Aircraft Flight Dynamics

R o b e r t o A . B u n g e

A A 2 4 1 X
A p r i l 1 3 2 0 1 5
S t a n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y




AA241X, April 13 2015, Stanford University

Roberto A. Bunge

Overview
1. Equations of motion

Full Nonlinear EOM

Decoupling of EOM
Simplified Models

2. Aerodynamics

Dimensionless coefficients
Stability & Control Derivatives

3. Trim Analysis

Level, climb and glide

Turning maneuver

4. Linearized Dynamics Analysis

Longitudinal
Lateral

AA241X, April 13 2015, Stanford University

Roberto A. Bunge

Equations of Motion
Dynamical system is defined by a transition function,

mapping states & control inputs to future states

X
Aircraft
EOM

X!

X! = f (X, )
AA241X, April 13 2015, Stanford University

Roberto A. Bunge

States and Control Inputs

!
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
X =#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#"

x
y
z
u
v
w

p
q
r

$
&
&
&
&
&
&
&
&
&
&
&
&
&
&
&
&
&%

position

velocity

attitude

!e $
# &
t &
#
=
#a &
# &
"r %

elevator
throttle
aileron
rudder

angular velocity

There are alternative ways of defining states and control inputs

AA241X, April 13 2015, Stanford University

Roberto A. Bunge

Full Nonlinear EOM

System of 12 Nonlinear ODEs
Dynamics Eqs.*

Kinematic Eqs.:

Linear Acceleration = Aero + gravity + Gyro

Relation between position and velocity

mu! = X mgsin( ) + m(rv qw)

mv! = Y + mgsin( )cos( ) + m( pw ru)
mw! = Z + mg cos( )cos( ) + m(qu pv)
Angular Acceleration = Aero + Gyro

I xx p! = l + (I yy I zz )qr
I yy q! = m + (I zz I xx )pr
I zz r! = n + (I xx I yy )pq
*Assuming calm atmosphere and symmetric aircraft (Neglecting crossproducts of inertia

AA241X, April 13 2015, Stanford University

! x! $
! u $
#
& N B
#
&
!
y
=
R
v
( , , ) #
#
&
&
# z! &
# w &
"
%
"
%
Relation between attitude and angular velocity

! = p + qsin( )tan( ) + r cos( )tan( )

! = q cos( ) r sin( )
sin( )
cos( )
! = q
+r
cos( )
cos( )
Roberto A. Bunge

Nonlinearity and Model Uncertainty

Sources of nonlinearity:

Trigonometric projections (dependent on attitude)

Gyroscopic effects
Aerodynamics
Dynamic

pressure
Reynolds dependencies
Stall & partial separation

Model uncertainties:

Gravity & Gyroscopic terms are straightforward, provided we can

measure mass, inertias and attitude accurately

Aerodynamics is harder, especially viscous effects: lifting surface

drag, propeller & fuselage aerodynamics

AA241X, April 13 2015, Stanford University

Roberto A. Bunge

Flight Dynamics and Navigation Decoupling

The full nonlinear EOMs have a cascade structure

dyn

Flight Dyn.

X dyn = nav

Flight Dynamics
!
#
#
#
#
X dyn = #
#
#
#
#
#
"

$
&
&
&
&
&
&
p &
&
q &
r &%

u
v
w

!e $
# &

dyn = # t &
#a &
# &
"r %

X nav

Nav.

Navigation
!
#
X nav = ##
#
#"

x $
&
y &
z &
&
&%

!
#
#
#
#
nav = #
#
#
#
#
#
"

$
&
&
&
&
&
&
p &
&
q &
r &%

u
v
w

Flight Dynamics is the inner dynamics

Navigation is outer dynamics: usually what we care about
AA241X, April 13 2015, Stanford University

Roberto A. Bunge

Longitudinal & Lateral Decoupling

For a symmetric aircraft near a symmetric flight condition, the Flight Dynamics can be
further decoupled in two independent parts
Flight Dynamics

lon
lat

Longitudinal Dynamics
!u $
# &
w
Xlon = # &
# &
# &
"q %

! $
lon = # e &
"t %

Lon.

Xlon

Lat.

