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Distribution of Wings (Subsonic Lifting-Surface Theory) : Methods For Calculating The Lift
Distribution of Wings (Subsonic Lifting-Surface Theory) : Methods For Calculating The Lift
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A,R.C. T~ImwalRelm~
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MINISTRY OF SUPPLY
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Methods for Calculating the Lift
Distribution of Wings
(Subsonic Lifting-Surface Theory)
By
H. MULTHOPP
H. MULTHOPP
Summary. This report contains some fairly simple and economic methods for calculating the load distribution on
wings of any plan form based on the conceptions of lifting-surface theory. The computer work required is only a small
fraction of that of existing methods with comparable accuracy. This is achieved by a very careful choice of the positions
'of pivotal points, by plotting once for all those parts of the downwash integral which occur frequently and by a
consequent application of approximate integration methods similar to those devised by the author for lifting-line
problems.
The basis of the method is to calculate the local lift and pitching moment at a number of chordwise sections from
a set of linear equations satisfying the downwash conditions at two pivotal points in each section. Interpolation
functions of trigonometrical form are used for spanwise integration both in setting up the downwash equations and in
getting the resultant forces on the wing from the local forces. The preliminary chordwise integrations for the downwash
are predigested in a series of charts (Figs. 1 to 6) ; it is these which make the method a practical computing proposition.
The theory is outlined in sections 2 to 5 ; section 6 deals with the solution of the linear equation and section 7 with
the resultant forces on the wing. Some examples are worked out in section 8 to compare with other methods; one
solution is given in full detail in Tables 8 to 30 as a guide for computers. Appendices I to VI discuss more carefully
some salient points of the mathematical theory, and AppendLx VII is intended to instruct the computer how to carry
out the steps of the calculation.
2. The I~tegral Equatiora of the Liftir~g Surface.--The problem of finding the wing shape for
a given load distribution is relatively easy and can be solved directly b y integration. But for
the more interesting inverse problem--to find the aerodynamic load distribution for a given
aerofoil geometry, no direct solution seems possible except for very special plan forms. This is
the case with almost all such coupled problems of the potential theory: if it is easy the one way
round then it leads to an integral equation for the inverse question. It is not always the more
interesting problem which is more difficult; e.g., the pressure distribution about a wing due to
its thickness distribution m a y be found by integrating over sinks and sources proportional to
the slope of the local thickness only, whereas the solution of an integral equation is required in
order to determine the thickness distribution for a given pressure pattern.
A s an introduction to the mathematical problem a concise derivation of the basic equations of
lifting-surface theory does not seem out of place here, although it is not intended to indulge too
much in conceptional details for which the reader is referred to Prandt114 and BurgerslL
Let x, y, z be a n orthogonal system of axes so t h a t the x-axis coincides with the direction of
undisturbed flow relative to the wing in its plane of symmetry (if it has one, otherwise the origin
must be arbitrarily chosen in the wing surface) ; the z-axis points upwards almost perpendicular
to the wing area which is supposed to have zero thickness and small camber and twist. The
local velocity vector is split up into the undisturbed velocity U and the three small additional
components u, v, w in the direction of the respective axes. The assumption t h a t u, v, w are small
compared with U is a necessary condition for a linearisation of the whole problem ; as we ah-eady
know from two-dimensional aerofoil theory this is not a serious restriction except near the speed
of sound.
To the pressure field around the wing belongs a velocity field which can be found b y integrating
the linearised Euler's equations of the motion of a fluid relative to a body :
au 1 ap _ 0
U~ +pax
av 1 ap (1)
U~x + p a y - - O
~w 1 ~p _ 0
U~ +paz
These equations are derived from the complete Euler's equations b y neglecting the terms
which contain products of the u, v, w and their derivatives. In the same way we obtain the
continuity equation"
U 8p 8u 8v 8w
p =°" .. . . . . . . . . (2)
(63370) A2
Since no heat transfer within the fluid is assumed, and frictional effects are .neglected we can
consider p = p(~b) or/~ = ~b(p) the connecting relation being
dP a2 ..
~p - .. . . . . . . (3)
where a is the speed of sound, which again comes out as constant for u < < U. The differential
dp/p of the Euler's equations can also be considered as the differential of the enthalpy I of the
flow element so t h a t the Euler's equations are transformed into
3u 31
U~x+~=O
av ~/
U ~ + ~-~ = 0 . . . . . . . . . . (4)
U ~3w+ ~ 3I
= o
while the continuity equation gives"
U 8I 3u 3v ~w
a 2 3x + ~ +7 +b7 =0 . . . . . . . . . . . (s)
These four equations can be combined b y differentiating the first three with respect to x, y and z
and the last again to x so as to give
( U 2) ~I 32/
3x---~ 1 - - -~- + - -ay2 + - -3z
~/ = 02 . . . . . . . . . . (6)
which for U/a = constant, can be transformed into the usual Laplace equation in three dimensions
b y reducing e.g., y and z proportional to ~/(1 -- U=/a2) (Prandtl-Glauert rule). We can concen-
trate, therefore, in the following entirely on the incompressible case U/a < < 1.
Within the limits of the linearised theory I is given b y
I_ / = P - - 1 boo
p~ . . . . . . . . . . (7)
/co, ~b®, p o~representing the undisturbed flow far enough away from the wing. Thus for all practical
purposes the enthalpy field is equivalent to the pressure field. A sufficiently thin wing, the
aerodynamic load of which is different from zero, may, therefore, be described as a discontinuity
surface in the enthalpy potential field which satisfies the Laplace equation. A discontinuity
surface in a potential field is usually built up b y a sheet of doublets with their axes normal to
it; the intensity per unit area of these doublets is proportional t o the enthalpy difference on
either side and, thus, to the local load density. We m a y call
ap
l= ~pv 2 . . . . . . . . . . (s)
the non-dimensional load per unit area; the /-field is, then, determined b y the condition t h a t
the discontinuity of I through the wing surface is
U2
d / = - ~ 1. .. ,. . . . . . . . (9)
Since I is a solution of the Laplace equation in three dimensions we m a y write down the equation
of the /(x,y,z)-field b y integrating over the elementary fields of doublets; for a doublet at
x = x0, y = Yo, z -----0 with its axis in the z-direction, this elementary field is known as
--1 z
4~ [(x - x012 , + (y - yo)2 + z~]~/,-
4
Thus we have
-- zU ~ l(xo,Yo) dXo dyo
- - + (y - yo)' + . . . . . . (lO)
Xo, Yo being the co-ordinates in the wing plane. In using (10) for the enthalpy we are in effect
replacing the curved sheet of the wing by its projection on the plane z = O, see sketch. To this
approximation the flow given by (10) at the point Q must be the same as the actual flow at the
point P of the wing. In particular if the local incidence -- az/3x of the surface at P is c¢ we
must have
. =-- w/U. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (11)
Z
),
O~ U+u
, ,Z
f (~ t '~l ---
o
Q "×.v,o~
S e c t i o n t h r o u g h y ---- c o n s t .
The downwash velocity w is now obtained b y integrating the third of the Euler's equations (4) :
This implies the obvious assumption t h a t w = 0 at x = -- oo, i.e., undisturbed flow far enough
upstream of the wing. In the wing plane, i.e., for z = 0 we find :
~I -- 1 l(Xo,yo) dxo dyo
g/(x',y,O) - 4~ .v s [(x' - x0) '~ + ( y - y0)2~3/~ . . . . . . . . . (13)
Thus we find the downwash integral from equations (12) and (13) as
-lrr l(Xo,yo) {1 + X - Xo }
(z(x,y) _ 8~ JJs (y - yo) ~ .v/E(x - xofl + (y - yo)~l dxo dyo. .. (18)
This integral contains a strong singularity at y --+Yo which makes it intractable in this form.
B y a more careful approach than it was thought necessary to give in detail here, it can be shown
that a ' principal value ' for these integrals can be defined ; thus, we are going to understand t h a t
fl f(Yo)dyo lira {f'-" f(Y,)dyo ~b f(Yo)dyo 2f(~)l
(y- yo)' .+o_ o (y-yo)' +.+.(y- yo?- . . . . .
wherever integrals of this type occur in this report. Dr. Mangier was kind enough to contribute
a less objec{ionable derivation of these relations which is added in Appendix I.
5
Thus, equation (15) gives us the local incidence distribution of the wing for a given load distri-
bution l. If, as usual, not the load distribution but the local incidence distribution is given we
m a y consider equation (15) as the integral equation for determining the load distribution l(x,y).
But this is not enough. We must bear in mind t h a t there may be m a n y functions l(x,y) which
satisfy equation (15). As in two-dimensional theory we have to add a trailing-edge (Kutta-
J0ukowsky) condition stating the simple physical fact t h a t at sufficiently high Reynolds numbers
and moderate angles of attack we do not observe any flow around the trailing edge, i.e., the
downwash behind the wing is a continuation of the angle of incidence at the trailing edge. The
easiest way to respect this condition is to admit only such load functions which disappear towards
the trailing edge.
3. The Distributio~¢ of Pivotal Poi~ts.--There is little hope of finding direct and complete
solutions of our integral equation (15). The best thing we can do is to choose a limited number
of independent load distributions out of which we construct linear combinations so as to satisfy
the integral at a certain number of so called ' pivotal points '. The more of these points we take
into account the more independent load distributions are available, i.e., the more accurate will
be the resulting load distribution. On the other hand the computing effort is roughly proportional
to the square of the number of pivotal stations ; therefore, we have to find a reasonable
compromise.
The pivotal points should not be arbitrarily chosen because the calculation methods depend
largely on this choice. It is fairly obvious t h a t a concentration of most or all of these pivotal
points in one part of the wing will hardly give a reliable solution in other parts of the wing.
An absolutely equi-distant distribution of them might also not produce the best results; the
kernel function of our integral equation is hardly of a type to suggest that.
As to the spanwise distribution of pivotal stations it is very unlikely t h a t we can find abetter
distribution t h a n t h a t which we used in the lifting-line theory, because the dominating part of
the kernel function of our integral equation is the term 1 / ( y - yo) ~ which occurs also in the
lifting-line theory. There we found the best distribution of pivotal points by equally dividing
the semi-circle over the wing span, Ref. 1.
This choice had some important advantages over any other distribution of the same number of
stations, namely:
(a) haK the coefficients of the sum representing the downwash integral in our approximate
integration method were zero
(b) the system of equations t h a t replaced the integral equation could always be solved by
an iteration process instead of b y elimination.
If we succeed in securing these advantages also for our lifting-surface downwash integrals
this would mean a reduction of the computer work required to a small fraction of what was
needed otherwise.
Because the aspect ratio of most of the wings under discussion is, although small, nevertheless
greater t h a n one, the number of chordwise stations must be even more restricted t h a n the number
of spanwise stations, for what counts most towards the computing effort is the total number of
pivotal points, which is the product of the number of spanwise and chordwise stations. This
means t h a t it matters very much where the chordwise position of these pivotal stations will be.
We know already from two-dimensional aerofoil theory t h a t with regard to forces and moments
the rear parts of the wing skeleton count much more than the front parts and this tendency is
even more pronounced with wings of small aspect ratio. Since we have a fully developed theory
only for the infinite aspect ratio we take these results to decide about the chordwise position
of our pivotal stations, the number of which is supposed to be very small.
6
F o r reference we begin b y repeating some well-known results of t h e two-dimensional aerofoil
theory. The skeleton line being given b y z(x) b e t w e e n 0 < x < c we obtain t h e local d o w n w a s h
w / U = dz/dx from t h e integral
w - 1 f° l(x') d x '
F(x)-- 4~ . x--x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (17)
(:) --
w ao
U -- 4
:
~ E a,~ cos n~p . . . . . . . . . . .
(20)
1
Lift a n d pitching m o m e n t s about t h e q u a r t e r - c h o r d point are given as follows
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
These results are fairly well k n o w n from t h e classical analysis of t h e t h i n aerofoil in two-
dimensional flow b y B i r n b a u m , M u n k and Glauert. If we express a0, a: and a2 b y Fourier analysis
from equation (20) we obtain t h e well-known Munk's integrals for lift and pitching m o m e n t .
B u t the problem t h a t interests us is s o m e w h a t different" supposing we h a v e only a limited n u m b e r
of points along t h e chord where e can be given, h o w are these to be placed so as to obtain lift and
perhaps also the pitching m o m e n t as 'accurately as possible ?
Let us first consider the case of only one chordwise station. Since it is t h e c u r v a t u r e of the
skeleton line which determines the m o m e n t we c a n n o t expect to obtain t h a t from t h e incidence
at one station only. B u t we can d e m a n d t h a t
CL = K , ~(_~1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (23)
should be fulfilled as best possible; comparing equations (23) a n d (21) we see t h a t for
K = 2~
N1
and c -- 0.75 (cos ~0 = -- 0 . 5 or ~0 = §~) . . . . . . (24)
CL=K~.~ +K2.c~
(x,)
c . . . . . . . . . . (25)
and
C~,~ = K 3 ° 0 ~ ( ~ -1) + K 4 . g ( ~ ) . . . . . . . . . . . (26)
The condition that these two equations are compatible with equations (21) and (22) for any
a0, a~, and as values gives six equations for the unknown K ~ . . . K4 and (x~/c), (x.,/c). The solution
is:
K1 = -}-a(1 + ~ 5 ) - - : +4"5466
K3 = -- K~ -- 2%/5 -- -- O"7025
and
xl 5 + %/5 ]
c = 8 - = 0-9045 (~ol -- }a)
[j .. oo .. • (28)
x~ _ 5 -- %/5
c 8 -- 0-3455 (~o~= ~ )
With this choice of the pivotal stations we have the advantage that we can assess the lift distribu-
tion with the first two terms a0 cot ~/2 + al sin 9 and the omitted third term cannot affect the
lift coefficient nor the moment coefficient, i.e., this particular choice of two chordwise stations
is roughly as good as any arbitrary choice of three such stations.
As a rule we can regard the representation of the skeleton line by a parabola of the second or
third order as quite satisfactory. The main practical case requiring some more care are wings
with flaps or aileron. This case will be dealt with in Appendix II.
If we want to take more than two chordwise pivotal points into account in order to find out
some more details about the pressure distribution along the chord it can be shown that for p
pivotal points their best distribution is given by
2~n
%~=2p+ 1 n---- 1 , 2 , 3 . . . p .
4. The Chordwise Integration of the Downwash.*--To do the chordwise integration first and the
spanwise part afterwards seems the most obvious way in dealing with equation (15). The main
advantage of this sequence is the fact that the spanwise integral is thus brought very close to the
downwash integral of the lifting line for which excellent numerical methods are already existing.
* These influence functions have been recalculated by the Mathematics Division, N.P.L., and are now available in
the form of tables. For accurate work the use of these tables is recommended, and copies can be obtained on application
to the Aerodynamics Division, N.P.L.
8
It m a y be worth mentioning t h a t in supersonic aerofoil theory another possible w a y - - t o begin
with conical fields which are integrated mainly in spanwise direction--yields the better results,
owing to the fact t h a t the downwash in a n y pivotal station is only affected b y singularities in its
forecone.
