Human Heart
The human heart is a muscular organ of the size of a clenched fist. It pumps the blood into blood vessels
which transport oxygen to all the cells of the human body. The oxygen is essential for the survival of
these cells. The human heart has 4 chambers: the upper two – the lower two - ventricles. The whole
heart is divided into left and right parts by a wall made up of tissues called as septum. There are three
layers of heart: outer epicardium, middle muscular layer is myocardium and inner endocardium.
The right auricle/atrium receives deoxygenated blood from all over the body by superior vena cava and
inferior vena cava. From the right atrium / auricle, the blood passes on to the right ventricle. The right
ventricle contracts and empties itself in to the pulmonary artery. Blood is then carried on to the lungs,
from where it picks up Oxygen. This oxygen rich blood is taken back to the left atrium by pulmonary
veins. From here, the blood is passed on to the left ventricle. The left ventricle empties itself in the aorta
which branches into small arteries and transports blood to all parts of the body. After one circulation is
completed, the blood loses all of its oxygen. This deoxygenated blood is taken back to the right side of
the heart)by superior and inferior vena cava and the circulation continues.

Systole: The process of contraction of ventricles and pushing of blood into aorta.
Diastole: Filling of ventricles.
Systole and diastole collectively make a cardiac cycle. One cardiac cycle completes in 0.8 seconds.

Causes of Heart Attack

1. High blood Pressure
The excess strain and resulting damage from high blood pressure (HBP or hypertension) causes the
coronary arteries serving the heart to slowly become narrowed from a buildup of fat, cholesterol and
other substances that together are called plaque.
As arteries harden with plaque, blood clots become more likely to form. When an artery becomes
blocked due to an accumulation of plaque or a blood clot, the flow of blood through the heart muscle is
interrupted, starving the muscle of oxygen and nutrients. The damage or death of part of the heart
muscle that occurs as a result is called a heart attack (myocardial infarction).

2. High cholesterol
High cholesterol causes narrowing of blood vessels. Cholesterol helps the body build new cells, insulate
nerves, and produce hormones. Normally, the liver makes all the cholesterol the body needs. But
cholesterol also enters the body from food, such as animal-based foods like milk, eggs, and meat. Too
much cholesterol in your body is a risk factor for heart disease.

3. High Cholesterol as a Cause of Heart Disease

When there is too much cholesterol in your blood, it builds up in the walls of your arteries, causing
atherosclerosis. The arteries become narrowed and blood flow to the heart muscle is slowed down or
blocked. The blood carries oxygen to the heart. If not enough blood and oxygen reach the heart, chest
pain occurs. If the blood supply to a portion of the heart is compromised by a blockage, the result is a
heart attack.

4. Age
Changes that happen with age may increase a person's risk of heart disease. A major cause of heart
disease is the buildup of fatty deposits in the walls of arteries over many years, which in turn causes
atherosclerosis. This causes high blood pressure, or hypertension, which becomes more common as we
age.

5. Family History
Genes can pass on the risk of cardiovascular disease, and they can also be responsible for passing on
other conditions such as high blood pressure or high cholesterol levels. There's no single gene that
increases risk of getting heart disease. It's likely that several genes are responsible.

6. Lifestyle choices
Unhealthy diet, obesity, physical inactivity, too much alcohol, tobacco use, and many more also increase
the chances of heart attack.

Symptoms of Heart Attack

The major signs of Heart Attack are:
 Chest pain
 Pain in the left side of chest, neck, jaw and left arm.
  Shortness of breath
 Cold sweat, nausea (vomiting)

Preventions
 Live a healthy lifestyle: eat healthy diet, maintain healthy weight, limit use of alcohol, don't
smoke and exercise.
 Cholesterol levels should be checked regularly.
 Control blood pressure
 Manage diabetes
 Take the prescribed medicines properly.
B. Blood Vessels
Arteries carry blood away from heart and veins carry blood towards the heart. All arteries except
pulmonary artery carry oxygenated blood. All veins except pulmonary vein carry deoxygenated blood.

Capillaries are thin fragile blood vessels that distribute blood to cells and tissues. They are the blood
vessels that transport blood from the arteries to the veins.

C. Blood
Blood is the circulating fluid composed of different constituents. It transports nutrients to and from the
cells.

Blood Pressure (BP)

"Pressure (force per unit area) exerted by the blood on the walls of blood vessels is called as blood
pressure".
The systolic blood pressure (110-140 mmHg) is higher than the diastolic blood pressure (60-90 mmHg).
The standard value for blood pressure in humans is 120/80 mmHg. Increased blood pressure value in
humans is called as hypertension whereas decreased value of BP is called as hypotension.