Xlat

Lateral-Directional Dynamics
!v $
# &

Xlat = # &
# p&
# &
"r %

!a $
lat * = # &
"r %
* As we shall see, throttle also has effects on the
lateral dynamics, but these can be eliminated
with appropriate aileron and rudder

Although usually used in perturbational (linear) models, many times this decoupling can

also be used for nonlinear analysis (e.g. symmetric flight with large vertical motion)
AA241X, April 13 2015, Stanford University

Roberto A. Bunge

Alternative State Descriptions

Translational dynamics:
1.
2.

{u, v, w}: most useful in 6 DOF flight

simulation
{V, alfa, beta}: easiest to describe
aerodynamics

Transformations:

u = V cos( )cos( )
v = V sin( )
w = V sin( )cos( )

Longitudinal dynamics:
1.
2.
3.

{V, alfa, theta, q}: conventional

description
{V, CL, gamma, q}: best for nonlinear
trajectory optimization
{V, CL, theta, q}: all states are
measurable, more natural for controls

AA241X, April 13 2015, Stanford University

CL = ao ( Lo )

=
CL

m accelz
1 S
V2
2

Roberto A. Bunge

Simplified Models
Many times we can neglect or assume aspects of the system

and look at the overall behavior

Its important to know what you want to investigate
x,y,z: North, East, Down position coordinates
: course over ground
Model

States

Controls

2 DOF navigation+
1 DOF point mass

x, y,

3 DOF navigation +
1 DOF point mass

x, y, z,

3 DOF navigation +
2 DOF point mass

x, y, z, ,

3 DOF navigation +
3 DOF point mass
Many more models!

!,
V, CL ,

x, y, z, , ,V T, CL ,
.

E
EOM

x! = Vo sin( )
y! = Vo cos( )

Constraints

= ! dt

x! = Vo sin( )cos( )
y! = Vo cos( )cos( )

z! = Vo sin( )

g cos( )
V

T g
1
V! = sin( ) 1 2 mS V 2CD (CL )
m m
.

Vo
Rmin

max
V Vmax

! = 1 2 mS 1 VCL sin( )
! = 1 2 mS 1 VCL cos( )

CL < CLmax

+ dynamics
+ variables
+ details

max

T Tmax
.

Everything should be made as simple as possible, but not more (~A. Einstein)
AA241X, April 13 2015, Stanford University

Roberto A. Bunge

Aerodynamics
In the full nonlinear EOM aerodynamic forces and moments are:

X,Y, Z, l, m, n
Given how experimental data is presented, and to separate

different aerodynamic effects, its easier to use:

L, D,Y,T, l, m, n
Dimensional analysis allows to factor different contributions:
Dynamic pressure
Aircraft size
1 V 2 SC
L
=
Aircraft geometry
2
L
Relative flow angles
Aircraft and flow geometry, and Reyonolds
dyn. pressure
size
Reynolds number
AA241X, April 13 2015, Stanford University

Roberto A. Bunge

Aerodynamics II
The dimensionless forces and moments CL , CD , CY , CT , Cl , C m , Cn are a function of:
i.

Aircraft geometry (fixed): AR, taper, dihedral, etc.

ii.

Control surface deflections e , a , r

iii. Relative

flow angles: V , V , = R ,

iv. Reynolds

number: Re =

cV

p =

pb
qc
rb
, q =
, r =
2V
2V
2V

if the variation of speeds is small, it can be

assumed constant and factored out

Alfa and lambda: dependence is nonlinear and should be preserved if possible

The rest can be represented with linear terms (Stability and Control Derivatives)
At low AoA some stability derivatives depend on alfa, and at high angles of

attack all are affected by alf

AA241X, April 13 2015, Stanford University

Roberto A. Bunge

Stability and Control Derivatives

Stability Derivtaives

!
CL

CD

CL
CD

CY

Cl

Cm

Cm

Cn

Control Deriva1ves

CLq

CY
Cl

Cl p

Cn

Cn p

Cmq

CLe

CDq

Nonlinear/Trim

CYr
Clr

Cnr

CDe

Cme

CL (, )
CD (, )