The first thing we have to do is to choose some appropriate function for the chordwise load
distribution which m a y be put into the downwash integral equation (15). The most natural
choice is the load functions which occur in two-dimensional aerofoil theory, equation (19). For
the greatest part of the wing a couple of these functions should describe the chordwise pressure
distribution at least as well as any other arbitrarily chosen family of functions. The only practica !
exception is the very central section of a swept-back wing where the pressure at the leading edge
does not run up into the usual suction peak ; but it seems to be better to stick to some uniformity
in the assumptions of our calculations and make some readjustments later if necessary rather
than to over-emphasise what is only a very local effect.
.... (29)
• ol l ( x o , y o ) 1 + ~ / [ ( x - - x0) ~ + (y - - y0) ~] dxo ..
(x0~ = leading edge, x0~ = trailing edge of inducing wing section, Yo = const/. For our further
convenience we can introduce some auxiliary non-dimensional co-ordinates X, Y
x--X--X°1 y y--Y0 and X0 Xo--X0l . . . . /30)
lyo) ' - c(yo) ' =C(yo)
with
= cos -1 (1 -- 2X0) .... . . . . . . . . . . (is)
but no pitching moment about the quarter-chord point. We are relating the chordwise part of
the downwash integral with the load distribution l0 equation (31), to the (CLc)-value at Yo; this
integral m a y be called the influence function i :
This is an elliptic integral the reduction of which to tabulated standard integrals is so complicated
and lengthy t h a t direct computation by graphical and numerical methods was indicated except
for a few special cases.
9
A second load distribution may be given by the second term of equation (19) or any com-
bination of the first two terms. A fairly convenient distribution is the one which gives a pitching
moment but no lift, namely
11 = a l [ c o t ~ - - 2 s i n g ] . . . . . . . . . . . . (35)
with
CL~ = 0 C,,,, = a~. ~/8 . . . . . . . . . . . (36)
For this second load distribution we define another influence function j :
1 f~0~ { X--Xo }
j(x,y,yo) -- C,,I .c (Yo) J*o,l~(x°'Y°) 1 + %/[(x -- Xo)~ + (y -- yo)~] dxo .. (37)
which may be transformed into
4 f ~ ( 2 c o s 2~ + c o s ~ - - 1)(2X-- 1 +cos~o) d~0
j(N,Y) = ~ 0 %/[(2X -- 1 + cos ~)~ + 4Y~] .... (38)
which again, as the previous one, had to be calculated numerically and graphically.
For large Y-values we have calculated the i- and j-functions by series expansions for Y = oo.
~31"~ already obvious that for large Y the induction of a wing section loaded accordingto equation
may approximately be represented by placing a concentrated load in the quarter-chord
point; this gives the asymptotic value for i
X 1
i~ = 1 + ~/[(X -- ~-)?+ Y~J . . . . . . . . . . . (39)
If we introduce for simplicity
1X
A-- g
Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (40)
equation (37) may be written in the form
i----i~ ~ f , (yA-)]
f2(A) 4_f3(A)
y~_ y~ + . . . . . . . . . . . (42)
with
[ Oi ] 1 i f ( 1 + cos g) (2 cos ~0 -- 1) d~
A(A) = O(17Y) Y = ~ - 47~ o (1 + A~) ~/~ =0
1 F
f~(A) = ~ L~(1-7-y2)jr= -- 32u( 1 +
_ -3A
A)5/fo (1 +cos ~o)(2cos 9 -- 1)~d~
- - 3A
-- 32(1 +A~)5/2
1 1 -- 4A ~ • (43)
fa(A) -- 128 (1 --}-A~) TM
15A 3 -- 4A'-
/~(A) ---- 2048 (1 + A2) 0/2
--9 1 - - 12A 2 + 8 A ~
fs(A) -- 4096 (1 + A~) 11/2 etc.
10
A similar series d e v e l o p m e n t for large Y-values can be m a d e with j(X,Y) and gives"
j ( A , 1 ) = g~(A) +g ~ ) + g~(A)
y
y--r- + o • , . . . . . . o* (44)
with
1 15A 3 - - 4A ~
g~- (1 + A 2 ) ~/2 g~ = - 256 (1 -+-A~) 9/~
3A 90 1 - - 12A" + 8 A ~
(45)
g2 - - 8(1 + A~) 5/~ g5 - - 4096 (1 + A~) n/2
- - 3 1 - - 4A ~
g3- 32 (1 + A ~ ) 7/2 etc.
The results of these calculations are p l o t t e d in a series of diagrams, Figs. 1 to 6, in which i and
j are shown as functions of Y with X as parameter. The scales are so chosen as to suit the accuracy
requirements of t h e final calculation where these diagrams are widely used.
I t is diffficult to obtain a series d e v e l o p m e n t for small Y-values. The values of i and j at
Y = 0 are easy: in equation (38) and (37) the factor in brackets is either 2 or zero :
limIl+ X--Xo ] = {2 x0<x .. (46)
,+,0 ~/[(x - Xo) ~ + ( y - yo?~ 0 Xo < x . " "
Thus, with
~0~ = cos -z (1 '2X)
we obtain
i(x,o) = -2 (1 + c o s = 2_ + sin
32
-- ~ XI/~(1 X ) ~/~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . (48)
(49)
~X CL ~ . . . . . . . . . . . .
(X,0) = 2 11 _ 16 (1 -- 4 X ) ~ / ( 1 - - X ) (so)
~X C,, ~ X . . . . . . . .
and:
~i 2 1
gX ~(X,O) = -- ~ X3/%/(1 __ X) . . . . . . . . . . . . (51)
~J (X,0) 8 1 -}- 4 X -- 8 X ~ (52)
~x ~ = - 7~ x 3 / % / ( 1 - x) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5. The Spanwise Integration of the Downwash.--5.1. The Regular Part of the Downwash
IntegraL--After having concentrated the chordwise part of our downwash integral (15) into the
influence functions i and 2"we are now on fairly well-known ground with the rest of the integration
because something very similar has already been worked out in the lifting-line theory. With
the influence functions i and j the downwash integral is reduced to
-- 1 [~/~ (CLc)(y') . i(x,y,y') dy' 1 [b/~ (C~,c)(y') --, fix,y,~) dy' (56)
- J_ /2 (y - y,)2 (y _ . .
plus further expressions of a similar pattern if we consider more than two independent chordwise
load distributions. With the restriction to only one of them we have to deal with only the first
integral. For convenience we m a y introduce the non-dimensional co-ordinates
y x
-- b/2 and ~ -- b/2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (57)
and a non-dimensional lift per unit span (circulation)
I" CLc _
7 -- bU 2b . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (58)
to which a corresponding expression for the pitching moment per unit span m a y be added
C,,~c
- 2b . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (sg)
Written in these non-dimensional units the downwash integral (15) is now
- 1 fl &' 1 (60)
~(~'V)-- 2 £ -1 (V--V')~ --2-~ -i (V--V')~ ....
Since both integrals have very much the same shape we treat them in quite the same manner.
The following discussion of the first integral applies to the second with the substitution of ~ and j
for ~, and i respectively.
The problem of finding a convenient method of working out integral (60) m a y have, and has
indeed, m a n y possible solutions. As usual in such problems there exists no absolute criterion to
decide which is the best possible method. The only thing we can do is to compare the time
required for computing with the accuracy, reached. The method presented here is the result of
such comparisons; m the author's opmmn it gives the most favourable correlation between
12
accuracy and computing effort for a given number of stations at which the integral equation is
to hold exactly. An alternative method is described in Appendix V; it needs much more work
but might be slightly more accurate.
The main part of our spanwise integration is based on the approximate integration method
for the ' induced angle of attack ' of the lifting-line aerofoil theory as developed b y the author
some time ago ~. This induced angle of attack is given by
O J t g q Q
. . . . . . . . . . (61)
n -
O n e can easily prove the identity of both expressions b y partial integration keeping in mind
the definition of the second-order principal value, equation (16). The downwash integral equation
(15) and this induced angle of attack differ only in the factor i(n,~') which is a fairly continuous
q u a n t i t y varying only within the limits 0 < i < 2. It is, therefore, only natural to apply the
integration methods developed for cc~ also to our downwash integral b y considering the
(7 •/)-distribution as roughly equivalent to another 7-distribution. Due to the continuity and
finiteness of i this (7 •/)-distribution has all the typical features of a y-distribution, especially
its proportionality to the square root of the distance from the wing tips near these tips.
Thus, if we introduce the usual angular co-ordinate
0 = cos -1 ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (62)
we m a y well assume t h a t not only y but also (y. i) m a y be represented b y a sum
(y. i) = E a~ sin ~0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (63)
to a fair degree of accuracy without too m a n y terms of this development being needed. The a~
are, of course, functions of the pivotal station.
Although fairly simple for general discussions such series developments are usually not so
convenient when it comes to the actual calculation. If we consider the values of (y. i) to be
given at a limited number of stations we can find values between these stations either b y working
out a series development with as m a n y terms as stations are given or b y using different
interpolation functions. The latter is the way which is successfully done in the lifting-line
theory 1. Since the original report might not be available it was thought advisable to repeat the
essential theory in Appendix IV ; the principle results are quoted in the following discussion.
" n=O
-I I
- 2
0'~--2 m-t-1
and
This n u m b e r i n g of the stations is more convenient t h a n the system used in t h e lifting-line theory,
since it works from t h e essential s y m m e t r y of t h e system, ~ = -- ~_,~.
i) =
nt--1
(7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (6s)
2
(~,. i). being t h e value of (r. i) at the n-th interpolation station and g~(O) the interpolation
function belonging to this n - t h station. Its essential feature is the fact t h a t its value is u n i t y
at the n - t h station and zero at all t h e others. A function which goes t h a t way and has the
required t e n d e n c y towards t h e wing tips is given by
sin 0 ~ sin (m @ 1)0
g,~(O) = - - (m ~ 1) cos (m -t- 1)0,~ cos 0 cos 0~"
- - . . . . . . . . (66)
This function, being proportional to sin (m -t- 1)0, vanishes at all stations except 0,, and it can
easily be proved t h a t
lim sin (m + 1)0 (m ~- 1) cos (m -t- 1)0,,
0÷0,~ cos 0 -- cos 0 , ~ - -- sin 0, •. . . . . . . (67)
Since t h e integrals in t h e sum do not contain the (y. i) function a n y longer b u t in its stead the
interpolation functions g~(O) we can work out these integrals numerically for any value of 0
which seems interesting. The most practical proposal is to calculate the downwash at t h e
interpolation stations which are thus chosen as pivotal points; if we do so we see t h a t only
14
the integral over the interpolation term belonging to the pivotal station itself gives a positive
contribution to ~, all the others give either negative contributions or zero. In agreement with
the previous paper on lifting-line theory we write for the downwash at the vth spanwise station"
m--I
2
~ = b..(~, . i). - - Z' b.~(~, . i),, .. . . . . . . . . . . . . (71)
m--t
2
where
m +1 m +1
b ~ = 4 sin 0r = w . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (72)
4 cos - -
m+l
sin0n " I n - - ~1= 1 3, 5 , . . . .
b~,, = ( ~ + 1 ) ( c o s 0. - - c o s 0~? '
----0 in-- v[=2,4,6 ....
as shown in Appendix IV. The stroke at the sum symbol is to remind us that the value for
--- n is to be left out. Bearing in mind that t h e influence function i in the product (y. i) is
in fact also a function of v we may write
(~,. i),~ -- ~'n. iv, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (73)
and obtain thus:
m -- I
The only serious objection we can raise against this approximate method of integration concerns
the behaviour of the function i(~',~) near the pivotal point, i.e., for ~ ' - + ~ . Apart from the
logarithmic singularity of i/(~' - - ~)~ which is not covered by the interpolation polynomials we
must consider how far the representation by interpolation polynomials may be relied on. It
is quite obvious that we can not expect the interpolation functions still to work if the function
represented shows an irregular behaviour between two interpolation stations, i.e., the interpolation
stations must be placed so closely together as to miss no essential feature of the function. In
this respect we have to expect more trouble from the influence functions i(~') than from the
circulation ~; as a rule i(~') has a m a x i m u m in or near the pivotal point and two inflection
points on either side of it; for the usual chordwise positions of pivotal stations these inflection
points are to be found at about
Y = 0.2 to 0.25
measured from the inducing section, see Fig. 2. To avoid an appreciable distortion of the
interpolated function the distance between two spanwise stations should not be wider than the
distance between the points of inflection. This rule means in practice that the distance between
two spanwise stations should be less than about 0" 4 or 0" 5 wing chords. Accordingly the number
of spanwise stations should be about three times the aspect ratio or more, since we apply the
lifting-surface calculations mainly to wings with a moderate aspect ratio this is not too heavy a
condition.
+K,
(b)2
~ (~-=~')=lnl~--~'l+ .... (78)
This first of the logarithmic terms is not affected b y the angle between the line of pivotal points
and the direction of undisturbed flow because in a two-dimensional development of i(X,Y)
from a point on the wing section Y = 0 all lower derivatives (e.g., Oi/OX, a'i/OX ~, O=i/OXOY)
are finite except a=i/aYL
The downwash integral is effected b y this first logarithmic term because the factor (~ -- ~')~
just cancels the denominator so t h a t an integral over in I~ -- n' ] is left. F o r t u n a t e l y this integral
is finite even without the principal value although the logarithm becomes infinite at ~' -- ~.
Since the logarithmic infinity of a second derivative is not very noticeable in a n y plotting
of i(~'), (see the i(Y)-curves in our diagrams Figs. 1 and 2) we m a y reasonably assume our
interpolation functions to represent (y. i) fairly well with enough interpolation stations except
for the immediate neighbourhood of the pivotal station ~ . Here we add to t h e interpolation
functions for y . i a correction A (~,. i) containing m a i n l y the logarithmic singularity, e.g., for
the i n t e r v a l ~ ~< ~' < V,,+l:
with
! t
q/t - - or u - . . . . . . . . . . . . (78)
we obtain •
A~.-- ~d " ' \ 2 Z ) ('~+~-'~"-dfo ( a - u ~ ) ' l n ~ a u . . . . . .. (79)
184
The numerical value of the last integral can be easily worked out as -- 225 -- -- 0.818; thus
A ~ is "
A e V = 0"1302 y~K1 ~ (~+~ -- ~_~) . . . . . . . . . .. (80)
[ (b). t 2
.. (81)
16
For simplicity we write
2
~,=b~,7~i.-- ~' b.~i~.7. .. .. . . . . . (s2)
m--1
2
The correction terms usually account for about 5 or 10 per cent of the total downwash ; this is
an effect well worth considering but small enough to be still a correction only.
The neglect of this correction usually affects more the absolute value of all results than their
spanwise distribution. But the additional work required for this correction is such a small
fraction of the total calculation that it hardly ever pays to leave it out.
5.3. The Central Section of Swept W i n g s . - - W e have not yet mentioned any peculiar features of
the central section of swept wings although in some other methods of calculating the lift
distribution this point is dealt with rather carefully. Indeed the treatment of this region of the
wing depends on the basic physical meaning of the model used to represent the wing. If for
example, the lifting system is built up of kinked vortices we shall certainly have to reckon with
singularities in the downwash along the section in which these kinks occur; thus sowle com-
pensating functions are necessary to eliminate what is, in fact, the result of an unsuitable physical
model.
17
(63370) B
What is really unusual or difficult to assess in the local distribution in the middle part of a
swept wing ? If the local incidence is continuous across the middle section equi-potential lines
or lines of constant pressure cannot have a kink on this section as one can easily see from the
potential equations. In fact, all available pressure measurements on swept wings show, clearly
this tendency. Curves of constant pressure are curved and have no kink; if the wing is sym-
metrical they cross the middle section at right-angles. The only irregularities occur near the
leading and trailing-edge corners but these are of a very local nature.