Heart Beat rate

A Brief Account of Human Physiology e Increased heart rate of more than 100 beats per minute is called
as tachycardia.
A slow heart rate of less than 60 beats per minute is called as bradycardia.

Functions of Blood
Blood has a number of functions that are central to survival.

1. Providing Oxygen
Blood absorbs oxygen from the air in the lungs. It then transports the oxygen to cells throughout the
body, and it removes waste carbon dioxide from the cells. In the lungs, the carbon dioxide moves from
the blood to the air and is exhaled.

2. Transporting Nutrients and Hormones

Blood plays a large role in digestion and endocrine system functions. Digested nutrients are absorbed
into the bloodstream through capillaries. These nutrients include glucose, amino acids, vitamins,
minerals, and fatty acids. Blood also transports some hormones secreted by endocrine system glands to
target organs and tissues.

3. Regulating Body Temperature

Blood absorbs and distributes heat throughout the body. It helps to maintain homeostasis through the
release or conservation of warmth.

4. Clotting
When a blood vessel tears, platelets, and plasma proteins work together to stop blood loss. Platelets
also called thrombocytes, clump and form a plug in the damaged area.

5. Providing Immunity
White blood cells, also called leukocytes, are the disease-fighting components of blood.

Blood Disorders
1. Hemophilia: a genetic disorder in which blood fails to clot due to deficiency of certain clotting
factors. The injured keeps on bleeding even on slight injury.

2. Thalassemia: inherited blood disorder in which abnormal haemoglobin is synthesized.

3. Anaemia: Deficiency of red blood cells or of haemoglobin in the blood resulting in body weakness.
4. Leukaemia: Cancer of body's blood forming tissues including bone marrow and lymphatic Chapter
10 system. Normal pH of blood is 7.35-7.45.

Composition of Blood
Here is a brief description of blood components:

Plasma
blood cells and platelets: Plasma Blood plasma is a yellowish liquid component of blood that holds the
blood cells in whole blood in suspension. It is the liquid part of the blood that carries cells and proteins
throughout the body. It makes up about 55% of the body's total blood volume.

Blood Cells
These are of two types: Red Blood Cells and White Blood Cells. Red blood cells carry oxygen. They
contain haemoglobin and it is the haemoglobin which permits them to transport oxygen (and carbon
dioxide). Red blood cells are also known as erythrocytes which have the function of transporting oxygen.
White blood cells are also known as leucocytes which have the function as a defense mechanism.

Platelets
An irregular, disc-shaped element in the blood. Platelets which are also known as thrombocytes have
the function to clot blood. During normal blood clotting, the platelets clump together (aggregate).
Although platelets are often classed as blood cells, they are actually fragments of large bone marrow
cells called megakaryocytes.
 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Digestive system consists of mouth (buccal cavity), salivary gland, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, liver,
pancreas, small intestine, large intestine, rectum and anus.

1. . Buccal Cavity
It comprises mouth, tongue and teeth. Food enters mouth and is chewed by teeth. The sense of smell
and taste stimulate salivary glands (secrete saliva). Teeth mechanically break down food into small
pieces. Tongue mixes food with saliva (contains amylase, which helps break down starch.
Epiglottis is a flap-like structure at the back of the throat that closes over the trachea preventing food
from entering it. It is located on the phyranx.

2. Pharynx
From the buccal cavity, food is pushed into pharynx. Swallowing action starts here.

3. Oesophagus
Oesophagus is the food pipe. Food is moved by rhythmical muscular (longitudinal and circular bands of
muscles) contractions called as peristalsis. When contractions move upward (known as anti-peristalsis)
process of vomiting takes place.
Oesophagus is approximately 20-25 cm long. Its functions include: Secreting mucus and moving food
from the throat to the stomach. If acid from the stomach gets in here that's acidity.

4. Stomach
Food from oesophagus goes to stomach. Stomach lies below the diaphragm and is widest part of
alimentary (food) canal and reservoir where food can be stored for 2 to 6 hours. Increased production
of hydrochloric acid causes acidity leading to heart-burn. From stomach, the food enters into small
intestine.

5. Small Intestine
From stomach, food enters into small intestine. It is 7m long tube and consists of three parts:
duodenum, jejunum and ileum. Maximum digestion takes place in small intestine. Food is broken down
and nutrients are absorbed. Bile duct and pancreatic duct open into duodenum together. It has finger
like structures on the inner surface due to which further absorption takes place. Digestion in small
intestine depends on pancreas, liver and gall bladder secretions.