Cla

CY r

Clr

Cna

Cnr

are small angular

deflections w.r.t. a zero
position, usually the trim
deflection

! is an angle of attack
perturbation around
~zero

Cl ( )

Minor importance

Estimate via calculations

Cm (, )

Estimate via calculations

or flight testing

Cn ( )

Estimate or trim out via

flight testing
Hard to estimate

CT ( )

CT

AA241X, April 13 2015, Stanford University

Roberto A. Bunge

Stability and Control Derivatives II

Examples of force and moment expressions:
Lift:

CL = CL ( 0 , ) + CL ! + CLq q + CLe (e e0 )

Pitching moment:

Cm = Cm ( 0 , ) + Cm ! + Cm q q + Cme (e e0 )

Rolling moment:

Cl = Cl p p + Cla a + Cl + Clr r

Example dimensionless pitching equation*:

Ixx q! = Cm = Cm ( 0 , ) + Cm ! + Cm q q + Cme (e e0 )
* Neglecting gyroscopic terms
AA241X, April 13 2015, Stanford University

Roberto A. Bunge

Aerodynamics IV

Zilliac (1983)
Bihrle, et. al. (1978)

LSPAD, Selig, et. al. (1997)

AA241X, April 13 2015, Stanford University

Roberto A. Bunge

Trim Analysis
Flight conditions at which if we keep controls fixed, the aircraft will remain at that

same state (provided no external disturbances)

Xtrim
Aircraft
EOM

X! = 0

trim
For each aircraft there is a mapping between trim states and trim control inputs
Analogy: car going at constant speed, requires a constant throttle position

X! = f (Xtrim , trim ) = 0

Xtrim = gtrim (trim )

The mapping g() is not always one-to-one, could be many-to-many!

If internal dynamics are stable, then flight condition converges on trim condition
AA241X, April 13 2015, Stanford University

Roberto A. Bunge

An idea: Trim + Regulator Controller

I.

Inverse trim: set control inputs that will take us to the desired state

II.

Regulator: to stabilize modes and bring us back to desired trim state in

the presence of disturbances

Xdesired

Trim
Relations/Tables

trim

+
+

Aircraft
EOM

'
Linear
Regulator
Controller

+
AA241X, April 13 2015, Stanford University

Roberto A. Bunge

Longitudinal Trim
Simple wing-tail system

L_wing
h_cg

h_tail

M_wing
mg

AA241X, April 13 2015, Stanford University

L_tail

Roberto A. Bunge

Longitudinal Trim (II)

Moment balance:
0 = M wing h CG Lwing + xtail Ltail
0 = 1 2 V 2 #$cwing SwingCmwing hCG SwingCLwing + htail Stail CLtail %&

hCG
h S
CLwing ( trim ) = tail tail CLtail ( trim , etrim ) Cmwing
cwing
cwing Swing

Elevator trim defines trim AoA, and consequently trim CL

AA241X, April 13 2015, Stanford University

Roberto A. Bunge

Longitudinal Trim (III)

L

Force balance*
mg = L cos( ) L = 1 2 V 2 SCL
mg
V2 =
1 SC ( e
2
L
trim )

Trim Elevator defines trim Velocity!

D
mg

T = D + L sin( ) D + L
=

T(ttrim )
mg

1
( L )(etrim )
D

Elevator & Thrust both define Gamma!

*Assuming small Gamma
AA241X, April 13 2015, Stanford University

Roberto A. Bunge

Longitudinal Trim (IV)

How do we get an aircraft to climb? (Gamma > 0)
Two ways:

Elevator up

1.

Elevator up increases AoA, which increases CL

Increased CL, accelerates aircraft up
Up acceleration, increases Gamma
Increased Gamma rotates Lift backwards, slowing down the aircraft

Increase Thrust

2.

Increased thrust increases velocity, which increases overall Lift

Increased Lift, accelerates aircraft up
Up acceleration, increases Gamma
Increased Gamma rotates Lift backwards, slowing down the aircraft to original speed (set by
Elevator, remember!)

Elevator has its limitations

When L/D max is reached, we start going down

When CL max is reached, we go down even faster!