With our method of approach to the lifting-surface problem we are luckier th.an perhaps we
ought to expect. Because we use our interpolation polynomials, equation (65), throughout for
the representation of the (~. i) and (!-*• j)-functions no discontinuity across the middle line can
occur. Thus, for the greater part of the median section we can meet the physical reality better
than with an artificial vortex system. Because we satisfy the integral equation of the lifting
surface only at a limited number of pivotal stations and because by our interpolation polynomials
only the geometrical wing characteristics at these sections enter into our calculations, we calculate
in fact the downwash of an ' interpolated w i n g ' which coincides with the real one only in these
pivotal sections. All the characteristics of this interpolated wing are accordingly continuous
functions of the spanwise co-ordinate, "i.e., are rounded off in the middle of the swept wing.
The only question worth considering is whether this rounding off through our interpolation
methods i~ done in the right way. If we represent a thoroughly continuous function, i.e., a
function which is continuous even in its derivatives, by series development or interpolation
polynomials the approximation can be very good indeed from a c_ertain number of matching
stations upwards. With discontinuous functions or functions with a discontinuity in the first
derivative we observe some typical defects in the representation by interpolation polynomials
near the discontinuity. If the station of a kink is one of the points at which the given and the
interpolated function coincide the agreement between the two will be poor in the two neighbouring
intervals until the next matching stations however high the number of stations and accordingly
the number of polynomials used might be. If the value of the given function has a m a x i m u m
at the kink the interpolated function will exceed it in these two neighbouring sections. The
situation is illustrated in Fig. 7, where the function to be interpolated is 1 -- [~1, having a kink
at K. The broken curve is the interpolation function when it is arranged to pass through K,
and it is clear that we shall get a better approximation to the function between the kink K
and the next matching station P if we make the interpolation function pass through some point
K' below K, thus rounding off the kink. We want to know how to choose K'.
To decide this question we are free to introduce an additional condition about the interpolation
functions. Because the interpolated function mostly differs from the given one with the kink
in one direction only it appears reasonable to demand that the area under the interpolated curve
is equal to that under the given one. With our interpolation polynomials this is the case if K K '
is roughly 1/6 of the vertical distance between K and P. This is proved in Appendix VI.
So this seems to be the best we can do about the middle of swept wings: we round them
slightly off according to this rule. Instead of calculating with the actual geometrical data of the
middle section we substitute a central section the chordwise co-ordinates of which are to be
found by :
~o - - ~ ~o goom + ~. ~1 . . . . . . . . . . . . (87)
where suffix 0 refers to the centre-section and suffix 1 to the next interpolation station. This
applies to leading and trailing edge as well as to the chordwise pivotal stations.
The thus calculated loads of the middle section must, of course, be transferred again to the
actual geometrical section ; the natural condition is that the centre of pressure must not be shifted
and that the total lift per unit span remains unaffected.
The same 1/6-rule can be applied to other than central kinks in the wing contour if these happen
to fall upon any of our spanwise control stations.
18
6. The Calculation of the Lift Distribution.--Instead of considering the equations (82) or (83)
as formulae for finding the downwash values ~ we m a y just as well t a k e them as a system of
equations to determine the ~'s, ~,'s with the downwash c~, being equal to the given local incidence.
Thus, the original integral equation (15) is approximately replaced b y a system of linear equations
the solution of which is obviously much simpler.
Regarding the different terms of equations (82) or (83) we see t h a t from the wing geometry
the i,, j,~, i,,, j,~ and c~ are fixed once the system of pivotal points is chosen, thus leaving as
unknowns only the ~. and with two chordwise pivotal stations also the ~,,. The choice of the
pivotal points is again mainly a question of the wing geometry. Tile number of spanwise stations
m should be about three times the aspect ration or more as stated before. For low aspect ratios
and for wing plan forms differing widely from the conventional straight wing two chordwise
stations are always advisable. With respect to the computing effort one will usually reduce the
number of pivotal points to the needed minimum ; for this we can give at the moment only these
rather rough rules for want of enough experience. F a M y detailed comparative calculations
for a series of typical wings with varying numbers of stations will bring some more reliable rules.
It is clear without a mathematical proof t h a t an increase in the mlmber of pivotal points gives
a more accurate result. If one is in doubt whether the number of stations chosen is sufficient a
repetition of the calculation with a different number of points should show where we are. If
tile difference in the results is considerable the number of pivotal points was not enough.
The first preparatory step in the actual calculation consists in the tabulation of the geometrical
wing data we need for the calculation of the i~ and j , according to equation (86) and the
determination of the i,~ and j,, from charts, Figs. 1 to 6. As entries into these diagrams we
compute firstly for each i,, or j,. required
2c, /b . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (88)
Xv n ~ *¢~v (pivotal point) - - X n (leading edge)
Cn
With two chordwise stations we have two X-values for one Y-value.
Since the course of solving the system of equations differs according to whether one or two
chordwise pivotal points are used we will discuss the two solutions separately.
6.1. One Chordwise Pivotal Point at 0.75c.--We can rearrange the system of equations (82)
b y dividing each equation b y b, i,~ and obtain thus •
m--i
.<',~
. . . . . . . . . . (96)
t h e system of equations
2 m--1
g ' A.~y.,, , v = 0, 1, 2 --- (97)
0 " " " 2 " "
with
Av i~
avv ". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (98)
and
n# 0
. . . . . . . . . . (99)
avO i,,o
X4vO - - .__
iv,,
F o r the a n t i s y m m e t r i c a l cases we find similarly from
. . . . . . . . . . ( oo)
Yv = -- Y-,
t h e system of equations:
m--1
2
m--1
7, = Av~, + E'A.~y., = 1, 2, 3 . . . 2 . . . . . . (lO1)
1
with
Av. =
Svv
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (202)
A n t i s y m m e t r i c a l load cases are usually due to u n s y m m e t r i c a l aircraft m o v e m e n t s (rolling,
y a w i n g , etc.) or aileron action.
If the resulting s y s t e m of equations (97) or (101) contains only a few u n k n o w n s (up to five)
we solve it best b y elimination. H e r e the fact t h a t half of the G,, are zero is an essential help.
T h e equations for the y~ w i t h an even suffix contain only y,-values w i t h odd suffixes on the
r i g h t - h a n d side and vice versa. Thus b y inserting the ~,~ expressions for odd v s into t h e equations
for yv w i t h e v e n v's we h a v e only one or two equations for t h e ),'s w i t h even suffixes left, the
solution of which is a m a t t e r of routine and needs no f u r t h e r explanation.
20
(
W i t h a h i g h e r n u m b e r of u n k n o w n s a solution b y i t e r a t i o n is t h e m o s t c o n v e n i e n t course.
W e begin, for e x a m p l e , w i t h a r o u g h guess of t h e r - v a l u e s w i t h an e v e n suffix; these first
e s t i m a t e d values m a y be called 70 [01,7.o E0], 7~ ~01 . . . . P u t t i n g t h e s e values i n t o t h e e q u a t i o n s for
t h e 7~ w i t h o d d suffixes v we o b t a i n a first a p p r o x i m a t i o n of t h e s e 7~, 73, 75 . . . . w h i c h we call
n - : 0, 2, 4, 6
7~ m = A~o~, + E ' A,,,~,~ [°1, "'" (103)
0 v=1,3,5 ... "" ""
I n t h e s a m e w a y we o b t a i n t h e first a p p r o x i m a t i o n of t h e y0, 72, 7~ . . . . . with"
m -- i
2 n= 1,3,5
y , ElI = A,c~, + E1' A,nyn rll,
~=0,2,4... "'"
.. .. (104)
T h i s process m u s t be r e p e a t e d u n t i l t h e difference b e t w e e n successive a p p r o x i m a t i o n s b e c o m e s
negligible"
2 n=0,2,4
7~ c~ = A~c~ + E ' A~7~ m, """
o o v=1,3,5...
m--1
7~ t~1 = A~ +
-~-
E ' A j ~ E~1,
n: 1,3,5
"" " (1o5)
1 v=2,4,6...
m-- i
2 n:0,2,4...
7~[3] _ A#~ + X'A.~7,~m, v = 1, 3, 5
0 • • •
etc.
This process is always c o n v e r g i n g to t h e r i g h t solution. Slide-rule a c c u r a c y s h o u l d suit m o s t
p r a c t i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t s ; e v e n m o r e helpful w o u l d be an a u t o m a t i c calculating m a c h i n e w h i c h
allows t h e store of coefficients A,,.
W e can r e d u c e t h e c o m p u t a t i o n a l effort a g r e a t deal b y using o n l y t h e differences of t h e first
successive steps, e q u a t i o n s (103) a n d (104), for f u r t h e r calculations" after c o m p u t i n g
A [1]7,, : ~n [1] __ 7n [0], ~ : 0, 2, 4, 6 . . . . . . . (106)
at t h e e n d of t h e first t o - a n d - f r o calculation we c o n t i n u e w i t h
m--I
0,2,4...
A E~Jy~ = E ' A~,,A Et] 7 . , v = 1,3,5...
0
m -- I
--ff-
A [2]y~ = ~ , A . ~ A E217 ~ , n = 1,3,5 .. .. .. (107)
0 ~' ==
0,2,4...
m--2
A raly~ _
2
~ , A ~.A E21y,~,
f/,~
0,2,4...
0 V =: 1,3,5...
etc. T h e 7,~ are e v e n t u a l l y
7,~ = Y. m _}_ A [~l 7~ + A E317 . A t41 y,~ -I- . . . . . . . . . . . . . (10s)
T h e m a i n a d v a n t a g e of this m o d i f i c a t i o n is t h e fact t h a t t h e A r , are small a n d n e e d to be c o m p u t e d
o n l y to a few valid decimals ; t h e p r o d u c t s A~,~A7, c a n be r e a d off at a glance o n t h e slide rule
e v e n w h e n t h e u p p e r p a i r of scales (scales of squares) are u s e d in order to a v o i d m o v i n g tile
slide for all p r o d u c t s w i t h t h e s a m e Ay,,. A d i s a d v a n t a g e of this m o d i f i c a t i o n is t h e necessity
of a c h e c k for reliable c a l c u l a t i o n s ; in t h e first s c h e m e ally errors expire a u t o m a t i c a l l y , w h e r e a s
w i t h t h e differences s c h e m e we h a v e to check t h e final results b y i n s e r t i n g t h e m into t h e Original
s y s t e m s of equations.
21
If the convergence of the iteration process seems too slow we m a y cut it short by extrapolating
the rest of the A~,,~ along the geometrical series
1
- - 1 + x + x~ + x ~ + . . .
1--x
x being the ratio of two consecutive d~,,~ ; if A t~ ~, be the last difference computed we write
approximately
y,, -- y~[~ @ A [2j r~ q_ A Lal y, + . . . (AEa~ 7")~
q_. A [a~ y, _1_ A Ea-ily,_ d Eajy,~ • .. (109)
m--I
jT;V t
~v It - -
i,,'.j,/' -- i.".j,'
. . . . . . (11o)
"7--it
ZVP
i vv !
• It " !
i.'.j./' --% .2.
With these figures and the coefficients a . and a .... e q u a t i o n s (91) a n d (92) each pair of equations
(83) is transformed into •
m -- 1
2
r.--a.(Z,a~ -Z.~) + X' '" ' - "" "
m -- 1
_-g--
m -- 1
2
+ E' "l'" ' "" "
m-1
--g-
. . . . . . (111)
m--1
- 2
m--I
-V-
m--1
o
we write abbreviating"
m -- 1 ~n - - 1
0 0
with
B.,, - a.,,(Z/</ -- Z/'</') + a. _.(<'<_,/ - U i . , _,/')
we write correspondingly
m--1 m--1
0 0
(114)
m--1 m--I
1 1
T h e iteration process for the systems of equations (112) or (114) is t h e same as for (97). We
s u b s t i t u t e only the B .... etc., for t h e A~,, in e q u a t i o n (103) . . . (107).
The spanwise stations 3'~ counting from some assumed wing centre are n o w :
y,, = . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (119)
Of course, t h e influence functions i and j are not affected b y changing t h e spanwise reference
length. Only the correction terms for the i , and j , in equation (84) contain t h e s p a n as reference
length which m u s t be replaced b y d; we thus obtain instead of equation (84)" ,
i~ = i , -- 0"1302K1 .2~
8 ~
d () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (120)
The equations (86) are, therefore, to be modified; for (b/2c~) 2 we write (d/c~) ~ and for
[sin O~/(m + 1)~ [~-~ -- ~+~J we have always 2/~, e.g., for the 0.75c station"
W i t h one chordwise pivotal point at O. 75c we have now t h e infinite system of equations
co ~vlV
!
8c~ + ~ a ~ __ ?~' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (123)
Replacing the y, Y0 and z in equation (10) b y y v ' ( 1 -- M2), y0~/(1 -- M ~) and zv'(1 -- M 2) we
obtain
_ l(Xo,Yo) dxo dyo . .. (125)
= - M2) ffsE(x - Xo)2 + (1 _ M~)(y - yo)~ + (1 - M~)z~l~/~
Since equation (12) as an integration of equation (4) is still valid we h a v e instead of equation (15)
eventually"
- 1 l(*0,yo) I x- ~o }
(y -- yo) 2 [ ~/[(x -- Xo)~ + (1 -- M~)(y -- y0) =] dxo d y o . . . (126)
The compressibility factor (1 -- M 2) appears only in t h e square root b u t not, for example, as a
factor to t h e d e n o m i n a t o r (y -- yo) 2. This means t h a t only our ehordwise integrals i and j are
affected. I n s t e a d of t h e expression (29) we find integrals like
~: - - X0
F r o m which c~0 and CM 0 can be d e t e r m i n e d w h e n CM 1, dCM/dCr, CL, and dCL/doc are known.
W e shall now consider t h e calculation of dCL/do: a n d dCM/dCL in detail. The caiculation of CL
and CM 1 is on similar lines.
w i t h t h e usual definitions
L S
CL--½pU~S and A-.b ~
this leads to
l
If 7 is s y m m e t r i c a l in ~ we h a v e instead :
2~A ~n
C~ - ~ T 1 + ,,~-1
y~ c o s m + 1 .. (133)
5.
or for a n t i - s y m m e t r i c a l y-values"
m--1
~cA 2
Cz -- 2(m q- 1) 211 y" sin 20,,. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . (136)
26
The pitching moment of the wing is affected by 1' and/~. The chordwise position of the centre
of pressure of any section is given by
x~o = 0 . 2 5 - ~ / 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (137)
For the whole wing we find the moment about the y-axis by:
M = ½p U 2 "-~/
[~/~ [Co~ ~ - C~cx~/~] d y . . . . . . . . . . . . . (138)
It is often useful to define the centre of pressure, i.e., the centre of gravity of the load distri-
bution ; for the load belonging to the constant incidence case this is the ' aerodynamic centre'
Its t-co-ordinate is"
m--1
COS - -
Ein -- 1
v,,-C,./. --= ,~,, -b- m+l
~c.p. ~ 2
m--I ° °
. . . . . . . . (141)
2 %7g
E_l ~',, cos m +-----1
--K-
~A T- 'Pg't;
-- m -t- 1 E_, 7~;~ cos m
- q- - l " .. (143)
2
(equation (71) for i = 1); with the G,, introduced in equation (92) we derive t h e n from
G,, = 4 b , , / ( m + 1) . cos v~/(m + 1)"
~.d T s
CD { -- 4 m--1 m--1 m--1
. . . . . . (145)
-T- ~ 2
since every product y~y, appears twice and a,,, = a,~, we m a y also write
m -- 1 m -- 1 ~ -- 1 7
-T -~- s
~A
C~ = ~- .. (146)
m--I m--I m--I
2 - T - T
~'=~1, 3,5... ; ~= 0 , :[: 2, 4, 6 . . .