6. Large Intestine
From small intestine, food enters large intestine. It is 1.5m long and consists colon, caecum, appendix
and rectum. Most of the water is absorbed here which was secreted by glands. Colon is divided into
ascending, descending and transverse colons before reaching rectum.

7. Rectum
Indigestible food or waste materials are stored here temporarily, to be ultimately removed out of the
body.

8. Anus
Indigestible food is expelled out from body through anus.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
A Brief Account of Human Physiology RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Respiration includes inhalation-Intake off
oxygen and exhalation-expulsion of carbon-dioxide. Air is taken inside through upper airways (nasal
cavity, pharynx and larynx) to lower airways (trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli. The pathway of
respiration is:

The Respiratory System helps you breathe. During inhalation, the human body breathes air which gets
sucked through the nasal cavity or the mouth. Then it goes through the trachea (wind pipe). The trachea
divides into tubes called bronchi which carry the air on to alveoli of each lung.
Oxygen from alveoli diffuses into blood capillaries and carbon dioxide from blood diffuses into alveoli
and is expelled out via expiration. Hence blood is purified (oxygenated) and alveoli receive carbon
dioxide from the blood. Exhalation is due to elasticity of lungs due to which they relax expelling carbon-
dioxide gained from the blood. Lung is the lightest organ of the body.

Amazing Facts about the Respiratory System

 Your right lung has three lobes and your left lung only has two.
 The right lung is a little larger than the left lung.
 A person sleeping almost always breathes twelve or fifteen times a minute.

Disorders of Respiratory System

 Asthma---Allergic disorder
 TB---Mycobacterium tuberculosis
 Lung cancer---Smoking

NERVOUS SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION
The nervous system is the highway along which your brain sends and receives information about what is
happening in the body and around it. It does this via the spinal cord, which runs from the brain down
through the back and contains threadlike nerves that branch out to every organ and body part. when a
message comes into the brain from anywhere in the body, the brain tells the body how to react. For
example, if you accidentally touch a hot stove, the nerves in your skin shoot a message of pain to your
brain. The brain then sends a message back telling the muscles in your hand to pull away.
It is a system that co-ordinates all body functions and is composed of: Neurons (nerve cells) and
Neuroglia (supporting cells).)Because neurons are extremely specialized cells that are essential to body
function and almost never reproduce, neuroglia are vital to maintaining a functional nervous system.

1. Neuron
Neurons, also known as nerve cells, communicate within the body by transmitting electrochemical
signals. Neurons look quite different from other cells in the body due to the many long cellular processes
that extend from their central cell body. The cell body is the roughly round part of a neuron that
contains the nucleus, mitochondria, and most of the cellular organelles. Neuron consists of: soma (cell
body), axons and dendrites (fibers).

a. Cell Body: Cell body is a simple cell like structure, consisting of cytoplasm and nucleus.

b. Axon: It is a long process with myelin sheath and conducts impulses away from the body. Long
transmitting processes called axons extend from the cell body to send signals onward to other neurons
or effector cells in the body.

c. Dendrites: Mall tree-like structures called dendrites extend from the cell body to pick up stimuli from
the environment, other neurons, or sensory receptor cells.

2. Neuroglia
These are supporting cells and supply nutrients to neurons that maintain its electric potential. Neuroglia,
also known as glial cells, acts as the "helper" cells of the nervous system. Each neuron in the body is
surrounded by anywhere from 6 to 60 neuroglia that protect, feed, and insulate the neuron.

Types of nervous system

Nervous system is divided into two main types: Central nervous system which includes brain and spinal
cord, and Peripheral nervous system which includes cranial and spinal nerves.

Central Nervous System

The central nervous system is divided into two parts: The brain (90% water) and the spinal cord.