AA241X, April 13 2015, Stanford University

Roberto A. Bunge

Experimental Trim Relations

Theoretical relations hold to some degree experimentally
In reality:
Propeller downwash on horizontal tail has a significant distorting effect
Reynolds variations with speed, distort aerodynamics
One can build trim tables experimentally
Trim flight at different throttle and elevator positions
Measure:
Average airspeed
Average flight path angle Gamma

Phugoid damper would be very helpful

One could almost fly open loop with trim tables!

AA241X, April 13 2015, Stanford University

Roberto A. Bunge

Turning Maneuver

Centripetal force balance:

mV 2
L sin( ) =
R
mV 2
m
R=
=
1 V 2 SC sin( )
S
2
L

mV 2
= mV !
R

1
1 C sin( )
2
L

mg

Minimum turn radius:

m
S

Depends on:

Minimum%Turn%Radius%
(wing%loading%=%35%g/dm^2)%

1
1 C
2
Lmax sin( max )
m
max , & CLmax
S

60"

50"

turn%radius%(m)%

Rmin =

40"
CL"="0.6"

30"

CL"="0.8"
20"

CL"="1.0"

10"

0"
0"

10"

20"

30"

40"

50"

60"

70"

80"

roll%angle%(deg)%

AA241X, April 13 2015, Stanford University

Roberto A. Bunge

Turning Maneuver II
What are the constraints on maximum turn?
1.
Elevator deflection to achieve high CL in a turn
2.
Do we care about loosing altitude?
3.
Maximum speed and thrust
4.
Controls: maneuver can be short lived, so high bandwidth is require for tracking tracking
1.
2.

5.
6.
7.

Roll tracking, etc.

Sensor bandwidth

Maximum G-loading
Maximum CL and stall
Aerolasticity of controls at high loading

Elevator to achieve CL:

The pitching moment balance equation in dimensionless form:

Ixx q! = Cm (, 0 ) + Cmq q + Cme (e e0 )

Assume that before the turn we have trimmed the aircraft in level flight at the desired alfa (CL):

Cme e0 = Cm (, 0 )
AA241X, April 13 2015, Stanford University

Roberto A. Bunge

Turning Maneuver III

The pitch rate is the projection of the turn rate

onto the pitch axis:

V
sin( )
R
qc csin( )
q =
=
2V
2R

q = ! sin( )

q = ! sin( ) =

! =

To maintain the same alfa (CL), extra elevator

Extra%elevator%deec.on%required%in%
a%turn%to%maintain%CL%=%0.8%

To take advantage of elevator throw, horizontal

tail incidence has set appropriately, otherwise

turning ability might be limited
AA241X, April 13 2015, Stanford University

Exra%elevtor%deec.on%(deg)%

is required to counter the pitch rate

csin( )
e = Cmq
2R

V
R

12"
10"
8"
6"
4"
2"
0"
0"

5"

10"

15"

20"

25"

30"

35"

40"

45"

Turning%radius%

Roberto A. Bunge

Linearized Dynamics Analysis

Many flight dynamic effects can be analyzed & explained with Linearized

Dynamics
Most of the times we linearize dynamics around Trim conditions

Xtrim + X '
Aircraft EOM
(near Trim)

f ' f '
X! =
X+
X

trim + '
Useful to synthesize linear regulator controllers

Provide stability in the face of uncertainty in different dynamic parameters

They help in rejecting disturbances
They can also help in going from one trim state to the another, provided they are not too far away

AA241X, April 13 2015, Stanford University

Roberto A. Bunge

Linearized Dynamics
Limited to a small region (what does small mean?)

Especially due to trigonometric projections and nonlinear alfa

dependences

In practice, nonlinear dynamics bear great resemblance

We can gain a lot of insight by studying dynamics in the vicinity a flight

condition

We can separate into longitudinal and lateral dynamics

(If aircraft and flight condition are symmetric)

Linearized models also provide some information about

trim relations

AA241X, April 13 2015, Stanford University

Roberto A. Bunge

Longitudinal Static Stability

Static stability
Does pitching moment increase when AoA increases?
If so, then divergent pitch motion (a.k.a statically unstable)

Lw ( + )
Restoring
moment

Lw ( )

CG ahead

Divergent
moment

CG behind

CG needs to be ahead of quarter chord!