2 1 2 2
~t
.. (147)
2
n=O, 4-2,4,6
The thus calculated induced drag can be compared with the difference of t h e c o m p o n e n t of t h e
lift in t h e direction of flow and t h e suction force at the leading edge which can be approximately
assessed as follows; the suction force involves only t h e t e r m in cot 9/2 ill the expression for the
chordwise load, or in other words the lift corresponding to the flat plate. We thus have,
1 dS CL 02
½p U~c d y 2~ (-- CL o c~ for flat plate)
where Q 0 is t h e lift due to the cot 9/2 term. Now from equations (31) and (35), and using
equations (32) and (36),
g~
= CL + 4C~z
_ 2b (~ + 4 ~ ) .
6
28
Q ,,
Inserting this in t h e e q u a t i o n for dS/dy we have,
(7 + 4/~) 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . (148)
Cs - l p U=c d y -
A ~- n~
C= = + 1) :c (,.+ COS
re+l"
.. (15o)
m--1
----g-
A further case which was calculated with our method for two chord-wise pivotal stations is an
infinite 45-deg swept wing of constant chord, Fig. 9. The loss in the lift distribution in the wing
centre is considerable and extends to spanwise stations far away from the middle. The local
aerodynamic chord line approaches more quickly the c/4 line. No other theoretical values for
this case are available except Schlichting's middle function9 which appears to be a rather crude
approximation. Some new more detailed calculations of this ' middle function' which are not
yet published come much nearer to our load distribution. The only experiments which are
comparable to some extent (wind-tunnel corrections are difficult to assess) show fairly good
agreement (J. Weber, Ref. 17).
A last example is added in order to show the practical course of calculation. The whole calcula-
tion is set out in Tables 8 to 30, which are used in Appendix VI to develop a detailed set of in-
structions for computers' use. In Tables 8 to 12 we find the details of the computation for the
symmetrical load distribution of an arbitrarily chosen wing calculated with 1 X 15 pivotal
points. The arrangement shows the three stages of the calculation : in Form 1 all the geometrical
data of the wing are collected together with those coefficients which are only a function of one
station. Form 2 contains the computation of the coefficients which depend on two stations;
the X~,, Y,, are the co-ordinates of the v-th pivotal point measured in chords at the n-th section
with the leading edge of that section as origin. The i,, are taken out of the Figs. 1 to 3. In Form
3 the solution of the system of equations is demonstrated.
30
Tables 13 to 22 contain the calculation for the same wing with 2 × 15 pivotal stations. Ill
Tables 23 to 30, the calculations have been extended to give the asymetric load distribution
produced by ailerons on the same wing (see diagram of Table 23). The results of the whole
calculation are shown in Fig. 10.
These sheets may be used as a guide for those who merely want to calculate special cases
without bothering about the underlying theory. In these examples the calculation is carried
through with about one decimal more than usually required mainly because a calculating machine
was used. As a rule the whole computation can be done with a slide rule although calculating
machines may reduce the work still further. For calculations with a slide rule only, the time
required for tile first load distribution for a given wing plan form was found to be roughly one
minute times the square of the numbers of pivotal points considered, provided one knows how
the calculation is to be done.
31
10. NOTATION
Y
/
/
f
X,y,z Rectangular co-ordinates system attached to the wing
X In the direction of undisturbed flow in the plane of symmetry of the wing
Y In the starboard direction
Z Upwards in the plane of symmetry
U Velocity of undisturbed flow relative to the wing
~,V,W Additional velocities produced by the wing in the direction of the x , y , z - a x e s
~X - - aZo/aX (local) wing incidence, Zo(X,y) describing the wing skeleton
Pressure
p Density
Speed of sound of the flow about the wing
I Enthalpy of the unit volume
Ppressure side - - # suction side
l ½pU s Non-dimensional load per unit area of the wing
b Wing span
c Wing chord (usually a function of y)
21 Angle of sweep
x/½b
y/½-b Non-dimensional co-ordinates related to the semispan
REFERENCES
No. A ¢t~hor Title, etc
1 H. Multhopp . . . . . . Die Berechnung der Auftriebsverteilung yon Tragflfigeln. Luftfahrtfor-
schung, pp. 153-169. 1938. Translation: A.R.C. 8516.
2 H. Blenk . . . . . . Der Eindecker als tragende Wirbelfl~iche. Z.A.M.M., Vol. 5, p. 36. 1925.
3 W. Kinner . . . . Die kreisf6rmige Tragfl~che auf potential-theroetischer Grundlage. I ~ .
Arch., Vol. 8, p. 47. 1937.
4 K. Krienes . . . . Die elliptische Tragfl~che auf potential-theoretischer Grundlage. Z.A.M.M.,
Vol. 20, p. 40. 1940.
5 R. Fuchs . . . . . . Neue Behandlung derTragfliigeltheorie. Ing. Arch., Vol. 10, p. 48. 1939.
and: Neue Berechnung des Abwinds am Fliigel. FB.1035. 1939.
6 T. H. yon K~rm~n .. Neue i)arstellung der Tragfliigeltheorie. Z.A.M.M., Vol. 15, pp. 56-61.
1935.
7 J. Weissinger • .. .. Uber die Auftriebsverteilung yon Pfeilfltigeln. FB.1553, 1942. Trans.
N.A.C.A. Tech. Memo. 1120. 1947.
8 W. Mutterperl . . . . The calculation of span load distributions on swept-back wings. N.A.C.A.
Tech. Note 834. 1941.
9 H. Schlichting and W. Kahlert Calculation of lift distribution of swept wings. A.R.C. 12,238. 1948.
(Unpublished.)
10 B. Thwaites A continuous vortex-line method for the calculation of wings of arbitrary
plan form. A.R.C. 12,082. 1949. (UnpuNished.)
11 V. M. Falkner The calculation of the aerodynamic loading on surfaces of any shape.
R. &M. 1910. 1943.
V. M. Falkner Calculated loadings due to incidence of a number of straight and swept-back
wings. R. & M. 2596. June, 1948.
12 H. C. Garner Methods of approaching an accurate three-dimensional potential solution
for a wing. R. & M. 2721. October, 1948.
13 H. C. Garner Theoretical calculations of the distribution of aerodynamic loading of a
delta wing. R. & M. 2819. March, 1949.
14 L. Prandtl Theorie des Flugzeugtragfliigels im zusammendrfickbaren Medium.
Luftfahrtforschung, VoI. 13, pp. 313-319. 1936.
15 J. M. Burgers Division E of Durand's Aerodynamic Theory, Vol. II. Berlin, Springer, 1935.
Esp. Chapter I I I .
16 V. M. Falkner The use of equivalent slopes in vortex-lattice theory. R. & M. 2293.
March, 1946.
17 J. W e b e r . . Pressure measurements in the centre region of a 45 deg swept-back wing
with lift. R.A.E. Tech. Memo. Aero. 58.
18 K. W. Mangler afad B. F. R. Some remarks on Multhopp's subsonic lifting-surface theory. R. & M. 2926.
Spencer. August, 1952.
33
(63370) C
APPENDIX I
Contributed by W. Mangler
On the Second-Order Princ@al Value for the Downwash Integral, Equations (15) and (16)
w -if* aI
T: (x,y,8 - u-~ __o~-~ (*',y,8 d~'
w_
u (.,y,z) = Z(Xo,yo)
{1+ VE(x -
x -- Xo
xo) 2 + (y - yo) ~ + z ~]
} ~a; ( (Yo - y)~ + z ~) dxo dyo
The first of these integrals can be integrated b y parts with respect to Yo:
-- ~ r:"'°'
J-b/2 ~ o L J~, (vol l(Xo,Yo) t1 ÷ V E ( x _ Xo)~ ÷ ( y _ yo) ~ _l_ z~] } ]
dxo (Yo - - Y~) + z"
The first of these three terms is zero because the lift l(Xo,Yo) disappears towards t h e wing tips
(Yo--~ + b/2). If we now consider t h e limit z - + 0 the t h i r d integral too is vanishing and t h e
second is given by t h e Cauchy's principal value:
34
With
(*t (y") X- Xo
f(Yo) = j.,(yo)l(xo,yo), ( 1 + .V,[( x _ xo)' + (y -- yo)']) dxo
J b +f b
= lim f(Y s) f( ')
-- (') f(Y -- + e) "-" f(Yo) dyo (b/'f(Yo)dyo
.+o , b b --, f - , / . ( y - - Yo)' J,+. (Y " Y o ) '
Y+~ Y-2
Because the lift disappears towards the wing tips we have f(-- b/2) = f(b/2) = O. If f (Yo) is
a continuous function we have also for a small e.
2f(y)
--+~f"....
8
35
(6aa7o) c 2
A P P E N D I X II
bT/U
as the factor b y which the flap angle is to be multiplied to obtain the equivalent angle of incidence.
There exists ample theoretical and experimental material about this quantity for m a n y types
of flap.
. it
With two ch0rdwise pivotal points in the standard positions we can do rather better. We
m a y choose the c~ values (~' at the rear pivotal point and c(' at the front one) so as to obtain in
two-dimensional flow the lift and pitching moment which are produced by the flap. ~' and ~"
are obtained from equations (25), (26) if for Cr and C,, we substitute CL ~ and C,,,~, the values
produced b y a flap angle ~ : - -
= + KJ'
C~ ~ = K.o:' + K#" .
-- 2~ ;Tr,
. _ 2 +cL (VS+l)
but CL d2~ is ~, the incidence required to produce the same lift as $.
Hence
~' ---- ~ - - 0" 393C,,,
W' : ~ + 1"030C,,~
or ill differential form
&,.' d~ dC.~
dO - - dO - - 0 " 3 9 3 d-T
d~" do: dC~
dd - - dd + 1" 0 3 0 d--g-
36
OC,,/ad is also frequently measured. Since it is usually negative the flap deflection appears
mainly in the rear pivotal point (~') as we should expect. A few typical values are calculated
with the theoretical values of dc~/dO and dC, Jo~ for hinged flaps:
Oct'
0.608 0.802 0-913 0.979 1.015
~ ct"
--0"160 --0-109 0 0"143 0"303
We cannot expect to find also the whole pressure distribution of the wing with flaps b y this
simplified method but the resuking forces and moments should be fairly accurate as long as we
have no flow separation, etc., since the application of the simpler lifting-line theory gave already
fairly reliable values.
If more than two chordwise pivotal points are used at each spanwise station we can satisfy
some more conditions about the equivalent incidences. Falkner 16 who had to deal with the
analogous problem for his vortex-lattice method takes also the hinge moment into account
besides the lift and' pitching moment.
It follows from this chordwise representation of incidence t h a t if the wing is at zero incidence
with a flap angle, pivotal points inboard of the flap will have zero incidence, while those in the
part of the span occupied b y the flap will have incidences c~', c~". This leaves us with the problem
of adjusting the pivotal values near the inner edge of the flap to deal as far as possible with the
spanwise discontinuity there. A simple rule to deal with this is illustrated by the diagram of
Table 23. We allocate to each spanwise station a chordwise strip bounded b y the mean lines
between this point and its two neighbours, see strip 3 of the diagram. The incidence at the
pivotal station is taken as the mean value over this strip, calculated with respect to the angular
co-ordinate 0. Thus there will always be one chordwise station to be so adjusted, unless the
inner edge of the flap happens to bisect the distance between two successive chordwise stations.
37
APPENDIX III
The influence functions i and j are defined b y equation (37) and (38) which m a y be written in
non-dimensional co-ordinates, X, Y, equation (30) as follows:
11{
i(X,Y) = C-Lfo l°(X°)
-Xo
1 + ~¢/[(X -- Xo) ~ q- Y~] dXo
}
and
1 1 { Xo-X }
+ ~-L ~x l(Xo) 1 - V E ( x - Xo) ~ + -Y~] gXo.
It is easily seen t h a t for small Y the factors in brackets in these two integrals are of an appreciable
size only near Xo = X. It seems, therefore, reasonable to develop lo(Xo) into a Taylor series
from the point X0 = X :
dl0 (Xo -- X) ~ dr0 (Xo -- X) a d31o
lo(Xo) = lo(X) + (Xo - x) 7~o (x) + 2 ! aXo ~ (x) + 3! dZ2o: (x) + ....
We can try, then, to integrate A i term b y term; for convenience we introduce
XI=X0--X for X 0 > X
XI=X--X0 for X 0 < X .
Ai is now given b y :
- cL fx 1-/(xl=+y, ex,
All these integrals are easily evaluated. By expanding the resulting expressions in powers of y2
we obtain a regular series development of Ai(Y) but in addition to t h a t we see some terms with
the factor In Y which can not be developed into a series of powers of Y~; thus we obtain
Ai(X,Y) = alY ~ q-a2Y ~ + . . .
I--Y2 dlo Y~ dSlo Y8 #l o }
+lnY C7 dXo + 8CL ~ a l152CLdXo s + - ' ' " "
38
The coefficients of the regular part of this series development are not worked out because they
are no longer needed ; of the irregular part only the first term can appreciably affect the downwash
integral because the factor Y~ is cancelled by the denominator in the spanwise integration.
The coefficient for this term is
- - 1 dlo
CL dXo (X)
for the development of i; correspondingly we find in the development of the second influence
function j :
- - 1 dll
co dxo (x) .
39
APPENDIX IV
(7.i)(0) = E (r.i),g,~(O).
m--i
--E-
b(0) = o, 0 = %, m--1
n ~p=O,~l,±2 .... -1- 2
To develop a function which satisfies these conditions we m a y consider the function
sin (m + 1)0 which disappears at all n¢ stations; to m a k e g,, = 1 at ~, we divide sin (m + 1)0
b y its t a n g e n t at ~,~ :
sin (m + 1)0
g.(o) =
(cos 0 -- cos 0.) . d sind(mcos4.-01)0 (0,)
Now
d sin (m + 1)0 (0,,) = (m q- 1) cos (m + 1)0~
d cos 0 -- sin 0n
This gives i m m e d i a t e l y :
sin 0,~ sin (m + 1)0
g~(o) -
(m+ 1) c o s ( m + 1)0,, cos 0 -- cos 0,,
cos (m + 1)0,~ = ( - 1){<'+1'2} - - .