1. Brain
The brain, a soft, wrinkled organ that weighs about 3 pounds, is located inside the cranial cavity, where
the bones of the skull surround and protect it. The approximately 100 billion neurons of the brain form
the main control center of the body. The brain and spinal cord together form the central nervous system
(CNS), where information is processed and responses originate.
Brain has two hemispheres-right and left. Left hemisphere controls the right side of the body and right
hemisphere controls the left side of the body. The brain is divided into three main parts, the cerebrum,
the cerebellum, and the brainstem.
a. The Cerebrum (or Forebrain)
It is the largest portion of the brain consisting of two halves or hemispheres. It has 4 lobes: frontal,
parietal, temporal and occipital. It controls major functions (Thought, Voluntary movement, Language,
Reasoning and Perception.

b. The Cerebellum
It is the part of brain consisting of two lateral lobes and a central lobe. It is the regulator of body
movement, balance and posture.

c. The Brainstem
It is the portion of the brain that is continues with spinal cord and comprises the medulla, oblongata,
pons and mid brain. It regulates vital functions of the body (Breathing, Heart Rate and Blood Pressure).

2. Spinal Cord
The spinal cord is part of the central nervous system (CNS), which extends caudally (towards lower limb)
and is protected by the bony structures of the vertebral column. The spinal cord is about 43 cm long in
adult women and 45 cm long in adult men and weighs about 35-40 grams.

Disorders of Nervous system

 Dementia---Loss of memory
 Migraine---Localized headache
 Brain tumor---tumor of brain, can be benign (less life threatening and is localized ) or malignant
(life threatening)

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
A gland is a group of cells that produces and secretes, or gives off, chemicals. A gland selects and
removes materials from the blood, processes them, and secretes the finished chemical product for use
somewhere in the body.
Although release influence almost every cell, organ, and function of our bodies. The endocrine system is
instrumental in regulating mood, growth and development, tissue function, and metabolism, as well as
sexual function and reproductive processes.
In general, the endocrine system is in charge of body processes that happen slowly, such as cell growth.
Faster processes like breathing and body movement are controlled by the nervous system. But even
though the nervous system and endocrine system are separate systems, they often work together to
help the body function properly.

Parts of Endocrine system

1. Pituitary Gland
The hypothalamus, a collection of specialized cells that is located in the lower central part of the brain, is
the primary link between the endocrine and nervous systems. Although it is no bigger than a pea, the
pituitary gland, located at the base of the brain just beneath the hypothalamus, is considered the most
important part of the endocrine system. It is also called master gland.
 2. Thyroid Gland
The shape of the Thyroid is like a bow tie or a butterfly and it is located in the front part of the lowa
neck. It releases 2 hormones.

a. Thyroid Hormones Thyroxin (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3): Thyroid hormones also play a key
role in bone growth and the development of the brain and nervous system in children.
b. Calcitonin Help parathyroid to regulate the calcium level.
3. Parathyroid Gland
Attached to the thyroid are four tiny glands that function together called the parathyroids. They release
parathyroid hormone, which regulates the level of calcium in the blood with the help of calcitonin,
which is produced in the thyroid.

4. Adrenal Glands
The body has two triangular adrenal glands, one on top of each kidney. The adrenal glands have two
parts, each of which produces a set of hormones and has a different function.

The outer part, the adrenal cortex, produces hormones called corticosteroids that influence or
regulate salt and water balance in the body, the body's response to stress, metabolism, the immune
system, and sexual development and function.

The inner part, the adrenal medulla, produces catecholamines, such as epinephrine. Also called
adrenaline, epinephrine increases blood pressure and heart rate when the body experiences stress.
Epinephrine injections are often used to counteract a severe allergic reaction.

5. Pineal Gland
The pineal body, also called the pineal gland, is located in the middle of the brain. It secretes melatonin,
a hormone that may help regulate the wake-sleep cycle.

6. The Pancreas
The pancreas produces (in addition work together to maintain a steady level of glucose, or sugar, in the
blood and to keep the body supplied with fuel to produce and maintain stores of energy.

7. The Kidneys: kidneys produce:

a. Calcitriol: It stimulates calcium and phosphate ion absorption in digestive tract.
b. Erythropoietin (EPO): It stimulates red blood cell production by bone marrow.
c. Renin: It converts angiotensin to angiotension-I which is converted to angiotensin-II that elevates
blood pressure, promotes thirst and stimulates production and release of aldosterone by adrenal gland
and ADH by pituitary gland.

8. Thymus
It releases thymosins which help develop and maintain normal immune defense.

9. Gonads
 The gonads are the main source of sex hormones. The male gonads, also called as testes, are located in
the scrotum. They secrete testosterone that distinguishes the changes associated in the male body like
puberty, penis and height growth, deepening throat and growth in pubic and facial hair. There are
ovaries in the females. Located in the pelvis, it produces eggs and secretes the hormone estrogens,
when the girl reaches her puberty.
Any changes in normal mixture of hormone significantly alters intellectual capabilities, memory,
learning and emotional states.