As CG goes forward, static margin increases, but more

elevator deflection is required for trim and trim drag increases

AA241X, April 13 2015, Stanford University

Roberto A. Bunge

Longitudinal Dynamics
Longitudinal modes
1.
Short period
2.
Phugoid

Short period
Phugoid

Short period:
Weather cock effect of horizontal tail
Usually highly damped, if you have a tail
Dynamics is on AoA
Phugoid:
Exchange of potential and kinetic energy (up>speed down, down-> speed up)
Lightly damped, but slow
Causes bouncing around pitch trim conditions
Damping depends on drag: low drag, low
damping!
How can we stabilize/damp it?

ph 2
ph

g
Vo

1 CD0
2 CL0

Propeller dynamics: as a first order lag

Idea for Phugoid damper design: reduced

2nd order longitudinal system

AA241X, April 13 2015, Stanford University

Roberto A. Bunge

Lateral Dynamics

1.
2.
3.

Naturally highly damped

Rolling in honey effect

roll

Vo Sb 2
Cl p
I xx

Roll subsidence

Spiral

Dutch roll:

Roll subsidence
Dutch roll
Spiral

Roll subsidence:

Dutch roll

Lateral-Directional modes:

Oscillatory motion
Usually stable, and sometimes lightly damped
Exchange between yaw rate, sideslip and roll rate

Spiral:

Usually unstable, but slow enough to be easily stabilized

C
Vo Sb 2
spiral
(Cnr Cn lr )
I zz
Cl
Dutch Roll and Spiral stability are competing
factors
1

Dihedral and vertical tail volume dominate these

Note: see Flight Vehicle Aerodynamics, Ch. 9 for

more details

AA241X, April 13 2015, Stanford University

Roberto A. Bunge

Vortex Lattice Codes

Good at predicting inviscid part of attached flow

around moderate aspect ratio lifting surfaces

Represents potential flow around a wing by a lattice

of horseshoe vortices

AA241X, April 13 2015, Stanford University

Roberto A. Bunge

VLM Codes (II)

Viscous drag on a wing, can be added for with strip theory

Calculate local Cl with VLM

Calculate 2D Cd(Cl) either from a polar plot of airfoil
Add drag force in the direction of the local velocity

Usually not included:

Fuselage

can be roughly accounted by adding a + lifting surface

Propeller downwash

VLMs can roughly predict:

Aerodynamic performance (L/D vs CL)

Stall speed (CLmax)
Trim relations
Stability Derivatives

Linear control system design

Nonlinear Flight simulation (non-dimensional aerodynamics is linear, but dimensional
aerodynamics are nonlinear and EOMs are nonlinear)

AA241X, April 13 2015, Stanford University

Roberto A. Bunge

VLM Codes (III)

AVL:

XFLR:

Reliable output
Viscous strip theory
GUI to define geometry
Good analysis and visualization tools

Tornado

Reliable output
Viscous strip theory
No GUI & cumbersome to define geometry

Ive had some discrepancies when validating against AVL

Written in Matlab

QuadAir

Good match with AVL

Written in Matlab
Easy to define geometries
Viscous strip theory soon
Originally intended for flight simulation, not aircraft design

Very little native visualization and performance analysis tools

AA241X, April 13 2015, Stanford University

Roberto A. Bunge

Recommended Readings
Fundamentals of Flight, Shevell

1.

Big picture of Aerodynamics, Flight Dynamics and Aircraft Design

Dynamics of Flight, Etkin

2.

Very good development of trim and linearized flight dynamics and aerodynamics. Some
ideas for control

Flight Vehicle Aerodynamics, Drela

3.

Great mix between real world and mathematical aerodynamics and flight dynamics. No
controls. Ch. 9 very clear and useful development of linearized models

Automatic Control of Aircraft and Missiles, Blakelock

4.

In depth description of flight EOMs and many ideas for linear regulators

5. Low-speed Aerodynamics, Plotkin & Katz

Great book on panel methods (only if you want to write your own panel code)

AA241X, April 13 2015, Stanford University

Roberto A. Bunge