This ig not the only way to represent this interpolation function g~(O}. Since sin (m + 1)0 is
equal to ~/(1 -- ~ ) × polynominal in ~ up the to m-th power we m a y also develop G(O)'into
a trigonometrical series :
I n t e g r a t i n g b o t h sides after a multiplication with (2/a) sin ;t0 we obtain the well-known Fourier
formula"
N o w using G l a u e r t ' s f o r m u l a
lf~ cosp0d0 _sinp0x
ocos 0 -- cos 0n -- sin 0n p integer > 0
T h u s , we h a v e
~
If we h a v e a n y f u n c t i o n f w h i c h can be so r e p r e s e n t e d
m--I
2
f(o) = Z f.gn(O)
m--I
2
it follows i m m e d i a t e l y t h a t
m--i m--I
--if- -g- Ylgr
;~if(~ ) d~ = ;of(O)sinOdO -- m + l ,}_/n sin m + 1 3 - / ° cos m + l
- -
2 --g-
and
2
m--1
0~ --if- far ~
-- m q- 1 ~1- f'~ sin m +----~ cos m + l ' - -
2
41
It is easily shown t h a t these a p p r o x i m a t e integration formulae allow for s o m e t h i n g more t h a n
just t h e interpolation polynominals. If we put
m--I
2 p
f(O) = E /~g,~(O) -6 sin (m -6 1)0 . E a~ cos qO
m--i 0
2
which means additional terms for t h e function f(O) in t h e intervals b e t w e e n t h e 0,, we see t h a t
~--I
foSin (m + 1)0 sin 0 cos qO dO = -~ o sin (m + 1)0 [sin (q + 1)0 -- sin (q -- 1)0] dO
~/4 , q ---- m
= --~/4, q=m+2
0 , q#m, q#m+2.
we see t h a t t h e factors b y which t h e (7i)~ are to be multiplied are functions of n and ~ = cos 0
only. In particular if c~is calculated for t h e same set of spanwise stations
=~=cos0r=Sinm+ 1
we m a y write
with
- - 1 f~ g~(O'). sin O' dO'
b. = 2~ o (~d~ V ~ co~) ~
1 f'~ g,~(0' ) sin 0' dO'
b ~ - - 2 ~ 0 (cos Or -- cos O')2"
1 '~
= - 2(~ + 1) sin 0, ~ ~[cos ~(0, + 0,,) - c o s ~(0, - 0,,)3.
To e v a l u a t e t h e s e s u m s we m a y c o n s i d e r
This gives"
1 [m(mq- 1) 1 -- ( m + 1) c o s 2 m G + m c o s 2 ( m + 1)G]
b~ ---- 2(m + 1) sin 0r L -2 + 2(1 - - cos 2G) "
Since cos 2(m + 1)0~ : 1
cos 2rag = cos 2(m + 1)0. cos 20. -- sin 2(m + 1)0~ sin 2G = cos 20~
we o b t a i n
m+l
b.. -- 4 sin 0~ "
I n t h e s a m e w a y we find for t h e b.,"
1 r- 1 +(m+ 1) c o s t a ( G + G ) - m c o s ( m + 1)(G+e,,)
b,,, : 2(m + 1) Sill 0~ / 2[1 -- COS (0~ + 0n)]
- 1 + (~ + 1) c o s ~ ( 0 ~ - 0,3 - ~ cos (~ + 1)(0~ - 0.) I
- - 211 - - cos (0~ - - 0.)] ["
Since
cos (m -F 1)(G ___ G) ---- (-- 1) ~-'~
cos m(o~ 4- o,,) = (- 1) ~-~ cos (o, 4- o,~)
and
[1 - cos ( 0 , , - 0~)3[1 - cos (0,~ + 0~)3 = (cos 0~ - co~ 0,,) 2
this r e d u c e s to t w o different results for ] v -- n[ o d d or even, n a m e l y :
when v --#= 4- 1, 4 - 3 , 4 - 5 . . . .
1 - 1) - + 1)cos + On) 1) -- + 1) COS -- 0,,) t
/
b~,, = 2(m + 1) sin 0. 1 211 -- cos (0. + 0n)] -- 211 -- cos (0~ - - 0,,)]
1 - - [ 1 + c o s (0~+0n)3 [1--COS (0~--0n)] + [1 + COS (O~--On)3[1 - - COS (0~+0,~)~
2(m + 1) sin 0~ 2(cos 0~ -- cos 0,,) ~
1 [cos (0~ - 0~) - cos (0~ + 0,,)] _ s i n 0n
o
2(m -}- 1) sin 0~ (COS 0~ - - COS 0,3 2 - - (rn + 1)(cos 0~ - - cos 0,0 ~
and when ~--n---- ±2,4-4,4-6 ....
b.,= 0.
43
A somewhat different approach which leads to the same results goes as follows: we split t h e
influence function i(~,v') up into a constant value/(~,~) valid for the pivotal station itseK and a
residue
i(~,~') = i(~,~) + i*(~,~') - i(~,~) + [i(~,~') - ~(~,~)].
The downwash integral consists t h e n of two part s
f(~,~,) _ r, • i*
is a continuous function even at ~ ' - - V . Towards t h e wing tips (~' = 1) it behaves like y;
we may, therefore, t r y to represent it also b y interpolation functions :
m - - 1
2
f= E f.g,~(O').
m--I
2
Of this lengthly sum there remain only a few terms after rearranging so t h a t t h e lines of equal
angles are p u t together"
This gives"
sin (0,, + OJ -? sin m(O. -Jr- OJ - - sin (m -}- 1)(0. -}- OJ
E sin ,10. cos ;~0~ =
1 411 -- cos (0. -}- OJ]
we o b t a i n
1 - (- 1) "-~ sin (0,~ + 0~) sin ( 0 , , - 0~) }
Z sin ;tO~ cos ;t O~ = 4 1 - cos (o~ + 0~) + 1 - c ~ - ( £ - 0 ~ )
1
T h u s we find:
m--I
2
1 E f,, sin O. n = v -}- 1, 3, 5 . . . only.
rn+l .~-I COS O~ - - COS 0~:
2
If we now r e m e m b e r t h a t
m--I
~;~--I
2
45
APPENDIX V
m -- I
2
we have flsed them up so to say; if we demand that also for any point ~ the product yiv be
represented in the same w a y
m=l
-fi-
E g~y,/w
~ -- 1
2
we thus fix i, as
iv
E g,,y,~
which gives i,(r,,) = i,, as it should be but relates iv in the intervals between these stations to
the y,,. This is rather against the principles of interpolation but since we are not concerned in
a n y case about the i-values in these intervals it is difficult to see why the representation used
in the report should be less accurate t h a n any other.
Every attempt to represent the influence functions independently from the y-values b y
interpolation functions leads to something quite similar to the Weissinger 7 procedure: the
coefficients of the system of equations must be found by another approximate integration. This
m a y not be deterrent with only a few pivotal stations although even then the work involved is
more t h a n with our scheme but it is definitely prohibitive at a greater number of pivotal points
since the computing effort increases roughly with the third power of t h a t number instead of
the second.
After m a n y trials at least one method has been found which keeps some more degrees of freedom
open for the representation of the influence function; it may, therefore, be t h a t the downwash
integral is slightly more accurate with the same number of pivotal points. This method goes
as follows"
We split the influence function i ( r , r) up into three parts so t h a t the first two give the tangent
of i(r) at r = rv ;
div
i(rv,r') = i~ + (r' - r~) ~ (r~) + ~i,(r') .
Accordingly the downwash integral consists of three components:
div
- i~fl y(r') dr' + dr r, (~ ydr' 1 Cl y(r') ~i,(r') dr'
o~v(r) - -
The first two integrals fit perfectly into the integration methods developed before so t h a t we have
I ~i ~,Air -- I ~Z ~,.Ai.,~sin 0
-- 2--~--1 (.1. -- V')~ d r ' = 2(m + 1) .~-_j~ (cos 0. -- cos 0~)2
where the aq represent the m additional degrees of freedom which can be used, e.g., to make
the Ai, function really independent from the y,,.
As to the logarithmic singaflarity of Ai,/(v, -- ~7)~ at v -+v~ we m a y use another trick to get
rid of this difficulty. Since the integration method applied is just a slight modification of Euler's
formula b y which the integral over a function known at the two terminal points of an interval is
given for this interval approximately b y half the interval width (here represented b y the factor
sin 0,3 multiplied b y the sum of the two border values. If we consider the integrand in the
interval ~ < ~ < ~1~+1it m a y be given b y
Ai~
We m a y now seek an ersatz station #. so t h a t the integral is again given b y half the interval
width multiplied b y the sum of the integrands at the station W+l and this ersatz station; this
gives"
(~.+l--~.)(a--b) ~.+l--~,[2a_i_b1 n 0~--~ ]
-- 2 ~+~ -- ~
which is valid for
In @ ~ - - ~ - - - - - - - 2
or
~L = V~ + (V.+l - - ~ ) • e-2 = V. + 0. 1353(V.+1 -- V.).
A similar formuIa m a y be derived for the interval V~-i < v < ~..
47
Now putting t h e bits together, we have, if we introduce, the values for the b,. and b~ of
equation (72)
1 Tg '
m--1
For the practical application of this formula we need a plotting of A i / Y ~ for the neighbourhood
of the pivotal points; di~/d~ m a y be calculated from the d i / d X value at the pivotal station and
the amount of sweep of the line connecting the pivotal points.
A practical disadvantage of this formula for c~, compared with our equation (83) is the
appearance of all stations % in the sum although those for odd n -- v are obviously predominant.
This means at least twice the work for computing the coefficients of the system of equations.
Moreover a solution of these equations might not always be achieved b y iteration in which case
this part of the calculus becomes rather laborious for more than just a few pivotal points.
If we compare the different methods not on the basis of the same number of pivotal points
but as to the computing effort required we m a y say t h a t with the same amount of work we can
have at least 50 per cent more pivotal points wlth the original method. If is then very doubtful
whether any improvement in accuracy can be gained b y the alternative method described here.
48
APPENDIX VI
T o see h o w a f u n c t i o n f()7) w i t h a k i n k in t h e m i d d l e (~ = 0) is r e p r e s e n t e d b y o u r i n t e r p o l a t i o n
p o l y n o m i n a l s we consider as a t y p i c a l e x a m p l e
f(~) = 1 - - 1 7 1 = 1 - - l c o s 01.
I t s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n b y o u r i n t e r p o l a t i o n p o l y n o m i n a l s is
m -- 1
-7-
5"(0) = go(O) + ~ (1 - cos 0,) [g,(0) + g_,~(0)].
1
5" m e e t s f at t h e m s t a t i o n s
n~ m-- 1
7, = cos 0n = Sill m +---~ ' n = 0, ! 1, ± 2 . . . -b
T h e p o i n t w h i c h is o p e n to s o m e criticism is w h e t h e r it is r i g h t to l a y t h e i n t e r p o l a t i o n 5"(0)
t h r o u g h t h a t r a t h e r e x p o s e d p e a k F = 1 at 7 = 0. T h e i n t e r p o l a t e d f u n c t i o n 5"(7) is c o n t i n u o u s
at v = 0 also in its d e r i v a t i v e s it h a s at v = 0 a flat m a x i m u m i n s t e a d of a kink. This m e a n s
t h a t F(~) will definitely exceed f in t h e i n t e r v a l -- V, < ~ < 71. W e m a y t h e r e f o r e e x p e c t a
b e t t e r general coincidence b e t w e e n f(7) a n d an i n t e r p o l a t e d c u r v e if we d r o p t h e c o n d i t i o n t h a t
b o t h m e e t at ~ = 0; i.e., we suggest an i n t e r p o l a t i o n f u n c t i o n 5"1
m-- I
I n s t e a d of t h e c o n d i t i o n of coincidence at ~ = 0 we n e e d n o w a n o t h e r c o n d i t i o n w h i c h defines
this c o r r e c t i o n A, t h e bit c l i p p e d off t h e kink. U s u a l l y we w o u l d i n t r o d u c e a l e a s t - s q u a r e
c o n d i t i o n b u t in this case we m a y get a w a y w i t h s o m e t h i n g s i m p l e r b e c a u s e in t h e d i s c r e p a n c y
b e t w e e n t h e g i v e n f u n c t i o n f a n d t h e i n t e r p o l a t i o n F1 t h e i n t e r v a l -- 71 < ~ < ~1 d o m i n a t e s .
Thus the condition
1- - 1 FdT) d7 = f - - t f(~) d~
s h o u l d be e n o u g h to d e t e r m i n e t h e c o r r e c t i o n A. A p p l y i n g t h e i n t e g r a t i o n f o r m u l a for t h e g~
1
we h a v e w i t h f f(7) d~ = 1"
--1
=-- l+2cosx--cos2x
With x -- m + I we h a v e t h u s
2 E cos = cot 1= -- 1.
2(m + 1)
- -
m+ 1 1--cos-- sin
m+l m+l
Similarly we find
~t--I m--I
-2- ~7c ~t~ 2 2~4xc
2 E sin-- cos E sin--
~=~ m+ 1 m+ 1 ,~=~ m + 1
- -
if we consider once m o r e
m -- 1 m -- 1
2~
This gives for x --
m+l
22~
2
sin - - -
2n~
E s i n - _ m + 1 = cot
1 m+ 1 2~ m+ 1"
1 c o s -
m+l
- -
1 +costa+ - -
1_ 1 C O S
m+
- -
1 m+l
A =l+
7C 0"g
sin - - sin - -
m+l m+l
1 m+l 1 ~ 7 ( z )3 31 ( z )5
--~-"-6 m+1--l-t-3-6-0 m+l +15120 m-~-i +''"
sin - -
m+l
I t is reasonable t o relate this correction to t h e difference of the f0 and fl values which is
sin a / ( m + 1) because a multiplication of ~ b y a n y factor does not affect this ratio. We t h u s get
A A 1 7('~'~ 2 1
fo--fl--si n _ ~ --6+3--~\)m~ +"'---6
m+l
and in this form the result applies to a k i n k of a n y angle.
I n all practical cases we need only use t h e first t e r m because w i t h too few stations we c a n n o t
speak a n y longer of a decent r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of a k i n k e d c u r v e ; since A is only a correction it
does not p a y to h a v e it m o r e a c c u r a t e t h a n t h e assumptions on which it is based.
To illustrate t h e effect of this r o u n d i n g off we h a v e p l o t t e d in Fig. 7 t h e function 1 --
w i t h the two i n t e r p o l a t i n g curves one w i t h a n d t h e other w i t h o u t t h e 1/6-correction. The
i m p r o v e m e n t is quite obvious.
50
APPENDIX VII
(This is meant to be a short instruction for those who want to calculate the load distribution
for a given wing without bothering about the theoretical background.)
Before beginning the calculation we must make up our mind about the number of pivotal
points (points at which the integral equation of the lifting surface is satisfied). As to the number
of spanwise stations m a reasonable choice is
m > 3AV(1 -
In Tables 1 to 7 some essential constants for m = 3, 5, 7, 11, 15, 23 and 31 are collected.
Since the work to be done is roughly proportional to the square of the number of pivotal points
each higher number represents about twice the work of the preceding one.
One chordwise pivotal point for each spanwise station is sufficient for not too small aspect
ratio wings of regular shape or if only the spanwise lift distribution is needed. Wings of low
aspect ratio ( A ~ / ( 1 - M S) < 3) or irregular shape as sweepback, cut-outs, etc., need two
chordwise pivotal points at each spanwise station. Since there is much more work involved
in this case we will deal with both cases separately. As an illustration of these methods compare
the examples on Tables 8 to 30.
Computation of coejficients with one chordwise pivotal point (compare Tables 8-10).--Firstly we
tabulate the quantities needed in the course of this calculation which depend only on one spanwise
station, namely :
(1) The number of the spanwise station; for symmetrical wing plan forms we need only
v = 0, 1, 2 . . . (m -- 1)/2, the values of all quantities listed here being either identical or different
only in their signs for negative v's.
(2) The non-dimensional ~-co-ordinate from Tables 1 to 7.
(3) The actual spanwise co-ordinate y, = (b/2)~,.
51
(63370) D 2
(4) The chordwise co-ordinate x~ ~ of the leading edge of t h e wing section at Yr. The origin
from which it is measured call be arbitrarily chosen. At t h e middle section of sharply k i n k e d
swept wings we t a k e instead of t h e geometrical co-ordinate x0 ~,com
X0 ~ = ~ X0 ~goom+ ~~X l ~-
(5) The local wing chord c~ ; again for the middle section of swept wings we take
co = ~. Cogeom-F W
1 C1 •
a,oi~o
2~lV 0 - - _ _
Solution of the system of equations with one cho~dwise pivotal point (compare Tables 11 and 1 2 ) . - -
(19) F o r a given l o a d case we collect first t h e c~ values, ~.e., t h e local incidences at 0 . 7 5 c of t h e
c o n s i d e r e d spanwise s t a t i o n n~. F o r wings w i t h flaps we t a k e
dc~
B e g i n b y filling i n t o c o l u m n s h e a d e d b y t h e n u m b e r s v = 1, 3, 5 . . . t h e p r o d u c t s
A~,oA myo, A3,oA [~])'o, A~,oA [~l)'o...
in t h e n e x t line
A1,2A rl]y~, A3,2 A El]y2, A 5 , 2 4 [11)'2 • . .
T h i s p r o c e s s is c o n t i n u e d u n t i l t h e A~, are s m a l l e n o u g h to be i g n o r e d .
T h e 7~ s o l v i n g t h e s y s t e m of e q u a t i o n s are e v e n t u a l l y
A c h e c k of t h e s e r e s u l t s is a l w a y s s t r o n g l y r e c o m m e n d e d . T o do t h i s w e do as d e s c r i b e d u n d e r
(21) to (26) b u t w i t h t h e final y-values. W i t h i n t h e a c c u r a c y t o l e r a n c e s of t h e w h o l e c a l c u l u s
we m u s t o b t a i n the final )'1, )'a, ?~ b y i n s e r t i n g t h e final )'0, m, m • • • in t h e r e s p e c t i v e p r o d u c t s
a n d vice versa. W i t h a p p r e c i a b l e d i s c r e p a n c i e s t h e differences c a l c u l a t i o n m u s t b e r e p e a t e d .
R e s u l t i n g forces are c o m p u t e d w i t h t h e f o r m u l a e f r o m s e c t i o n 7. T h e p r o c e d u r e is o b v i o u s ,
a n d coefficients are t o be f o u n d in T a b l e s 1 t o 7.
54
Computation of coefficients with two chordwise pivotal points (compare Tables 13 to 17).--Again
we begin by tabulating those quantities which depend on one spanwise station only. Some of
them are the same for one and two pivotal stations ; they are repeated here to avoid a muddle.
(1) The number of the s p a n w i s e ' s t a t i o n v or n; for symmetrical wings we need onIy
v = O, 1, 2 . . . (m-- 1)/2.
(4) The x-co-ordinate x, ~ of the leading edge of the wing section at y~ ; the origin from which
it is measured can be chosen as it is most convenient. At the middle section of sharply kinked
swept wings we take instead of the geometrical co-ordinate XoSg~o~the modified value
X0I : ~X0geo m + lXll •
(5) The local wing chord c~ ; again for the middle section of swept wings we prefer
Co = 5C0geo m -1- ~ C 1 .
(11)
Next we calculate the coefficients which are dependent on two stations; we prepare a form
for each inducing station (marked b y the number n) where we tabulate"
55
(13) The number ~ of the pivotal stations required, i.e., odd v's only for even n and vice versa,
v both positive and negative. For every quantity f,, collected here f_,, _,, = f,,, if the wing
planform is symmetrical.
(14) The spanwise distances between pivotal and inducing stations, absolute values only as
tabulated in Tables 1 to 7.
(15) The chordwise distances between the rear or frontal pivotal points and tile leading edge
of the inducing wing section
X~ t - - Xnl
Xv tt _ _ Xnl
x~', x." and x,~, from (6), (7) and (4).
Cn
from (15) and (5),:
5gvtt - - Xnl
X , 2 n It _ _
C~
(19) Products of these induction factors with the a.. from Tables 1 to 7.
• /t
avn~r~
a v n j v j ~t
" It
a,,J ....
(20) With the l~ and my factors .from (12) we calculate tile determinants:
a~,,iU i ~ / - z~" i~") = U(a~ i./) - U(a.,~ i./')
a.41/j,,,/ - UL,~") = U(aM./) - U(a.~L,~"I
a~,,(m~,~" i.,~" - - m . ' i.~') = m."(a.~i~.") - - m~'(a..i.,/)
a,,,,(m./'L,/' - ~.'j..') = W(a,,j,." - W(a.,~L,,').
56
(21) For s y m m e t r i c a l load cases we calculate t h e coefficients
B.,, = a..(l.'i,,,' - - 1~%,,") + a._°(U/~_,0' - I/%,_.), v #O,n #0
(22) For a n t i - s y m m e t r i c a l load cases [a_, = -- a,] t h e coefficients are w r i t t e n in bold italics:
B.,-- a.,,(l~'i.~' -- l~"i~") -- a.,_,,(l/i~,'_,~- 1/'i.,_~")
c;.-- a.,(1/L,/ - UL°") - a.,_,,(l/L,_j - l ~ " j . , _ j ')
Solution of the system of equations for 2 chordwise pivotal points at each station--(compare Tables
18 to 22 for symmetrical load cases, Tables 23 to 27 for anti-symmetrical load cases).--(23) For t h e
load case u n d e r consideration we collect t h e o : / a n d ~/'-values w h i c h are for wings w i t h continuous
c a m b e r a n d twist
~' o:(0" 9045c, y~)
=
~ " = o:(0" 3 4 5 5 c . , y . ) .
For a plane wing ~, is constant. For wings w i t h flaps, ailerons, etc., we t a k e
do:
o:v = a , without flaps "-~ d-~ " ~v
d~ - - d~ - - 0 : 3 9 3 4 (~)o.~
with
57
(24) We guess r o u g h l y w h a t ~,~ a n d ~ , w i t h an e v e n suffix m i g h t be. T h e s e e s t i m a t e s n e e d n o t
be v e r y n e a r to t h e final results 1 we m a y t a k e t h e m f r o m p r e v i o u s calculations w i t h a smaller
n u m b e r of p i v o t a l s t a t i o n s or so t h a t an e s t i m a t e d dCL/do~ results, etc. T h e s e v a l u e s are m a r k e d
b y t h e n u m b e r 0 in s q u a r e b r a c k e t s * •
Yo[°J , Y2[°] ) Y41°1 • . . /~o[°1 /~[ol
) • . . .
T h e s y s t e m of e q u a t i o n s to be solved is
m--1 m--1
-T -g-
~,r = ar~(lr'"r' -//'~/') + X' Br,~ r , + X' C~,~,,
0 0
m--i m--I
T --~
~r = ~r(mr"-." - m/./') + X' Dr.),., + X' Er,,/~.
0 0
(25) We calculate t h e a b s o l u t e t e r m s
a.(4%' -
m--I m--I *
2 T
~ [11 = a,(m/'c~/' - - m/~z/) + E ' D,~7,~ m + E ' E ~ , ~ m .
1, 3 , 5 . . . 1,3,5 ...
58
(29) Second differences of the y's and/z's with odd suffixes are computed from"
m--1 m--1
T -T
Amly~= 2] B , , A t t l y , + ~ C,,Amtz .
0,2,4... 0,2,4...
~, = 1,3, 5 ...
m--1 m--1
T --g-
A mlt~~ = ~ D,.A my,, + 2] E ~ A [i]/~.
0,2, 4... 0, 2, g . . .
The arrangement is as under (26) but without the absolute terms in the first line.
(30) And from these the second differences of the even r ' s and/z's"
m--i m--I
2 2
A m~y~ = 2] B.,,A E2]y. + X C..A [~llz,,
1, 3, 5 . . . 1, 3 , 5 . . .
v=0,2,4...
T
A mJ#~ = 2] D,,A rely, + y~ E,,~A
T
[~]/~
1, 3 , 5 . . . 1, 3, 5 . . .
Arrangement as before.
0,2,4... 0,2,4...
~=1,3,5...
m--1 ~--1
2 2
A ~allz~ = "E D~,A m[y, + 2] E,,~A mJl~,,.
0,2,4... 0,2, 4 ...
(32) This to-and-fro calculation is continued until the differences disappear. If one wants to
break off after the r-th difference the rest m a y be estimated as
(A ~'~7,~~ or (A [,]~)2
A tr-l~y~ _ A E'1y~ A E*-*l/z~-- A [']#, "
(33) The solutions of our system of equations are then the y~ and/z~ as summed up from the
differences"
(A E,I ~,.?
7. = 7~ m -4- A [3] 7 . H- A t317. + • • • q - A ['] 7 , + A [,-1] 7v -- A t,~ Y,
A check of these results by inserting them into the system of equations is very useful. It is
mainly a repetition of the process described under (26) and (27) but with the final y,- and/,,,- values.
Resulting forces, moments, etc., are calculated according to the formulae in section 7;
coefficients required are found in the Tables 1 to 7.
E x a m p l e . - - A s an illustration of the calculus all the details for a simple swept wing are written
down on Tables 8 to 30. The number of pivotal points are 1 × 15 and 2 × 15 for the plane
wing of incidence 1, and 2 X 15 for an aileron case. The work has indeed been overdone a bit
in order not to miss any details and in footnotes the main formulae are given.
59
TABLE 1
v or n --1 0 +1 gv,,
TABLE 2
m----5
v or n --2 "--1 0 +1 I +2
--1 +1
v, n -1 +1
-2 o. 3660 1.3660
0 0.5 0.5
+2 1- 3660 o. 3660
60
TABLE 3
m=7
t~n
v, n --3 --1 +1 +3
61
TABI.E 4
m=11
vorn 0 1 2 3 4 5
avn
.>
v,n 1 3 5
>
v,n 1 3 5
62
TABLE 5
m= 15
vorn 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
>
v,n 1 3 5 7
v,n 1 3 5 7
63
TABLE 6
m = 23
or n 0 1 2 3 4 5
or n 6 7 8 9 10 11
a~n
I >
v,n 1 3 5 7 9 11
-1 -3 -5 -7 -9 -11 v, n
< 1
64
T A B L E 6--continued
m ---- 2 3
F 11
TABLE 7
m= 31
vorn 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
v or n 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
65
(63370) E
T A B L E 7--continued
m= 31
gayn
F >
+
3 11 13 15
11 13 15
66
T~LE ~.
EXAMPLE ~..
I CHORDW,S~ !
i5 .SPANWISEJ P!~OTAL POINTS
SPAN
ASPECT RATIO
ROOTCHORO
Tip CHORD
L.E.SWEEP ~CK
b
A
W~NG
=
= 2 ~ f~
cr = 7
c, = 3
A t : 45 ~
TAPER RATIO C~/cr= "~¢J
Low hi~CH NUMBERS
VI=M= ~ I
~X
FORM I.
Inl or Ivl o I Z 3 4 5 7
r~. ') 0 ,t95~ ' 382-7 • 5556 ,85J5"
. 7o71 .92 59 .96o8
Y. 0 1.9~I 3'827 7 07/ 6.3/5' 9"259 9'808
Xn~ z) • 52ff~ /,951 &.Sz7 f , 5F$ 7. o7~ 8,5/~ 9,2 39 9.6me
Cn z) 6.8(~99 6,z/g6 5%692 4.7776 4. / 7t(~ ~,67~o 5..~/~4 5.o768
X~ z) 5, 4 776 (~ . 61~r7 7,92~9 9/~9z /o,/997' 11.o7o5" f[. 717 3 /2. H E6
/./+ ~-5"(~ t, ~o 7~ /.82~4 2,o~3~ 2. 5972 2 . 7 2 / 8 3.oz &3 3,2S~ /
"l,~v ~) I.gUO 7 . /.9/5"6 1"92o2 /.9224 1.9~o~ /,91~z 1.90/4 I.~897
A~ 4] .1~08 ' /280 "/203 , Io81 ,o9~I "o7Z6 .o505 02~
7
t
n=2 i -7
7
=5
5
-3
~
-~
~ -I
|
-3
5 5
-5
7
-7
i/.~6~5 1"2/42 " q~85 " 5"778 '/876 • 1729 ,04,88 . 5~81
X~- Xnl ~'ZB~6 ; 7 . 2 1 ~ ~t~Z 2"7887 2'7887 ~3/22 Z',14,55" 8.2886
• 3 l& "810 /'092
I,~15" i1.~23 "970 "~IO "5"/0 ' qTo 1"32 3 I, 5? 5"
l'/Y~o 1.4,Z~ 1"~81 1'228 1,47~0 1,86q2 1"777 /,741~
,oo//~- .004o~ .0097~ "o272 .31oo "~890 "O 5 7 0 ,00 729
-3 -I I 5 5; 7
n=Z~ ii v -7
7
i -5
5 3 t -~ -5 -~ . -7
P'z,.- 1,2627 .9o~2 • ~'1~.o • 15"15" ,/244 "2737
Xp- Xn~ 5:, o44,b 3 , 9 e 9 ; 2,o6~z
5.097 2.,/(= 1"227 ' 363 ~ "2985 "~&
1.2o9 , qb-8 • Z¢9~ :-. Io?/ -.loq/ ,~q6 .q5"4~ /.Zo9
~em 1.2.~2 t.1.~8 I.o~ '@4 1 • 731 IoZ~z~6o 1.874, 1,002
•0 o o ~ .0016z [.oo3~ [.oo~8~ c0"~'74, .~o11 "~SqZ .oz74~
-7 -5 -~ .I -t I I 3 5 7
"7 E 3 I -t -9 -5 -7
t.0o47 1.7~5"4 t,4,79~ t. ~/qo
X~,- Xn~t Z..#756 /'83/S" -'o9~8 - 2 , 6253 -2,62.33 -'Oqq8 1.85/~" Z,876b
68
FORN ~,, cfd TABLE 10 ~ x ~B
8YATIONS
n= ~ ~ -6 =4 -2 o ~_ ] 6
~==--| 4 o -4 J -6
r~3 P -6 -4 -2 0 2 6
rt =,-~3 6 4 o -2 -6
/ ,z~79~" /.2.&z 7 • 9363 •~ 6 •/729 "1~/5 • 3683
v~ 5 -6 -4 -2 0 2 6
n=-5 P 4 2 0 -2 -4. ~6
1"75~4 /'53~6 /,2.J42 .83/5 "/244 ' o924
;~,392;5 / ' 8 8/~ 7 -'3~6t -'386/ /.e847 3"3923
4,77E :~./e5 I'Z22 • 33~7 '26S5
X~n • 9z~
1-140
•
I.o6~
$13 . -" Io5
"895
-" 7 7 Z
'S9Z
-./o5
"733 1.4825 t '923
1"083Z
n~7 : - 6 -4 -2 0 2 4. 6
n=-7 V 6 4 2 0 -2 -4 -6
1,9o47 /.6a79 /'3635 • 98O6 • ,¢9B/ 27~7 "0569
X~- Xnl 1'9o95 59/7 -/'879/ - 4..33o#-!,879/ ,3917 t9o9~
IY,ol
X~n .6Zt
6"/9 5".48~
./27~
z+.43
-,611
3./,88
=1o4o7 -
/ 94,4
.6u
890
,/Z71-~
./8~
"621
~'v. l'o6Z " 977 ' BIO .5/~2 .:~az •~:.. /.7oo7
, a'~n {='rl
-f~, "ooolz "0oo4 "ooo~,~ 0o09, '0024e "0/32 s "3232
69
TABLE 11
FO,qM 3 ODD P I×15
STATIONS
_ P, II E 7 II , 3 s I 7
,o7z 0 ' ".0158 A~oA°£o - ' o 0 2 4 ~ -.ooo2.~ - . 0 o o o 7 - . o o o o z
• OO~5o
• IGGI •18o9 .o~ ,005~ P ~ -.ooo24 -.oo33S -.oo43o-.ooo31
. o086~ ",~2/7 OIIZ A~o~°~,~ -~.o0oo5 + . o o o ~ +.oo~oo + . o o 3 4 o
• oo1~7 .oo36g .o7s4 O~3Z ~ -'0o073-,0olZ0 - . 0 0 / 1 0 -~,00313
• 32 (o~ •/Z ~ 4
- - [AvoA®~,o -,0o02o - ' 0 0 0 0 Z -'0o00~ --
iAv~z -.oo02~ - . o o o 2 8 - . o o o o 3 - . o o o o l
5~MMARY: A~4A®~4 - . o o o o 2 - ' o o o Z 5 -.ooo3z -.oo o o Z
Z~ ~ ~ % ~% . z~% + . . . . . A,~Z~,~ - +.oooo~ +.ooo,7' ÷ . o o o z o
,A~,, - . o ~ o 4 s - . o o o E 4 - . 0 o o ~ 9 -,-,o.oo~7
P t
- v( 3 •47@9 '4~D'6 Ava~'o -'00013 -'0O001 -- -.
-.OOoT~ -°oo~2 Avz~z -.oo0#Z - . 0 o o 1 4 - ' o o o o l --
-.O~o~# I-.o0o5"~, -.O001q =~.OoOt.~ Av4Z~'4 --.00001 -.OOOo 9 - . O 0 0 l l -.00001
-.0002~ -.0002~ -.0001~ -'O000z ~ v6L'%.(~6 -- -- --.OOool -.0o001
L~ -.O001,j -.000$~ -'OOO0o -'0000~ ~v -'0002~ -.00024 -.O001~ - ' O 0 0 0 Z
-.0000¢, -'00006 -.0000,~ - . 0 0 0 0 ,
I. £~ ,47~2 .4,354 ,524c~ , 12~(~ A~o x~£o - - 0 0 0 0 7 -,oooo /
A,~ ~,, I-.oooo6 -.ooool -'00001
CHECH: OF RESULTS: A ~ ~a~' I -- --00004 - ' 0 0 0 0 ~ !-.0:003
-'00001
I 5" ,I 7 -.0ooo@ I-.0o0o3
.Avo- v .1200 , I 0 g.~
A~,o£o ,l,~07 "o~79z • 0 0 ~ 2 ~ . 0 0 / ~ Avo,~o -'oooo 3 -- -- --
70
TABLE 12.
a ) VALUES Av. P 0 2 ~
~= I ,6~O0 .427/-. "0492 "OI39a
A~ n = =vn iv n + a~,._n iv<.q v =~ o
7,~ "£vv ..-3 ,0348~ , 310/. -3931 .0361
o
5 "007,Bz .0177 • 3077 .38.59
A~n=2 a ~ _n 1 ~ " for v=o 7 "00/Sz -0031, '0t:56s '32.34
"t,y y
m-I
c) de. = 2=A .S~o + ~'.cos = 2~4 ]-.5 x.4622
de~ m+l 16 L.90O,~ :~ ,4752
• 9239 :<',4(o40
• 8~15 x .4333.
• 7o71 x • 3~7(o
• 5556 x . 3 2 4 9
",3827 x .2 3':)E
• 1951%.1286 ]
'E
= ~-- x 2.o5"75
CICL = 3"232
do*
71
TABLE. 13
2. CHORDWISE }
EXAF~PLE~. I~ ~PAN WiSE PIVOTAL STATION8
s~y
.SYMMETRICAL S W E O T BACKW I N G
SPAN b = 20 ft
ASPECT RATto A = 2~
t :.-y ROOT CHORD Ge " 7 ft
TIPCHoRO % = ~Sf
L.E.SWEEP ~ACK '~z = 4
) TAPER RATIO ~'~/¢~ = "429
Low H A t H NuMbER
I~a ~ T A T ION V
IX
_;i ~t
5) p t tt "L w
~J --ii # --s my -
72
2 × 15
FORM 2 TABLE 14.. STA'I" I 0NS
o .I " -7 -s -3 -t I 3 7
•~5S6 ./q~'t ./qs'/ .555"6 .83~G .0806
X~ Xl~ ~
-- 12"2656 110312q ~J,5"~21 7.2514 ! 7.2~;/4" q.~21 1/, 5 f z q 12.265-R
X$'- >t~.~ 10.~450 9.2b'q2 6"8015 3.77~7 3.~7.67 6"08/5 0.25"qz /o.5"4.~,~
]'Y~.I ') z 4za /,2m .~0~7 .28Z~0 "28Z~0 "0067 /.210 1.4Z8
.'~n =] 1.786 /.6/~6 1.796
1.~02 .52~q..* .~'2,9~: I.ooz 1.~2,7
•t,,.
'~ ~,~ 1.7,Z: /.74,7 l.e¢O l,qo~7 hO0~,7 l,g o o 1.7.~7 1.71~
• tt t.~;#~' I/.~'6/7 II.g6t7 1.6g'~ 1.6s'9
"t~,. I,6~'q 1.65"9
j'. *) "260 .Z~ • 528 ,~t • ~z~i ,52S ,Z~t '2GO
~:. 'L~7 ,Z,oz .$35- /,*~,{, 1'~46 ,6 .~5" .4og "~7
"
O.w; tvn ~) .00£52 .oz2oZ • 07.q8 • 7/o65 - .76b~ , O7FR .0220Z .065"52
~Lvt~ ~""Vtu .00531 ,,020~88 • ,o¢937 . 6 2r ~8 5 " .62e~" .Obq37 ,OZO,e8 •O ~ if31
l ~""#L" "OOOaS "0C354 •o / ~ 8 0 ./$74 '1374 .,9,'.~#~ .o0354 .00o83
o-.n J v. .00108 .00S07 • ~Z~Ta "7~,,30 .71-.,3o "02675 ,0o5"o7 .00 /08
a,,~, f::~,, .0o29s .~/oOO •o 5 7 o .'3eo7 ,Jeo7 .0570 .O/oqO .oo2q5"
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c~m~____ .oooo4 OOOlk oo0~7 .ootz~ .oo6~ .to9~ "ozos~ ,oozt&
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FOR Ivi 2 cfd. TABLE 16
STAT~O N $
-6 - ~ -2 0 Z~ G
6 ~ t 2 o -2 --Z, --0
I.llqO "qOZ2 [ "5778 .Iq~l ./876 • 5"/20 . 7 2 ~
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Xv- Xnl t0.276 8 8.~(~ 3 Z 6,822q Z~.5"g9
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75
FORM2. c~d TABLE 17
5TAT~0N5
-6 -Z, -2 0 Z
2 0 --2 -/~ -6
I, qoz~7 I, (~97q I'~65E , qso # .S~o~ 'z737 . O.G60
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X'. .786 '$36~ -/.06B .~$61~ •786
X". ./86 -.1~213 - I,'5~0 -Z. 508 -I,~0 - • l c z l =3 •/,~6
i.O~ :.o~- " 62g, • 7/5
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o~.i';. "oo05o •00070 .~o/oo .OOl2o .ooZq~" • OtZzz~ .~6z
~..~'.. .0ooo~ . ooo14, •o o 0 3 ~ • ooo76 • 0 o ~g~$ •o z q 8 7 . ~oo
o..~L ,ooo6s .ooo~ ,00028 "000~.5" .~O017,.K" ,OlZ~// •@700
a...~'.~.'~. .ooo/7 .ooo~o . Ooo~ ,00/01 ,00~79
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a . . ( ~ ' , ~ ' . - .e~ c;. ) "00017 .Ooo& .00o~ .0010 .OOZ8 .015"~+ ,3551~
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0o007 •ooo/6 ,ooo~6 .ooo/~g .oo/¢~ ,o06~q .IZ:6~
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• dO00 I .oooo$ .0ooo7 !,0oo1(, ,00o68 • OO60E .o7q6
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76
TABLE 18
FOR~3 0~#
i = : ; = o ( , ; = ~ SYMMETRICAL L O A O J 2xl5
-~'AT I0 NS.
o~) VALUES B~., C,., D,., E,..
==~.(~.,.~-,~,~.)+,~,_.(m.,~,.~-,,. ,..) .,o
,,,~o,.,(,"l'i., ....
,,-% i",.) ' n,=O o~,.(-~;C.-"%.) ,-,..o
.,, ~ 3 s .I 7 v = I s s 7
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2. "36Z2 .,~905" .0~q64 .0080~ ~. -. 0666 "o2466 "OOd,~2 .0o12z]
'0Z476 "3266 "38o2 .o267o Z~ -.003-,~a - . 0 6 2 7 .0252~ .0036
6 ,dO,.~Sx .0/82~ ,3 ~ 5 ..35'2 3 6 -.0006~; - . 0 0 2 9 , -,O~7Z~ • 0/@/z
FIRST APPROX~HATION :
p I .I 3 5 "z ~ t ~ s 7
~+(~'2: .,z/q . to~+ .0o9o .oz4~ o.,+(m,--m,,) .omen, .oi~2~ .o/ooo., "OeJ,~,~'6
B~y~ ,oo9~ ,~z~ 7 ,147~ .otoz, D~,,~'~ .,oo/~ ..o2~o .ooq79 ,oo/~/
By~ Y ~ .oats .oo~4 .08;/ .004~ __D,~ ~'~ .,0ooI/ - , 0 o o 7 / ..0/38~ 0045"8
Cr,~ ~ ? -.oo34 -,0o04 ,.0oo/ -- E,~o~ ..OOq/3 -,OoO2S -,0ooo4 -.0oool.
L ~o "A737 "~327 "3208 "1238 ~..':" -.01337 "o032o ,o0q6"5 ,o1124
INITIAL DiFFERENcES '.
~,:~,. ~,:~.,,,o~.÷ oo ++ ~+ =_ oo,
~ = - . 00163, .=.+, 01766
FURTHER DIFFERENCES:
/ ÷ J
symmetrical c~se~
I~cid. nex+ p=ge)
~= t. s n.o '
i
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TABL~ 19
' I [/
[ o ~ , = ~ , = ~ SYMMETRICAL LOAD] ¢~
l ~ 11 ~ I a x, 6
I.~7o l.~Tw I-o47e .o~-~
7 ooo/~l-'ooo~, -.oo29~[-.O4o4e
~4~4 ~.) % - . ~ , ~ - ~ 4 ~ - . ) v¢,o ~ o ~,,,('~;i;.- m:#,.)* %.(~:~L- m'.j~..) ~÷o
= z~°(z:~;,,-,q:,) ,' ' ,,o o = ~ a,,("%j;.-"~'4'..) ,,o o
" v !l .... o I z 4 ! ~ j "
I ~
~
! .2o$~
o
'164~
~ I 4
.oo~'o
I ~'
,Ooo~
FIP~T APPROY~MATSON :
..... ! 6
"+,OtT~l "e.O/$1S" ~'.o~8¢7 I
O~, ~,@ ~'o~'~7~
-.0Z76 ~ ~,OlOg~ ~.OOlgt
-,ooo94 -,o~996 -~,oo7oz
I~', e II . o o o ~ .ooo4 .oo~o ,~,s -, oo0o~ . , ~ o o $7 - . o o w o ~ I
-
78
F0~H 3 ODD v ¢:t~. "TABLE P_O
Z =!5
,~TATIo NS
DIFFERENCES CT.D.
t 3 5 7 I 3 5 7
@
B~oZX~'o "ooo6~ ,oooo~ .ooooz - D,~A~7o +.eooos .+.Oco,~t \-
~2~& .ovoS9 ,ooo~ .oooob ,ooeo~ D~z~ - ooo~I ..ooo~4 +,oo~o~
B.~ZX~y~ .ooeo4 .ooo~ ,oeo6c .oooo/. O,~y~ -, oooo( -.ooolo +.,ooo~ *.oooo ~
B~Z ~ 6 .000o I ,00~02 .Ooo 38 • oo~3q Ov, L~'~6 . . . . 00o06 .~.O0oOZ
C.o &%o -.'ooooz - - - E~,o Z ~ o - . OOO0.G -- - --
C~2 ~,@Uz -.000o3 -.0000 r - -- E,z ~ ; . , _ - - . Oooo I - -
C ~ 4 -- -.0000/ -- -- Ev~ ~ 4 ~ - . 00o01 --
E,~A~I.~ ~ - ~. e o o o ~ -~.oooo4
Z~. .00/22 .00120 . O0 I / 0 • O~OZ,4 ®p. -.0oo14 --00006 -.ooool +.oooo7
I ~ 5 7 v. t 5 [ ~ 7
.#757 .,6~Z7 ,320# "12 5 8
.0o5o~ .o0Z2 6 .OOZ~G -.OOlq~ ~A(~, +.0022G .4..0000~ -¢.003l/ -I-,O0~,Z~
_~Z, • OOZZ~ .OOlqo .oOIq7 .000~ 2~@F~, -.oooog -.OoooG -,.-.ooa~7 +.O00&z
•OOIZ~ "OOlZo "001to "0004~, L~®~, -.ooo1~ -.ooooG -.OOOOr +.000o7
.OoOb7 .o0060 .0002~ ~@#~ -.000o7 -.00oo~ -.O00OZ ~.00002
2. ,0o0~o
.doo3p .0003~. .~003/ ,O001B &@~ -.oooo~ ,-,oooe z -.oooo, -
R ES"c 0 .O0"03a .dOOZ,,z ..00033 .oo014 RE~T -'00003 -.O000Z -.O00dl --
Z,, .2, 815" ./-, 3 q 6 "3276 ,IZBI-~ ~v -'OtiS3 *.0030./-. "~"01278 +'01603
I 3 5 7 3 5 7
=,,(i',-,C) • /z~9 ./o~4 .o6qo .02,~1 '01E25 "010~8 .0O,6S6
B,o ~o ,I~11 .Ol7c] .00~2 "#OI3 D~o Z. .ooq4t •0o1~ / ,oootaG .0o024
B~2~z 't704 .la~ 7 .0186 .0o39 D.z Z~ -.o3tz3 'OlteO ,OoZ/3 .00057
B,~,, .0o97 , ~z*'~, ,t,q 7 .o/06 D,~ Z~ -.ool3S -.o246g 'oaq~'4 .0o/~3
B,6 ~ .oo/~ .oo~4 .ogo2 .o834 -00070 -.ot35~ .oo4~3
C,o po -,O02& -,000~ -.O0Ol -- Evo ~u. -.006q5" -.Oeot 7 -.o0oo3 -.O0ooI
Cy~ @2 -.OOOE -.00o/ - -. Evz y= -.000o8 -.OOOZ& - . o o o o l
C~4 Ix, .,.ODDI .0o18 .~0o~ -- Ev,.t~, -.OooOf ,00023 .ooloB .00o03
Cv~ p~ .~..O00t .00o3 .$0Z/6 .00o3 -.o000~ .00183 OO~RO
l)
ESTIMATION oF REST: REST'=~:~
79
T A B L E 2|
0 2 ~ 6 o Z .c. 6
B,~ ~@7, .oooeu "0oo ~ / . oooo 6 • ooooz ~ A®~,, -.00o/~ +.0ooo~ +.00oo! -
Bv~ Z ~ .oooo~ .ooo4o 'ooo~6 .ooooL ~)v~ Z ~ : ~ -.0o001 -;00008 +.00o0~ +.0000
B,s/x~,~ . o o o o , .oooo~ .ooo~6 .0oo4/ D, eZ~/s . . . . 0o00 7 ~ . o o o 0 3
B,~Z~ ', • - - .oooo~ .oooly D,~ Z ~ ' ~ . . . . . o OO 02
C , , . z~-~, -.oo~o 7 -00001 - _ E~,~Z ~ -'oooo3 -.0ooo2 - _
Cv~Z~ - -. ooooz -.00001 - E,~ '~'F~ . . . .
Cvs Z ~ s - _ . _
C~./ Z~'~z - - ,0000 I E~ ,~ - - - .~.0ooo
l~®~ .ooo~ .eooqo .ooo~4 ].o0o~ ~.®~ -00017 -.oooo7 -.oooo~ -~,oooo3
E,,AZ~r - - -
/'~®~,. .oooZ ~ .OOOZG .OooZ6 .ooo t 7 ~%~, -.O000G -.O00oZ -.00ool
....
v o I z z~ 6 0 ,Z ,~ 6
• 397,6 .2~3l -05760 -.0ot63
-~.0o~61 +,01766 "
CHECK OF ~E.~ULTS :
Z /-+ 6 ~' 0 Z 4 6
=,,(<-~) ./z 4 z • tl~q "O,~Tq .OA,7g~ i%Jm':m'J ~..olq,~g -~.o,7zl +.o,3~s -*.ooet7
,2ot/ .o2~o "0o~; Dv= ~u, -,0G25"8 .=..OlZ/Z ~.oo245" .~,ooo<~o
• /~7o ./68~ .OlS2 Dv~ ~s -.o0Z77 -.oz81,~ ÷.oro?~ .+.oo/e&
,oo67 .~o7q .12~o D,s Ps -.ooozq -.oooC/~, -.oZoz8 .~.ooTctq
B ~ ~,~ .eooz •ooo~ .0o20 .o4J# _ ~ _ _. oo ooz -. oooo~ -.ooo 3 7 - . oo s o o
C~ ~, -.00~'6 -.0008 -.OOol Ev~t -.ooz~5 -.00188 -00006 -.oooot
Cvs tu~ .00Ol "000~ • 000/7 --. Fvz~f ~ -.ooool 4.,ooo1! ÷.00oo8 ~-.oooot
C,,r~r ,ooo~ . OooZ . o0,5~ . ooo~, Eve ~ s -.ooaol -.oooo3 ~.ooo65 ~.ooZG3
80
TABLE 22
e °'o, +
fo-e n- 0
rt 0 I 2 3 6 7
•4 7 5 1 .~815 .z~7oa .4397 "3935 • 327b • 23 O~ • 1235
--03813 -.o~Iz,6 -:OO1~1 -003o6 .00656 "0+2~0 • ozg/-,.~ •01605
C H = -5.80
,2 .4oz5 .~o~h .03q8 .007~ .1q37 '~76.~ .0~30 <~OlO ,5~40 .1~07
.0 ..~.o Z (~ . OA2. [ .0 12~> .C03Z .Iq58 .Ot~ .004| .O0OZ~ • 2.t68 ./03 '
-¢o ,ooA7 .ooZ3 ,ool'~ .o0o:3 ,0o2.5 ,Oo.~O .oooA -- ,oo~7 ,ooo.9
7
. /,775
V . ,1,'" h . - 6 - 4 . .
CDi = • 6 6 5 5
81
(63370) 9"
TABLE 23
AILERONS :
OVER "~ OF" HALF-SPAN
'ZC DEEP
0 0
¢~ PIVOTAL 0 0
POIP.~T
0
0 0
L
~= -7 -6 -5 -,4 - 3 -2 - I
',tli 1 1 I I t I I~'
- DISTRIBUTION
A~ s{aHon;3 which is nexf to ~he b~ginnM9 of the a~leron a mean value o1' c~
over the strip coordina{ed ~o this s~afion is ~aken a c ¢ o r d i n 9 ~o
With
8:2
TABLE 240
FomH3 a ooo c~.,, =- ~x v
I 5 5 I 7 ~ I ~, ~" 7
~= 2 .30/.~ .3711 ,03/70 I,o0$6s
i
,i = 2 1i-.o624~ .02364 '0038,9 .00o9
h ,O/Z3z .32OZ "3770 I.o257o
!
Z~ ~ - , 0 0 2 7 a - . 0 8 3 3
II
,0249g
E, 11-'00035-,O030to-.0578/. "OtqOa
b) SoLuTION BY I T E R A T I O N , . .
I N I T I A L CtUE55: 7 ; = • 12
~,?:.o, ,r:';.,o
FII:+,.~T A P P R O X I M A T I O N :
V' I 3 5 7
~v~ /X.©~, +.ooOg~, 4.¢0680 -t-, oo8oo I-P.ooo E~" I &+ +av,. - . O COO6 - . 0 0 /31.t -v.Odo ~3 .+. Oooo 7
•+. 0 o ~ 7 4 I..oo3q0 I -- -.oooo3 -.ooo64 +.ooozI
-. ooze,5 -.0ooF8 --'00005 l-'OOOOl I .~-,, A°V, -.ooo,~3 -,oo~37 -.ooo04 -"
2:.,,./":q~d'++
C'v+~ , , . . . . oooos - . ooo77 -'ooooff.lI -- -+.o0ool - ' o o o 5 o - ' 0 o o 8 0
~.~')~,, -.0O0~1..2',00179 -.OOIE~8 + . o o o ~ Ii Am~, -+.oootO ÷.O00tO - - , 0 0 0 5 ~ - . o o o 7 9
83
(6aa?o) E 2
" T A B L E 2.5
Fo~M 3~ &vE~ OCv=-- ~-v
=-Z-, 2 xlS
=) V~LU~S ~ , . , ~., D.. ,z,.
~.. =':'.°[.0'J'<:.)- =~.,,C-¢{L'-.O,L )
v 2 I 4
¢~= I "3~83 .026~ .0058~ ri= I ]'OZ22z ~1"00294 .0008~*
B ,3/80 .3757 "03tSe -.o6~o oo2~4 i.oo38,
5 .0/5/8 .326(~ .57~ 5 --" 0 o z g ~ -.0(~2/ "02~2z
7 .oo2t~ ,ol5/~ .3350 7 -.OooSs -,OoSo~ -.OX,o6
84
FORMSa O Dv TABLE P6
~T.~TIO?q5
DIFFERENCE~ CTD.
. . . . oooof -- . . . . . ooo,
C,+ z ~ , . . . .
/~,~,, - . 0 0 o o 5 -.o0011 -.0oo1~ --00008 /'X~4,,, -~-.00oo / +.o00o I -- --
?)
~,'~ ,007~ . t~5"l .1555 .05q5 -'OOHoZ -.0~057 -'~5~5 7 -'008~7
~)~. +.000~ -.O0167 +,00.$Z2. +,00588 -'OOlOZ -,003~ -,OOq~6, - . 0 0 6 5 1
Z~ -.ooo~;G -,o0~7¢t -.oom~,~ +.oool~ •~.ooo~o -;,,dooto -.oo05"{o-,odo7~
-.oooz$ -,oooTz =,oooo8 -.ooo3z. •"~.00o~(o .+,0000~ -,00001 -.OOO0~
/~®j~. -.oooocl -.ooozg -.ooo~q -,ooo~8 Z~®p, .+,000~ .¢-.0000~ +.OOOOZ -.O000Z
Z~C~'~, --:'0000"~ -,O00ll -,O00l~ -.00008
RE~T -:00002. -. 00007 -.O000q -,o000f~ REST ~.ooo01 .+. ooo~i - --
C=~ ~ -.~ao~ -.o;,~,$ - . o o z e 7 -.ooo~7 .E,,+ p,,. 4.00010 ..001~| -,00"70~ -.000.?.1
C~ ~ -,oooo~ -,aoo~ -,ooTzz -.ooaez £,,,. p,~ +.oooOI 1+'00007 -.OOZS~ -,007/~7
-'002,~ 5 -.OLL 2 E -.OZ,04~ - . O l e O 0
RESULT++ :.
O+) LOCAL L I F T , MOMENT I ~,c.
I? 0 2 5 6 7
t 3 4
• 0073 .0273 • fro/~ ,13~oo ' 1~,5 5 .Ito5 .O~Z9
0 -.00246 -.OOqZ~ !-,O/+~ZG -.O~, ~ o , -.o4a4q -,o~ozo -. o ~ o o
-- • " $ 8 ~ . ~ 8 ~ .~1 ,~ . ~q • ~2~
85
F~l~ ~Q EV~'~ ~ C~d. TABLE a7
~IFFEREN~ES CTD.
6
D,,, /_~ 7, N
CHECK OF' R E S U L T S :
~-" Z A (=
a,,(m"~F~,=: o -.03,~O 7 - . 0 Z 0 ~z~
ooz~'S .o~Ol~] ,oooo4 ~.oootg ÷.O000Z +.ooo01
,o3~5 ,O~t6~ .o03X, q -.oo7o 7 ~.00270 +.ooo~Z
,00205 .O~&20 .050~5 D,,, ?', --00040 -'00640 ~.oo3~8
! ! i ~' •ooot~ .oooq~ .OllO~5 -•00002 -.o~oi9 -.oo255
-,00015 -.00o01 -. o o o 37 -.oOOOl
•Eb. P.
-.Oil04 -,oo95~ -.oooZ5 -,oo IGI -,oo f Oq -•oooZO
-, ooo ~ -.b¢o,7 -. oo ~70 ~'00009 -.oozoo -.o0801
-, ooooz -,oooz3 -. OOZ70 ___ L('(7 +.oooo~ -.oOZqq
'0273 .t3(o0 ' 1~05 p,,, -'0092Z -.0~301 -,o3ot9
a(::~_=A -~ P
8 6 -Z(~+l) ~. sin 2.=~.1 = 6
L'3gz7 ×-oo73
I1=1 • 7071 ~•0275
• 9239 x , I1 0/-¢,
I.o ~ • 13(~0
• @239 ~ • t36-~
• 7071 ~'110~
.3827 ~ -062q = -~- × • ~,827
~ C J L ~ .1915
86
2.0 ~ ×
2O
ko z
!'0 o-- o 0
GO -- _,
~ ~ -2 -3
-~'-
m
0-5 - - - ~ / ~ -6
-8 If)
-20 0
-3o T
U
OI 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 IO
SPANWISF-. DISTANCE OF CONTROL POINT" Y
-9
-8
"7
-6
~ ~"-~C-~~~~~~-~ ~ ,,
.5
.4
"3 ~ o.7 - -
1.2
~ ~ O
.I
0
"O
O.9
~ ~ _ 0
~ ~ ! J - - - - ~ / L ~ - - - - - ~ ~ o O_
0.8
_ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ _o, o
0.7
O.6
0.5
0.4
- -0,9
0.3
0.2
O
0 0"1 0"2 0"3 0"4 0"5 0"6 0.7 O.B 0"9 i.O H 1.2
88
20 ~ ~ ~
,.~~~ ~o.~-;~ ~
~ ~ -,.o
x
.7 ~-65
d
0
n~
Z
0
0
I.l_
0
Z
0
0
n
r~
Ix
0
"1-
t9
1.2
O O" I 0-2 O-3 . O-4 0"5
SPANWlSE DISTANCE OF CONTROL POINT: Y.
89
1.0 I I
'& CHOaDWISE POSITION
~,~ /OF" CONTP, O L POINT
0-~
0.6
J ~ ~ ~ .
°4 ~~--o : ~ ~
o . 2 ~ ~ -1-2 ~0
-4 ...MO
O F ~_~ - . - ~ IO :.-.~2 0
I 2 3 4 5 6 7. 6 9 i0 -=)
SPANWISE DISTANCE OF C O N T R O L POINT : Y.
1.0 I I
,~\ 'CHORDWISE " POSITION
/OF C O N T R O L . POINT
0-8 " ~ X
0-6
a ~1.0
0.4
.5 I ,.I0"
0 I O~i ~20. I.(1~
I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 I0
SPANWISE DISTANC£ O F C O N T R O L POINT ; Y.
90
3.4
3-2
3"0
2"8
2"6
2"4
2"2
2.C
I'{~
1.6
1.4
1.2
I.C
0"~
0"~
0.~
0"~
0
0 0"1 0"2 0"3 0"4 0 ' 5 0 " 6 - 0 " 7 0 " 8 0"9 I'0 1"1 1"2 (
SPANWISE DISTANCE OF CONTROL POINT: Y.
91
3"4
'3"2
30
2 8
2 6
2 4
2 2
2 0
I 8
J.°6
1"4
I-2
I'C
0"8
0.6
0,4
0"2
0
0 0"1 0"2 0"3 0"4 0"5 0"6 0 " 7 0 " 8 0 ' 9 I'0 I'1 1.2
SPANWISE DISTANCE OF CONTROL POINT: Y
92 o
~
o ~w
Z 'r
o ~
/
t I-
0
o° ~
I
I
I
// 0
.,t
w"
O
o o o
I
."2"
Q
\ I
\ ° !
eq
t
.¢
~5
tD
O
I
83
o 2Clio RDWISE.),
AUTHOR'S/I~ .SPANWISE J pIVOTAl.. POINTS.
¢-..............METHOD ~ ICHORDWISE'~,
7.SPAN WI~iE J PIVOTAL. POINTS.
+ - - - ~ G A R N E R ' 5 SOLUTION (c).
.... FALKNER'5 SOLUTION 34.
* , - - - - - - LIFTING-LINE THEORY m=7
-LINE
O 0
~.C. 0
OF WING A.~ A WHOLE
o\
PWO'TAL POINTS
O ©
0 0
i .,
O O
!
¢~} PLA~.~FORI~ & $~-¢TUONAL A~.~ODYNAM~C CENTRI~$.
"-~.~ "'~
0.5 ..
o.4 "N"'~.'x
0.2, ~..
0"2 " ~
o., ~ ~t
oo o-I 0.2 0-~ 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 o.~ 0.9 I.O
LWT DI3°itFRItBUTION.
FIG.8. Deltawing. A = 3.
94
a) PLAN FORM & SECTIONAL AERODYNAMIC CENTRES.
i,u f ~ - -
.L J
Loo ./ j l f
/
I' 1>-s .r
SCHLICHTING'$
"MIDDL~-FUNCTION", ~ /
95
DGA~AH$ o~ RESULTS.
0.5
CLc
o , 1. , ,
96
(63370) Wt. 18/9296 K.9 5/55 I-Iw. PRI~TED IN GREAT BRITM~
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